lecture notes exam 1
TRANSCRIPT
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Lecture 1 1/18/2011 11:33:00 AM Experimental psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental
processes. (different from mid-twentieth century def)
SCHIZOPHRENIA
Most common form of psychosis (1% of the population) Schizo=split phrene = mind
o Refers to the fragmentation of thought processes Onset late adolescence-early adulthood Prognosis poor People tend to not recover from schizo, chronic illness Positive: behaviors not seen in normal humans
o Delusion- incorrect belief held despite evidence to thecontrary
Delusions are benign, see things that are not happening E.g. Alien abduction
o Hallucinations sensory experience in the absence of anystimulus
E.g. report hearing voices when there are none. During a hallucination, brain imaging shows that it is
indistinguishable from normal hearing.
Feel the need to respond the voices they arehearing. Voices are in command
Hearing voices Visual hallucinations and olfactory hallucinations
o Odd dressing, frenzied or silly behavioro Can be violent a danger to themselves or otherso Paranoido Lifetime suicide rate for schizos is 15%o 58% of schizos never work
Negative Symptomso Anhedonia: flattened affect, failure to perceive affected
responses of others
o Poverty of speech, motor retardation, catatonia
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o Pet scan can be used to pick up on the activity of onetransmitter
o Tranquilizers didnt calm schizos, just made the hallucinationstemporarily disappear
Genes/environmento Schizophrenia runs in familyo Does this fact alone argue for a genetic basis?
Could be shared environment Risk is same whether adopted or not MZ twins more similar than DZ
MZ twins come from the same zygote, DZ do not.More likely for MZ twins to be schizophrenic if one
is. Lower chance for DZ twins.
Not completely genetic or MZ twins would be identical prenatal factors?
o Genetics provides a predisposition to schizophrenia. Virus orcertain events might trigger schizophrenia in certain people.
Developmental environment factors that affect the individual
during brain development.
Socialo Correlation vs. causality: Schizophrenia is correlated with
poverty and dysfunctional family Has a causal role in SES: 58% have never worked.
Deinstitutionalization.
Dysfunctional family seems to be caused by, not thecause of schizophrenia.
Being schizophrenic makes you poor. Correlation does not tell you the direction of the cause.
o Legal vs. medical definitions of insanity much more likely toconvicted of a crime
o Although there are treatments that really help schizophrenia,the side affects are disastrous.
o A lot of these people end up in the street. No job, no socialsupport.
Summaryo Causes of schizophrenia
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Environment Genes Brain damage
Loss of brain tissue Brain chemistry abnormalities
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Lecture 2: The Neuron 1/18/2011 11:33:00 AM
Nervous system is hierarchically organized
WHY IS THE NERVOUS SYSTEM HIERARCHICALLY ORGANIZED?
Dont have to duplicate apparatuso Dont need a separate set of instruct for how, e.g., to run for
each activity one set of commands in lower levels of the NSthat is tapped into when needed
Guy at the top doesnt have to worry about every detail Evolutionarily, small pieces of behavior more likely to arise by
chance than large pieces
o Once a piece of behavior arises in one context, can be tappedintro for other purposes and can eventually become a part of
more complex systems
o Has been argued that intelligence is the ability to applybehavioral programs flexibly. E.g., bees vs. people.
REDUCTIONISM
Definition: Attempt to understand a phenomenon by studying itscomponent parts
2 major drawbacks:o The whole is usually more than the sum of its parts. It also
reflects their interaction
o Is possible to take the reductionistic approach too far, to losesight of the phenomenon of interest
Cant explain all phenomena Believe that someday, psychologists will be able to
explain these things in reductionist terms.
Axon: transmits information away from cell body. Cell usually hasonly one. Can be very long (or not or a few feet or a few microns)
Transmission of information to next neuron: Collaterals branchesat end of axon
Properties of cell membrane make neuron special Resting potential when undisturbed, inside -70 mv compared to
outside. Sodium potassium pump metabolic energy maintains
gradient.
Propagation of impulse: Disturbance in one area de-stabilizes thenext area of the membrane. Why doesnt it go backward?
Refractory period e.g., hydra and nerve net.
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SPEED OF PROPAGATION
Several factors affects speed of propagation:o Axon diameter, e.g., giant squid axon bigger = fastero Myelin: like insulation not all axons are myelinated e.g., C
fibers that carry pain signals.o Intensity: if neuron obeys all or none and speed of
propagation is a function of diameter and myelin
o How do we distinguish between weak and strong stimuli? # of neurons firing rate of firing
GLIA:WHO KNEW?
Guide neuron migration Guide regeneration May modulate strength of connections important in learning May be a parallel slow communication system
SUMMARY
Neuron is special because of anatomy and membrane Within a neuron, the signal is electrical Potential energy from Na+/K+ pump Action potential All or none Myelin increases speed of conduction Code for intensity by # of neurons firing and frequency of firing Reading: Synapse
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Lecture 3 1/18/2011 11:33:00 AM
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Name a positive/negative symptom of schizophrenia
Delusions & hallucinations positive Disordered thought negative
Describe a reductionistic explanation for schizophrenia The phenomenon is the behavior of the patient. Looking at the
patients brain and brain imaging and there are enlarged ventricles.
Looking at dopamine activity, and need dopamine blockers. Looking
at neurotransmitters reductionistic approach
Name an advantage of hierarchical organization
You dont have to duplicate simple behavior patterns for standingup, walking, swallowing etc.
You dont have to consciously think about low level processesWhat happens when you take reductionism too far?
What 2 things make a neuron special
Anatomy Membrane
If you understand the neuron do you know everything you need to know
about the nervous system
No because you need to know how they interact as wellWhich part of the neuron sends information away from the cell body
Axon away from cell body, towards cell body dendritesDifference between action potential and graded potential
Action potential is all or none, once action potential is triggered it isthe same size through out travel in the neuron.
Graded potentials can be any size and are not being chargedthrough out the whole way. Sometimes get weaker as travel along
At rest the inside of the axon is negatively charged with respect to the
outside
What is a threshold?
The smallest stimulus that can cause a response. There is athreshold that needs to pass for action potential to occur.
Why does the action potential only go in one direction
Refractory period, once A.P. goes by theres that extra inside theaxon, even becomes more negative. In that period of time it is
harder to get the neuron to fire again. So A.P. moves in the
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direction of the membrane that is not charged during that
refractory period.
Give two factors that affect the speed of propagation in a given axon
Myelination makes the signal go faster because it skips from nodeto node. And the diameter of axon makes a difference as well.Remember original work on axon diameter w/ giant squids
How can the nervous represent intensity of a stimulus
The frequency of action potentials goes up and the reason for thatis because a stronger stimulus can cause a stronger A.P. in the
earlier period than a threshold period.
Neurons have different thresholds. So if you have a very weakstimulus, only the most sensitive of neurons response. As the
stimulus gets stronger, a bigger group of neurons can response
INFERRING THE SYNAPSE
Sir Charles Sherrington inferred the synapse by measuring speedof reflex
o Ex. Pinched the toe of a frog, waiting for how long its foot ofthe frog would withdraw. From toe to spinal cord back to leg.
Can measure the distance. You can measure how it takes for
the A.P. If you measure the distance it has to travel, realized
that it is a lot slower. Otto Lowei showed that the signal was chemical. Who read about
the frog heart study? (In the book)
o If you stimulate the vegas nerve you will slow the heartdown. Stimulate the nerve attached to one heart.
Neurotransmitter: chemical released by one neuron that triggers aresponse in another neuron or target cell (e.g., muscle or gland)
o Many different transmitters, most neurons can respond tomore than one
Synaptic cleft (.02 microns or 200 Angstroms (10^-10m) Post-synaptic membrane thickening Cartoon #2 Youtube neural synapse
ENDING SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
Re-uptake dopamine Enzymatic degradation acetylcholine
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o Myasthenia gravis an example Autoimmune disease Antibodies block receptors at neuromuscular synapse Need more transmitter to get same response Give pyridostigmine, acetyl cholinesterase blocker Cartoon #3 positive tensilon (edrophonium quick
acting anti-cholinesterase) test
One type of acetylcholine receptor found in brain and nerve-musclesynapse Note that many potential binding sites
POST-SYNAPTIC POTENTIALS
EPSPs excitatory post-synaptic potentials ISPSs
o Graded responses, not APso Also conducted decrementallyo Can be any sizeo ESPSs can sumo ESPSs and ISPSs also sum
BUGS AND DRUGS
Agonists: external agents that have the same effect as atransmitters
o Amphetamine increased release of Dopamineo Block re-uptake
Cocaine (dopamine) Anti depressants (SSRIs) Serotonin
o Bind to same receptor Cannabinoids (bind to anadamide receptor) Nicotine Muscarine (Euripides) Arecoline betel nuts (slight euphoric)
Antagonists: extetnal agents that have an effect opposite to that oftransmitter
o Block release Alpha-methyl-p-tyrosine (AMPT) is a tyrosine
hydroxylase enzyme inhibitor. Pheochromocytoma
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Botulinum toxin from anaerobic bacteria Botulus meanssausage. Must get inside nerve terminals and blocks
fusion of vesicles w/ membrane
o Bind to same receptor but block rather than stimulate Hardol (DA) Beta Blockers (NE) Curare & a snake venom alpha-bungarotoxin (Ach)
o Massive release followed by depletion Black widow spider venom
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Lecture 4 1/18/2011 11:33:00 AM
REVIEW QUESTIONS
How did Sherrington infer the synapse?
Stimulate the nerve to one heart and then you put some of theliquid in the other heart.
How was it demonstrated that the synaptic signal is chemical?What is a synaptic vesicle?
Packages of neurotransmitters that releases into a synaptic cleftwhen an action potential occurs.
Why dont the synaptic nobs get really big when the neuron fires a lot?
Synaptic vesicles are recycledName two ways that neurotransmitters are inactivated
Inactivated by an enzymeT, F, a single neuron can respond to more than one neurotransmitter true
Which transmitter system is affected in Myasthenia Gravis?
How do EPSPs and IPSPs differ from APs?
EPSPs and IPSPs are graded, they can be any size whereas actionpotentials cannot.
Name 2 ways that agonists can work
Agonist does the same thing as a transmitter, antagonist stops theprocesses
Agonists can block reuptake into the neuron OR mimic of neurotransmitters and combine with receptor OR cause release of the transmitter or promote release
ANTAGONIST CAN:
Block the receptor Promote reuptake
MOVING UP THE HIERARCHY TO REFLEX AND INHIBITION
THE REFLEX
Reflex: stereotyped glandular secretion or movement produces as adirect result of a stimulus
E.g.: startle, eye blink, pupil contraction, salivation, tendonreflexes, grasp, pulling away from pain
From DescartesWHY STUDY REFLEX HERE?
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Basic unit of movement. Can involve as little as 2 neurons. Nextstep up the hierarchy
INHIBITION
E.g. Reciprocal inhibitiono Flexors-extensors. Abduction (lift arms away from sides)-
Adduction (bring arms down toward the sides)
Cant have both contracting at the same time, not only lessefficient, but dangerous e.g. tetanus
Signal for contract for one sense an inhibitory signal to the other Where does inhibition come from? Most comes from higher levels of
the NS
Higher levels of NS dont replace lower ones, just take control of thefunctions of the lower levels and switch them on and off more
appropriately than lower levels could alone.
Relationship of higher levels to lower illustrated best bydisinhibition: what happens when higher levels are removed
Low level behaviors are often still intact but run on uncontrollably E.g., Neonatal reflexes e.g. rooting, grasp, sucking
o Seen in babieso Not seen in normal adultso Seen in brain damaged adults. Were inhibited as person got
older but were released from inhibition with brain damagePRAYING MANTIS
Female reflexive killer Makes copulation a problem (more in captivity than wild) In some species, male gives female something to chew on In others, male wraps gift first so that female spends whole time
unwrapping and can steal back to use with other mates
In still others, male dresses up as female and steals gifts that malesbring to him
Mantis does none of this Male carefully creeps up If female looks, he freezes Waits until she looks away to creep up some more Can take 10 minutes to move inches When gets close, leaps & turns in mid-air
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If, at any point, he makes a mistake, she is liable to eat him Why arent they extinct? Male copulates without head Illustrates importance of inhibition Illustrates how major levels of the NS interact
o Higher cerebral centers do not replace lower centers duringthe process of evolution and development
In the mantis, pattern for copulatory behavior resides in the 6thabdominal ganglion
Brain is able to turn pattern on and off by using inhibition Brain is more attuned to environment than is the 6 th ganglion alone I.e., brain uses visual information, ganglion runs continuously on its
own
ENCEPHALIZATION
In seeming contrast, as we travel the evolutionary tree toorganisms that are close man, find an increasing dependence on
higher centers
Encephalization is evolutionary tend for increasing dominance ofhigher cerebral centers
Hydra-nerve neto No hierarchicalorganizationo Simple reflexive behavior like withdrawing from a stimuluso Removal of one body part is no more debilitating than the
removal of any other
Mantis has some hierarchical organizationo Capable of more complex and flexible behavior than the hydrao Still not high flexible.
Encephalization does not mean that have thrown out functions oflower centers, just that they are carrying a smaller proportion of
the burden
Part of the reason for this is that higher centers not only takecontrol of the lower ones, but also add to them
Hughlings Jackson: loss of higher centers is like loss of prominentmen of government. We lose the talents of the particular men but
also lose the control that they provided.
HUMAN BRAIN
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See many alternating levels of inhibition and added capacities E.g., Thermoregulation, regulation of food intake from cortex, to
hypothalamus, to midbrain, to hindbrain, to spinal cord
PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is divided into the:o Central nervous system-brain and spinal cordo Peripheral nervous system (PNS)-includes bother efferent
and afferent nerves
The PNS is divided into the somatic nervous system andthe autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic
Sympathetic activated more as a wholeo Sympathetic has a chain of ganglia near spinal cord.
Activation spreads
o Parasympathetic has ganglion near the end organo Parasympathetic uses Acetylcholineo Sympathetic uses epinephrine/norepinephrine (aka
adrenaline)
o Epinephrine also a hormone
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Lecture 5: Functional Circuitry of the Brain5/4/2012 12:58:00 AM
REVIEW QUESTIONS
How did Descartes philosophy lead to scientific study of the nervous system?
Perhaps some human and animal behavior is also mechanical.Name a neonatal reflex
GraspingWhat is a reciprocal inhibition?
Pairs of muscles that do opposite things, i.e. flex and extend.Why can the mantis copulate without his head?
The basic motor pattern is in the ganglion in the abdomen, not inthe head. When the head is bitten off, the activity pattern continues
on its own.
Why cant people behave without their heads?
Encephalization -> as there is evolution in the nervous system, youadd layers of control so newer parts of the brain take control of
other parts of the brain, but they also add to them. As people we
become dependent on the newer parts of the brain. We have
trouble moving without the head, but if you pinch a toe you could
get a response. We depend on our brains to be people.
What are the two major divisions of the peripheral nervous system?
Somatic and autonomic nervous systemsWhich is used to digest food?
ParasympatheticWhich divisions of the autonomic nervous system tends to activate on a
whole?
Parasympathetic -> two mechanismso acetylcholine
Chain ganglion for the sympathetic nerves.LOCALIZATION OF FUNCTION
Idea that specific brain parts are responsible for specific activities(movement, vision, speech, memory)
Certain components of activities that depend on specific parts of thebrain.
Influential idea in the mid 20th century The brain is hierarchal organized but we can talk about certain
components of activities that depend on different parts of the brain
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LANDMARKS OF CEREBRAL CORTEX
Frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes. Central fissure, lateral fissure, longitudinal fissure Gyrus a bump in the brain Dorsal, ventral, lateral, medial, rostral, caudal
Longitudinal fissure divides the halves of the brain
Central fissure between frontal lobe and parietal lobe
Lateral fissure between temporal and frontal lobe
DIRECTIONS
Dorsal the top of the brain Ventral the bottom of the brain Lateral - sides Medial middle Rostral front Caudal back
Occipital lobe visual system
Temporal lobe auditory processing, language
SECTIONS
Cut through parallel to the face coronal section Cut through parallel to the floor horizontal section Cut through parallel to ears through middle of head, perpendicular
to face saggital section (the left side of the brain, medial surface)
Stimulate different parts of the brain to see their function.
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APRAXIA damage to a motor association area frontal lobe
Motor associations are just in front of frontal lobe Not paralyzed but movements will lack meaningful organization.
AGNOSIA damage to a sensory association area Visual agnosia people can see, they know that they can see, but
they cant make sense out of what they see.
o Damage in the occipital lobe (primary projection area forvision)
APHASIA deficit in the comprehension of language
Usually due to a lesion
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Lecture 6 5/4/2012 12:58:00 AM
PROJECTION AREAS
Language and practically every other behavior recruits componentsfrom all over the brain
You have crossed projection, crossed controlo The left side of the brain controls the right side of the body
and vice versa
Association areas are important because they show you howprojection areas can work alone
o If someone is damaged in the visual association area, theyarent necessarily blind but they cant make sense of what
they see, cant identify objects
APRAXIA
Damage to a motor association areaAPHASIA
Deficit in the production or comprehension of language usually dueto a lesion, brain damage
Brocas Aphasiao He could only say Ton
Wernickes Aphasiao Area is near the temporal lobe, next to auditory cortexo Very different type of language disordero Tremendous difficulty in understanding language however
they can speak fairly fluently
LANGUAGE CIRCUIT
In a blood flow study, what lights up when you speak?
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image and it can be put together by computer in the same
way that a cat scan can.
Functional imagingo fMRI (functional MRI): images over time that are related to
behavior. Measures blood flow in the brain. Oxygenatedhemoglobin responds differently to the field than does
deoxygenated hemoglobin. When a part of the brain is active,
blood flow to the part of the brain increases.
o positron emission tomography: small detectors all over thehead. Inject something with a radioactive label, something
like glucose (cells in the brain use more of when youre
active). Disadvantage: need a physicist to inject it.
Lesion Stimulation
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Lecture 7 1/18/2011 11:33:00 AM
MOTIVATION AND HIERARCHY
More complex Goal directed Behavior sequences arranged flexibly to achieve goal
THERMOREGULATIONIS FOOD INTAKE REGULATED?
More complex Dual center theory NO! NO! NO! Weight regained after diet What about response to over eating?
o No where near as robust as to the response to under eatingHOW IS INTAKE MONITORED &CONTROLLED?
Liver monitors fuelo Liver short term glucagon stores
Blood glucose monitored? Gut receptors produce hormones Leptin produced by fat stores Cortex (culture) and limbic system
OBESITY A GLOBAL EPIDEMIC
Very clear genetic component Which genes? Must also be environment
NON-HOMEOSTATIC EATING
Defend against caloric deficit Dont fully compensate for excess Eating in absence of need leads to obesity Also need to consider exercise
LIKING, WANTING, AND CRAVING DEFINED
Liking pleasantness or hedonic response or evaluative response toa stimulus
Wanting - desireo Craving a very strong desire
WHAT IS CRAVED?
Chocolate and pizza top most lists What is the critical characteristic?
o Calories?
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o Fat?o Forbidden?o Palatability?
YOUNG WOMEN REPORT MORE CRAVINGS FOR SWEETS
About 60% of the foods craved by young women are sweet andabout 40% are savory. For older adults and for young men the
proportions are reversed.
IS BOREDOM ENOUGH?
Is a nutritional deficit necessary for craving?o Nutritional deprivation is not necessary
fMRI AN EXAMPLE
4T (tesla) scan 2 groups MD and ND Imagine two liked goods or imagine monotonous diet in block
design
Why use imagination rather than video?BEHAVIORAL RESULTS
All participants in the MD group experienced cravings when theywere imagining the liked goods
No one experienced cravings when imagining the monotonous diet We were very successful at turning craving on and off in 30 sec.
binsBRAIN ACTIVATION ASSOCIATED WITH FOOD CAVING
These areas activated by drug craving as well Caudate involved inhabit and automatic responding
3 areas largely associated with craving: Hippocampus, Insula andCaudate
fMRI
fMRI is a potential non-verbal measure of liking, wanting, andcraving
Ultimately, all non-verbal measures & animal models must bevalidated against self-report
CONDITIONING
Conditioning effects used to explain compulsion to use drugs longafter withdrawal
Nutritional deprivation not necessary to produce food cravings
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Sight, smell or imagery may be trigger food craving Craving may be acquired response based on repeatedly eating the
craved food when hungry
PREVENTION OF AUTOMATIC EATING
Distraction prevent obsession Prevent response Remove trigger - prevent impulsive eating Portion control New cravings can be learned
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Lecture 8: Emotion 1/18/2011 11:33:00 AM
DEFINITIONS ARE MUDDY
Emotiono How many?
Moodo Related to emotion, but longer lasting
Affecto More general
MECHANISMS
Some brain mechanisms are the same, others are different All involve autonomic nervous system and limbic system
MECHANISMS,II
Common sense view see danger fear run James-Lange theory see danger body responds perceive
bodily response (running, elevated heart rate) fear
Cannono Physical responses not that differento Cold emotion
MECHANISMS,III
Schacter-Singer (Jukebox theories)
The physiological response may play a role, also cognitiono 4 groups Suproxin
Adrenalin, informed Adrenalin, uninformed Adrenalin, misinformed Saline
o Waiting room with confederateo Got emotion effects in groups 2 & 3
(Romeo & Juliet studies)FACIAL EXPRESSION
Darwin Facial Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals Homologous with other mammals
FACIAL EXPRESSIONS,II
Species general in humanso Cross culturalo Blind children
DISPLAY RULES
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Cultural norms (top of hierarchy) Expressions differ when alone and with others
REVIEW QUESTIONS
How do motivated behaviors fit into the hierarchy?o We do whatever it is that we need to do in order to reach the
goal (get food, get away from the bear, etc.)
What does homeostasis mean?o Staying the same. Theres something in the body that is being
regulated at the same level (body temperature, amount of
fluid)
What is a set point?o Related to the concept of homeostasis.o Target. When you move away from the set point of
physiological response might be triggered.
Name an autonomic response to being cold.o Shivering. Goosebumps.
What is the dual center theory of intake regulation?o There are two centers in the brain: the satiety center and the
feeding center. Feeding center: everything is a network.
Give some evidence that humans regulate their body weight - thatthey do not?
o People who stay thin no matter what regulate their bodyweight in the face of caloric excess
o People dont regulate their body weight: overweight people,they do not respond to Leptin.
What is glucagon? Leptin? Is obesity genetic?
o It is polygenic. Why does cue-induced eating promote weight gain?
o Often causes you to eat when you are not actually hungry.Respond more vigorously to caloric excess
Define food craving.o Strong desire to eat a specific food. Strong wanting
What is the difference between liking and wanting?o Wanting is desire.
Who is most likely to report food cravings?
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o Young women. Do cravings reflect a nutritional deficit?
o No. Triggered by cues in the environment. Is fMRI a more reliable measure of craving than self-report?
o Might want to do both. An overweight person might not wantto admit to the dessert cravings that were shown in the fMRI
What is localization of function?o Certain parts of the brain do specific things. Gives you the
idea that there is a speech center and language center and
that the function of the brain responds to words in our
language but that is not true.
What is your parietal lobe?o Top of your head, near the back.
Longitudinal fissure? Central fissure?o Runs between the two hemispheres.o Side that divides the parietal lobe
What is a gyrus?o A bump, one of the raised areas
Where would you find a motor homunculus? For the left side?o Motor projection area, the last place in the cortex that
movement is processed before the commands go back down
to the spinal cords in the muscles.o On the right side of the brain
Would more space be allotted to the hand or the arm?