V.M.WESTERBERG’S SUPER BRIEF THEORY SERIES

LIFETIME DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES

Infancy and Toddlerhood: Birth - Age 2

Biological

• Body doubles in height and quadruples in weight

• Neurons grow in increasingly dense connections,

becoming coated with layers of myelin, and enabling

faster and more efficient message transmission • Experiences help to fine tune the brain's responses

to stimulation

• Motor skills progress from simple reflexes to coordinated motor abilities, such as grasping and

walking

• Sensory and perceptual abilities develop rapidly

Cognitive

• Basic structure of language learned through baby

talk with adults

• First communication emerges through crying, then

cooing and babbling

• Language skills progress from speaking a few words by age 1, to constructing sentences by age 2

• Awareness of world progresses through immediate

sensorimotor experiences to mental representations

of events • Thinking includes concept of object permanence:

objects still exist when out of sight or awareness

• Ability to grasp conceptual categories begins; by

age 2 numerous definite concepts develop

Piaget’s sensorimotor stage

Psychosocial

• Emotional responses change from basic reactions to more complex, self-conscious responses

• Independent behaviors increase with parental

encouragement around feeding, dressing, and toilet training

• Parents and infants respond to each other by

synchronizing their behavior

• Development of secure attachment sets stage for child's increasingly independent exploration

• Ability to relate to playmates emerges by end of

period • Early personality traits, such as introversion and

extroversion, develop

Erikson’s trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs doubt.

Early Childhood: Ages 2 - 6

Biological

• Brain is 90% of its adult weight by age 5,

developing faster than any other body part

• Myelination proceeds at different rates in various areas of the brain, resulting in different rates of

readiness for certain types of activities

• Physical strength increases and body proportions become more adult-like

• Athletic skills, such as running, jumping, and

hopping, dramatically improve

• Fine motors skills, such as writing and drawing, develop slowly

• Gender differences in motor skills begin to emerge

Cognitive

• Use of mental representations and symbols, such as

words, begins

• Ideas about the world continue to be somewhat illogical

• Social interactions with parents and playmates

teach about the world • Language abilities develop rapidly, resulting, on

average, in a 14,000-word vocabulary and

extensive grammatical knowledge by age 6

• Ability to adjust communication to audience begins • Metacognition, the ability to think about thought,

forms

Piaget’s pre-operational stage (2-7)

Psychosocial

• Play alone or with others becomes increasingly

complex and imaginative

• Increased energy fosters ability to initiate new activities, especially if child receives praise for

actions

• First awareness of gender roles emerge • Desire for independence and control over

environment increases, making parents' supervisory

role more challenging • Parenting style influences child's psychosocial

development

• Socialization in school encourages thinking about

world outside the home

Erikson’s autonomy vs doubt (1-3), Initiative vs guilt (3-6)

Middle Childhood: Ages 7 - 9

Biological

• Brain growth slows down

• Physical growth slows, but slight height spurts occur

• Expansion of heart and lung capacities supports

more physical endurance • Athletic and fine motor skills become more refined

Cognitive

• Ability to understand logical principle develops

• Memory capacity and ability to use mnemonics

expands

• Metacognition, the ability to think about thought, enables organization of own learning

• Use of language becomes more analytical

• Proficiency in more than one language code may

begin, sometimes resulting in bilingualism

Piaget’s preoperational stage

Psychosocial

• Peer group becomes more significant as dependence shifts to friends for help, loyalty, and sharing of

mutual interests

• Awareness of and involvement in outside world

increases awareness of family, economic, and political conditions

• Motivational systems build around achievement,

competence, and affiliation • Coping strategies develop for problem solving and

stress tolerance

• Interpersonal strategies develop to aid in

understanding others' behaviour

Erikson’s Initiative vs Guilt (3-6) Industry vs Inferiority (6-12)

Late Childhood: Ages 10 - 12

Biological

• Puberty begins with rising hormone levels

• Girls' growth spurt begins with gains in height,

weight, and musculature

• Gender specific physical changes appear within first year: enlargement of breasts in girls and testes in

boys

• In physical maturation, boys lag, on average, 2

years behind girls • Variations in onset of puberty impact personality

development

Cognitive

• Logical thought progresses to abstract thinking

• Planning skills and memory strategies improve

• Long-term knowledge base grows • Language skills expand to include synonyms,

categories, double meanings, metaphors, humor,

and complex grammatical structure

Piaget’s concrete operational stage

Psychosocial

• Changes in physique, sexuality, cognitive

functioning, and society's treatment may challenge sense of self

• Appreciation of connection between moral rules and

social conventions strengthens • Peer groups often divide into cliques

• Awareness of gender stereotypes continues to

increase • Issues increase around autonomy, sibling rivalry,

and separation from family

Erikson’s Industry vs Inferiority (6-12)

Early Adolescence: Ages 13 - 15

Biological

• Body continues to grow in height and weight

• Girls growth spurt peaks, while boys typically begin

it • Motor performance gradually increases, but often

levels off for girls

• Girls usually start to menstruate and boys to ejaculate

Cognitive

• Formal operational reasoning, the capacity for abstract, scientific thought, emerges

• Thinking becomes more self-conscious, idealistic,

and critical • Metacognition and self-regulation further develop

• Vocabulary expands to include abstract words

• Understanding and grasp of complex grammar

continues to improve • Ability to grasp irony and sarcasm develops

Piaget’s formal operational stage

Psychosocial

• Issues of identity emerge, potentially leading to

crisis in sense of self

• Sexual orientation begins to emerge

• Psychological disorders and sociocultural-adaptational disorders may emerge

• Strives for autonomy in relation to family continues

to increase, and parent-child conflicts more likely to occur

• Friendships have greater emphasis on intimacy and

loyalty

• Conformity to peer pressure increases

Erikson’s Identity vs (role) Confusion (12-19)

Late Adolescence: Ages 16 - 19

Biological

• Boys' growth spurt peaks, and growth is mostly

complete by end of this period

• Boys develop deeper voices and patterns of facial hair, and typically grow taller than their female

peers

• Girls tend to grow wider in the hips, and breast development continues for several years

• Girls' motor performance peaks, while boys'

continues to improve

Cognitive

• Reasoning through problems in symbolic terms and

through use of formal logic improves

• Fluid intelligence, the ability to cope with new

problems and situations, is reached by the end of

this period

• Ability to understand and integrate rules into sense

of self becomes basis for character development

Piaget’s formal operational stage

Psychosocial

• Development of identity continues in relation to

adult world

• First dating begins process of developing and

maintaining intimate relationships • Cliques decline in importance

• Identity achievement greatly influenced by personal

factors, including family and peer relationships with family and peers, and economic and political

circumstances

• Increased assertiveness and lack of self-discipline

often create conflicts with parents • Sexual orientation continues to develop

• Introduction begins to the world of work and career

planning

Erikson’s Identity vs (role) Confusion (12-19)

Early Adulthood: Ages 20 - 40

Biological

• Physical functioning increases through the 20's and

peaks at about age 30, but can be maintained through exercise

• Body shape changes, with gradual increases in

weight and body fat and decreases in lean muscle mass

• Efficiency of many organ systems begins to diminish

at the rate of about 1% a year

• Sexual responsiveness remains high throughout this period, with some slowing in men

• Physical appearance changes; gray hair and

wrinkles develop toward end of this period

Cognitive

• Thinking may become practical and dialectical to

adapt to the inconsistencies and complexities in daily experiences

• Short-term memory peaks

• Wisdom and expertise begin to develop • Vocabulary and knowledge continue to grow

through work interactions and everyday problem-

solving

Piaget’s formal operational stage

Neo-Piagetian postformal stage

Psychosocial

• Issues of identity and intimacy peak by age 30

• Need for affiliation filled by friends and often a

marriage/partner

• Friendships become particularly important for

people who are single • Need for achievement often met through

satisfactory work consistent with personality and

abilities • Personality traits most likely to change up to age

30, with additional maturation continuing into the

40's

Erikson’s Intimacy vs Isolation (20-45)

Middle Adulthood: Ages 40 - 65

Biological

• Gradual changes continue in appearance of skin,

hair, and body shape

• Gradual changes occur in hearing and vision, including presbyopia, the inability to focus on near

objects

• Menopause begins in women • Health and potential onset of disease affected by

preventive behaviors, many of which vary by social

class

Cognitive

• Fluid intelligence declines while crystallized

intelligence remains steady or increases

• Intellectual abilities dependent on speed and

novelty decrease, while abilities involving

knowledge about the world and vocabulary increase

• Reaction time and mental processing speed slow • Short and long-term memory remain relatively

stable

• Cognitive abilities related to experience and intelligence flourish, leading to further formation of

expertise

• Maintenance of cognitive skills as well as opportunities for intellectual growth impacted by

social class

Piaget’s formal operational stage

Neo-piagetian postformal stage

Psychosocial

• Mid-life crisis occurs in a small minority of cases,

because most men and women experience gradual

transitions in sense of self and in relationship with the world

• Personality traits tend to remain stable

• Friendship and marriage/partnership continue as primary sources of affiliation

• Marital satisfaction often rises as children move

away from home • Maintenance phase in career may allow for greatest

productivity at work, may also cause burn-out

• Experiences of facing age discrimination more likely

Erikson’s generativity vs stagnation

Late Adulthood: Ages 65 - Onward

Biological

• Brain becomes physically smaller and functions more slowly

• Gradual changes continue in appearance, along with

weakening of the body sense organs and major body systems

• Losses continue in visual and hearing abilities

• Decreases in immune system and overall muscle strength put older adults at risk of chronic and

acute illness

• Short-term memory may decline, but active

exercise of mental abilities helps to maintain functioning

• Age-related changes impact sexual functioning, but

not pleasure

Cognitive

• Abilities to receive information, store it in memory,

and organize and interpret it decline

• Some short-term memory abilities declined, but

methods can help compensate for memory loss and

slower thinking • Aesthetic, philosophical, or spiritual interests

emerge or intensify

• Language abilities based on memory and processing

speed decline, but overall vocabulary continues to grow

• Driving-related abilities dependent on information-

processing speed decrease, while skills based on experience increase

• Wisdom, experience-based problem solving, and

semantic knowledge increase. Older adults cognitive theories (Levinson, Neugarten)

Psychosocial

• Retirement experience shaped by social class and gender factors, including income, health, and

amount of previous planning

• Abilities to cope with stress, reduce negative emotions, and manage personal relationships

improve broader perspective on life

• Subjective sense of well-being tends to be higher

than at all previous periods • Satisfaction with life largely dependent on family

involvement

• Bereavement for spouse, friends, and families stressful, but most people are able to integrate a

loss into their lives within one year after it happens

• End-of-life care that incorporates pain management

and psychological support greatly impacts well-

being

Erikson’s Integrity vs Despair.