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Group/Team dynamicsCommunications in teams and organisationsLeadership

Part (UNIT) Three: group/TEAMPROCESSES (groups, teams andinteractions IN ORGANISATIONS)

LEADERSHIP

Lecture OBJECTIVES

After completing this lecture, you should be ableto:

discuss the meaning of, and distinctionbetween management and leadership.assess the contribution of the theoreticalapproaches to the study of leadership.discuss the meaning of, and distinctionbetween leadership and power.***understand the contribution of strategicleadership/management to the understandingof leadership in organisations.

INTRODUCTION

It has been suggested that to be an effectiveleader, you must become one yourself .To know how people behave takesintelligence, but to know yourself takeswisdom.Leadership matters, that is why on a day-to-day basis, organisational leaders profoundlyaffect where paid work is performed, how it

is performed, how people are managed, howpeople experience their work, and how

managers and co-workers interact and

INTRODUCTION

It is therefore not surprising that leadershipis a highly sought-after and highly valuedcommodity.Therefore, a number of scholars andpractitioners have attempted to defineleadership without universal consensus.This implies that there are many ways oflooking at leadership and manyinterpretation and its meaning.Thus, coming up with a precise definition of

leadership is difficult.

WHAT IS THE MEANING OF Leadership

For example, leadership is:“the process wherein an individual member ofa group or organisation influences theinterpretation of events, the choice ofobjectives and strategies, the organisation ofwork activities, the motivation of people toachieve objectives, the maintenance ofcooperative relationships, the development ofskills and confidence by members, and theenlistment of support and cooperation frompeople outside the group or organisation”

WHAT IS THE MEANING OF Leadership

Leadership is:“the process wherein anindividual influences a group ofindividuals to achieve acommon goal. (Northouse,2002)

The definitions suggest that:

Leadership is a process – leaders affectand are affected by followersLeadership involves influence – it isconcerned with how leadership affectsfollowersLeadership occurs in groups – groups arethe context in which leadership takes place.Leadership includes attention to common

goals – leaders direct their energies towardindividuals who are trying to achieve

Leadership and management

The term leadership and management arefrequently used interchangeably, but are theythe same?Kotter (1990) argued that the two conceptsare dissimilar.The primary functions of management were

planning, organising, staffing and controlling;This means that the overriding function ofmanagement is to provide order and

consistency to organisations;


Whereas the primary function of leadershipis to produce change.Management is about seeking order and

stability ;While leadership is about seeking adaptiveand constructive change .To manage means to accomplish activitiesand master routines;While to lead means to influence others andcreate visions for change.


1.2.3.

4.

5.

6.

Hollingsworth (1999) also suggested sixfundamental differences:A manager administers – a leader innovates;A manager maintains – a leader develops;A manager focuses on systems and structure– a leader focuses on people;A manager relies on control – a leaderinspires trust;A manager keeps an eye on the bottom line –a leader has an eye on the horizon;A manager does things right – a leader doesthe right things;

LEADERSHIP in organisation – theoreticalapproaches

There are a number of approaches toassessing leadership and they include:

Traitstheories(traditionalleadershipmodels);

Behaviouraltheories ;

Situationaland

Contingencytheories ;

Contemporary

approaches/perspectives

to leadership

LEADERSHIP in organisation –theoretical approaches

There are a number of approaches toassessing leadership and they include:Traits theories (traditional leadershipmodels);Behavioural theories ;Situational and Contingency theories ; andContemporary approaches to leadership

LEADERSHIP – theoretical approaches –trait approach

There are a number of trait theories andthey include:(1)Traditional theories(2) “Great man’ theories

trait approach

The traits approach was one of the firstsystematic attempts to study leadership.In the early 20th century, leadership traitswere studied to determine what madecertain people great.(1) The traditional theories assume thatleadership was a set of qualities or

personal characteristics and thatdistinguishes leaders from followers andeffective from ineffective leaders.

Trait approach

For much of history, it was assumed thatleadership was a set of qualities or personal

characteristics (traits) that someone is bornwith.These include:Internal locus of control and emotionalstabilitySpecific need structures (moderately highneed for achievement and need for power)Integrity and self-awareness and self-

Trait approach

Interpersonal abilities and skills.Physical attributes (particularly height,but also perceived strength andattractiveness).High social status background.Intelligence, insight, responsibility,sociability.Cognitive abilities, extraversion,opennessMotivation, agreeableness etc.

Traits approaches

(2) The Great Man Theory is a 19th-centuryidea can be largely explained by the impactof "great men", or heroes or highly influentialindividuals.Who, due to either their: personal charisma,

intelligence, wisdom, or political skill utilizedtheir power in a way that had a decisive

historical impact.

Traits approaches

“Great man’ theory also focused onidentifying the innate qualities of andcharacteristics possessed by great social,political, and military leaders.The theory further suggests that in everysituation, particularly in times of crisis , “greatmen” (with the same characteristics assuccessful leaders) would emerge to leadthrough the difficulties (as at that timeleaders were predominantly men).

LEADERSHIP in organisation – theoreticalapproaches – behavioural approach

The behavioural approach to leadershipemphasises the behaviour of the leader.The approach focuses exclusively on whatleaders do and act.This behavioural approach shifted the focusaway from personal traits in leadership –the notion that leaders are born – toward

the investigation of the behaviour of leaders .

behavioural approach

This led to the Ohio State University andthe University of Michigan Programmes of

research (two leadership styles):The behavioural approach to leadershipinclude:

The Ohio State University Studies;University of Michigan Studies;The Managerial Grid;

behavioural approach

Two dimension emerged for the Universityof Michigan University studies :

Production (task) –oriented behavioursEmployee (people) -oriented behaviours

Production oriented (or task behaviour,‘productive-centred’ and ‘task-centred’)

focuses on the degree to which a leaderemphasises the importance of assigning

followers to tasks, and maintainingstandards :

In order words ’getting things done’

Behavioural approaches

Employee-oriented behaviour(‘employee-centred’, ‘relationshiporiented and ‘person-centred’) orleadership styles describes the extent

the leader is concerned about his or herfollowers as people :

Their needs, development andproblems, looks after subordinateswelfare and nurtures supportiverelationships.


Similar studies - Ohio State Universityidentified.Ohio State University identified twodimensions:(1) Initiating structures and (2)considerationInitiating structures: describes the

degree to which a leader defined andstructures his or her own role and the

roles of group members/ followerstoward attainment of the group’s


The initiating structures leadership styleis essentially the same as the job-centred

or task-related leadership style – focuseson getting the task done.Consideration: describes the degree to

which a leader’s behaviour is aimed atnurturing warm relationships, work

relationships, and encouraging mutualtrust and respect (friendly, approachable

and treats all group members as equals)between the leader and followers.


The consideration leadership style isessentially the same as the employee

centred or relationship related leadershipstyle – focuses on meeting people’s needsand developing relationships.

Task-oriented and people-oriented leadership styles

•••••

Assign work and clarify responsibilitiesSet goals and deadlinesEvaluate and provide feedbackEstablish well-defined best work proceduresPlan future work activities

Leaders are task-oriented when they…..

••••

•

Show interest in others as peopleListen to employeesMake the workplace more pleasantShow appreciation to employees for their performancecontributionAre considerate of employee needs.

Leaders are people-oriented when they….


Another leader behavioural dimension isprovided the basis for the well known

‘managerial grid’ model of leadership (Blakeand Mouton, 1964).This model is based on the idea thatdifferences in leadership approach are thefunction of two factors which they named –

concern for people and concern forproduction.

The 5 leadership styles are:


i. Impoverished management – low concernfor both people and production.Ii. Authority-compliance management – highconcern for production but low concern forpeople.iii. Country-club management – very highconcern for people but with lower concernsfor production.iv. Middle of the road management – amedium level of concern for both people andproduction.

Situational/contingency approaches

Situational and Contingency Leadershiptheories (takes the view that the best styleof leadership depends upon the factors

active in the specific situation include:Hersey and Blanchard’s situational (1982)leadership theory;Tannenebaum and Schmidt’’s (1973)Continuum;Fieldler’s (1967) Contingency Model;House’s Path-Goal Leadership Theory.

Situational/contingency approaches

Hersey and Blanchard’s (1982) SituationalLeadership Theory (SLT) focuses on the

followers.Hersey and Blanchard’s (1982) modelemploys two dimensions: task behaviourand relationship behaviour:Also include: the degree of followers

maturity (or readiness) , which refers tofollowers’ ability and willingness to achieve

a particular task .

Hersey and Blanchard’s situation theory

Telling (high task-low relationship): the leaderdefines roles and tells people what, how, when,and where to do various jobs.

Selling (high task-high relationship): the leaderprovides both directive and supportivebehaviour

Participating (low task-high relationship): theleader and followers share in decision making;the role of the leader is facilitating andcommunicating.

Delegating (low task-low relationship): the

Hersey and Blanchard’s situation theory Which is further linked to follow readiness: R1- People are both unable and unwilling totake responsibility for doing something.Followers are not competent or confident.R2- People are unable but willing to do what theleader wants. Followers are motivated but lackthe appropriate skill.R3- People are able but unwilling to takeresponsibility for doing something. Followersare competent but don’t want to do something.R4- People are both able and willing to do whatis asked of them.

Contemporary approaches to leadership

Contemporary approaches to leadershipinclude:

Leader-member Exchange (LMX) TheoryTransactional LeadershipTransformational LeadershipValue-based leadership such as AuthenticLeadership and Servant Leadership

Contemporary approaches to leadership:leader-member exchange (lmx)

The leader/follower relationship focuseson the unique association between a

leader and a follower is called dyad.For the purpose of this lecture, dyadicrefers to “the individualized relationshipbetween a leader and each of follower ina work unit.”(Lussier and Achua, 2007:210)

leader-member exchange (lmx)

The dyadic theory is an approach toleadership that attempts to explain whyleaders vary their behavior with different

followers.Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theoryhas the underlying assumption that leadersor superiors have limited amounts of social,

personal and organizational resources (e.g.time, attention, energy) and as a result tend

to distribute them among followers


Therefore, leader-member exchange isdefined as the quality of the exchange

relationship between an employee and his orher superior.

(Lussier and Achua, 2007:214)Consequently, high-quality exchange

relationships (in-group) reveal a high degreeof mutual positive effect, loyalty and respect,while low-quality relationships (out-group)

reveals the opposite.


The in-group includes followers with strongsocial ties to their leader in a supportiverelationship characterised by high mutualtrust, respect, loyalty and influence.Members of the in-group are invited to

participate in important decision making,are given added responsibility, and have

greater access to the leader.


The out-group includes followers with few orno ties to their leader, in a strictly task-centered relationship characterized by lowexchange and top-down influence.Members of the out-group are managed

according to the requirements of theemployment contract.

The in-group versus out-group status revealsan element of reciprocity or exchange in the

relationship .Relationships developed in these dyads may

f l i f l l l


The in-group versus out-group status revealsan element of reciprocity or exchange in the

relationship .Relationships developed in these dyads mayoccur at a formal or informal level.

contemporary: transactional Transformationalleadership

A known sociologist (Burns, 1978)differentiated between transactional

leadership and transformational leadershipThe scholar attempted the roles ofleadership and followers.He wrote of leaders as people who tap intothe motives followers in order to betterreach the goals of leaders and followers.

transactional leadership

Transactional leadership occurs when aleader motivates followers: purely on

exchanging rewards for good performanceand noticing and reprimanding

subordinates for mistakes and standardperformance.

This type of leadership is based on somesort of contractual exchange (oftenimplicit) between leader and follower.Characteristics include:

transactional leadership

Characteristics include:Contingent reward: contacts exchange ofrewards for effort, promises reward forperformance, recognises accomplishment.Management by exception: watches andsearches for deviation from rules.Transactional activities include allocation ofwork, making routine decisions, monitoringperformance and interacting with otherfunctions within the organisation.

transformational leadership

Transformational leadership – an exceptionalform of influence that moves followers to

accomplish more than what is usually expected of them – ties followers and their self-concepts to the organizational identity

Transformational leadership

Transformational leadership – occurswhen a leader transforms, or changes hisor her followers in four important ways:(a) that together enable followers to trustthe leader and(b) performing behaviours that contributeto the achievement of organisational goals.


(1) Inspirational Motivation: establishing an attractive vision of thefuture, the use of emotional arguments ,and exhibition of optimism and enthusiasm.

(2) Idealized Influenceincludes behaviors such as sacrificing for

the good of the group , being a role model,and displaying high ethical standards;


Individualized Considerationentails behaviors associated with

providing tailored support,encouragement, empowerment, and

coaching to followers;Intellectual Stimulationinvolves behaviors that encouragefollowers to question the status quo andseek innovative and creative solutions toproblems;


•

InspirationalMotivation:

establishingan attractivevision of thefuture, theuse ofemotionalarguments,andexhibition ofoptimismandenthusiasm.

•

IdealizedInfluencenull

includesbehaviorssuch assacrificing forthe good ofthe group,being a rolemodel, anddisplayinghigh ethicalstandards

•

IndividualizedConsideration

entailsbehaviorsassociatedwithprovidingtailoredsupport,encouragementempowerment, andcoaching tofollowers

IntellectualStimulationinvolvesbehaviors thatencouragefollowers toquestion thestatus quo andseek innovativeand creativesolutions toproblemsnull

Value-based leadership

Value-based leadership is focused onexpressing and promoting particular pro-social values and they include:1. Authentic leadership refers to a leaderswho:(a) know who they are(b) know what they believe in and value(c) acts on those beliefs openly and candidly(d) their followers consider them as ethicalpeople.This is because they share information,

Value-based leadership: servantleadership

2. Servant leadership is defined asleadership that has service to othersincluding followers as its main motivator(trust, empathy, support, communitybuilding, empowerment and followdevelopment are aspects particularlyassociated with such leadership).They go beyond their self-interest and focus

on opportunities to help followers growth,and the wellbeing of others.

followership

Many theorists agree that leadership is arelationship that is jointly produced byleaders and followers, and thereforeimportant the role of followers in explainingorganizational success. Followership refers to the behavior offollowers that results from the leader-followerrelationship.

(Lussier and Achua, 2007:225)A follower is a person who is beinginfluenced by a leader.

( )

followership

Followers may have characteristics such asbeing passive yet independent, criticalthinker; active but unassertive, noncriticalthinker; exhibits neither critical , independent

thinking nor active participation ; is both anindependent, critical thinker and a very

active member of the group; exhibits a littleof all four styles – depending on which style

fits the prevailing situation .No matter the characteristic, they influenceand are influenced by the leader.

Importance of leadership

Leadership is important at all levels withinthe organisation. It includesLeadership is the moral and intellectual

ability to visualise and work for what is bestfor the organisation and employees ... andtherefore the most vital thing a leader doesis to create team spirit around and near him.Leadership helps to develop teamwork and

the integration of individual andorganisational goal. It aids intrinsicmotivation by emphasising the importanceof the work people do

Importance of leadership

Good leaders are sensitive to the impact of thechange process on people and must be able tooperate under complex, uncertaincircumstances, since they are operating inincreasingly complex environment, in which theadaptation to environmental changes as well asinternal challenges is an imperative.Consequently, although some of the theories ofleadership have increased peoplesunderstanding of effective leadership, it hasbeen argued that, it is essential to complete thepicture and therefore the need to other issuesrelation to leadership. They include:

Importance of leadership in relation toorganisations

Leading involves mentoring (a senioremployee who sponsors and supports a less-experienced employee)Organisations need to find and createeffective. This involves selecting leaders (theprocess organisations go through to fillmanagement positions.Training leaders - these take many forms – e.g. leadership development, teach skills suchas trust building etc., which may include:

Ways to master leadership skills

Some of the ways that one can masterleadership skills include:(1) One will need to work on his/herpreparation.(2) One must choose a course and makeit his/her own.(3) The need to keep an open mind.(4) Being disciplined.

Ways to master leadership skills

(5) One must master deadlines.(6) The need to remember to listen.(7) The need to cooperate with others(8) One must always put others beforehimself/herself.

Other issues relation to leadership

Gender and LeadershipEveryone is aware of the changing

nature of present day workforce.Increasing percentage of all high-paying

management, professional, and relatedoccupations are being held by women.

Despite examples of the great progresswomen have made in the workforce and inmanagement positions, it is believed thatthere is still a long way to go.


Gender and LeadershipFor example glass ceiling (refers to asituation in which qualified individuals areprevented from truly achieving all that theycan because of some form of discrimination)is still an issue.So the fact that women have been hinderedfrom obtaining and being successful inleadership positions has more to do with

stereotypes about leadership than aboutwomen’s actual ability to lead.


Culture and LeadershipCultural issues are now becoming the focus

of research due to the global economy and theincreased diversification of organisations.

Evidence indicates that cultures vary interms of the extent to whichthey value different traits,leadership behaviours,and incentives .


Culture and LeadershipA study demonstrated that leadership

prototypes developed through differentprocesses in individualistic versus

collectivistic cultures.There are many others for which

acceptance and effectiveness are moreculture specific (e.g. Global Leadership and

Organisational Behaviour Effectiveness(GLOBE) research project).


Emotions and LeadershipLeadership researchers have begun to

examine the role of moods and emotions inthe leadership process.

It has been noted that transformationalleadership express more positive emotionsthan do less transformational leaders.

These positive emotions have an effecton followers’ moods .


Emotions and LeadershipBoth leaders’ emotions and followers’ moods

had positive effects on leaders effectivenessand perceived attractiveness of the leader.

Consequently, emotional intelligence (EI) –the ability to assess and manage one’s ownemotions as well as understand those of othersinfluence leadership processes.


Ethics and LeadershipRecently, researcher have begun to

consider ethical implications in leadership.One reason is the growing interest of in

ethics throughout the field of managementLeaders who treat their followers by

using some of these principles are seen asmore effective.

These include:


Ethics and Leadership

Serving others – they place the interest oftheir followers’ welfare foremost of their plans.

Are just – concerned about issues fairness(distributive justice) and treat all their followersin an equal manner.

Are honest – means not deceiving.

Respect others – leaders who respect others.

leadership

Like all conditions, leadership is also notpermanent. This is because:

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