lnt1toduction

Cosmetics represent a highly diversified field involving many subsections of

science and "art." Indeed, in these days of high technology, "art" and intuition

continue to play an important part in the development of formulations, their

evaluation and the selection of raw materials. There is a move toward more

sophisticated scientific methodologies in the field of cosmetic formulation

design, safety, formulation evaluation with a better understanding of the

properties of application sites i.e. skin, nails, eyes and hair etc.

Today a new hot topic in the cosmetic industry is 'active cosmeceuticals', which

is the fastest growing segment of the natural personal care industry.

Cosmeceuticals are topical cosmetic-pharmaceutical hybrids intended to

enhance the beauty through ingredients that provide additional health-related

function or benefit via cosmetic formulations through topical effects.

These cosmeceuticals serving as a bridge between personal care products and

pharmaceuticals, which are developing specifically for their medicinal and

cosmetic benefits.

1.1 Chronology of Cosmetics

India has enormous resources of medicinal and herbal plants. The pre-historic

knowledge of Ayurveda and its applications to cure illnesses effectively hasn't

been explored fully by India. If this happens successfully, India could gain a

very significant competitive edge in the global market, especially in the beauty

care, and healthcare segments. Since this traditional knowledge of Ayurveda is

1 ij CHAPTER 1 1

not available to other countries, India could be leader in this sector. Thirty

thousand year ago, early men used color in cave paintings, mostly of bulls and

calves, apparently to attract the animals they wished to hunt. They survived by

hunting and fighting and in both cases colored their skin and adorned their body

for protection, either as camouflage or to provoke fear in an enemy, whether

man or animal.

Some are born beautiful and others are "made" beautiful; for both type of

persons, cosmetics are vital tool. The first group of beautiful people is required

to maintain their natural beauty and to safe guard from environmental hazards

which may effects beauty adversely. For the second type of people, cosmetics

are must to make them attractive 1.

Cosmetics are used by all ages with economic and social strata for

beautification and protective purposes since ancient time. In facts, the concept

of beauty and cosmetic is as old as mankind and civilization. It is as long as

people use face paintings and eye shadows as mentioned in the old testament

of Egypt, China, and India. Especially for females, the desire is to look beautiful,

charming and young by using different beauty ways bring various herbs and

things known by the world since centuries2.

The famous depictions in the Ajanta and Ellora caves, Khajurao art proves that

not only women but men also adorned themselves with jewelry, scents and

cosmetics. Ancient scriptures like Abhijnana Shakuntalam and Meghadootam of

Kalidasa and many mythological epics encompass the reference of cosmetic

like; Tilak, Kajal, Agarw (Aqvilarie agulbeha) and Ubatan (wheat floor oat and

turmeric paste) were used as body decorative and to create beauty spots on

2 ~ CHAPTER t]

the chin and cheeks in the era ruled by gods and their deities. Enscripted in

history of the Aryan period also witnessed the use of turmeric-haridra (Curcuma

tonga Linn), saffron, alkanet, agaru chlorophyll green from nettle and plants and

indigos for bodily-decorations apart from using raktachandan (Pterocarpus

santalinus Linn), chandan ( Santalnm album), henna (Lawsonia inermis) for skin

and hairs dying in different color and conditioning were practiced in the olden

times. The origin of cosmetics as recorded the use of cosmetics is attributed to

Egyptians, in 4000 BC. The ancient Sumerians, Babylonians, and Hebrews

(Yahudiees) also applied cosmetics. The Neolithic age ended in Egypt in about

4000 BC. and copper working with the discovery of tin used to harden it, this led

to the bronze age, evidenced by the implements found: combs, hair pins,

tweezers and small clamp like instruments believed to be curling tongs, and

beautifully made spoons and ladels. As early as ten thousand B.C., Egyptians

men and women used scented oils and creams to clean, soften their skin and

mask the body odor. Dyes and paints were used to color the skin and hairs. A

plant that has been used in ancient Egypt much today it is known as henna.

The pungent odour of the flowers was probably used to perfume oils and

ointments. In modern times in the Eastern countries, the heena leaves are used

to redden the nails, the palms of the hands and soles of the feet 3.

This seems to have the fashion in ancient Egypt as the mummies are similarly

stained. In religious processions in ancient Egypt there was always a lavish use

of perfumes and no any king was ever crowned without being anointed with

fragrant oils by priests4•

3 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

In earlier times the women painted the undersides of their eyes with green

colour made from malachite, a copper carbonate ore, and the lids, lashes and

eyebrows were painted black with khol. These powders were pulverized on

stone or metal plates and the powder applied to the eyes by a finger dipped in

water5.

Indian women have rouged their faces hands, palm, cheeks with clay and

fingers, palm and hairs stain with henna paste. They painted their body parts

with sign of sun, moon, flowers, stars and birds by using natural paints. The

paste of henna is being applied several times by every strata of Indian

population for the purposes of staining to improve the beauty on each festival

and occasion.

There were plant oils from sesame seeds, croton, saffron, pumpkin seeds,

linseeds and olives. Animal fats were obtained from cows, sheep and goats,

were used to cure baldness and other skin disorders6• Oil baths perfumed with

sandal wood and floral extracts since times were considered to be a skin tonic,

and physically and mentally refreshing. Stem baths were popular where the

bather sits besides the tub of boiling water in to which neam leaves have been

thrown, under an all- enveloping blankef.

India had a medical code since 1000 B.C., in the Ayurveda and used the native

raw materials in medicines as well as domestic cosmetic preparations with

religious rites for decorative as well as other body ailments benefit.

The ancient civilization in India, China, Greece and Egypt had rich knowledge

of the utility of medicinal and cosmetically active plants. In modem times, the

utility of medicinal and cosmetically active plants declined with the advent of

4 ~ CIIAPTERl 1

synthetic substances, e.g. shampoos contain antibacterial and antidandruff

components, coloring effects can be seen drastically by using the synthetic

dying process, which effects can be seen directly by acute changing in the

biological system But now again time came to explore the natural flora as

cosmetic ingredients with more and long-term effects with reduced side effects.

Now each and every event of cosmetic application reflects real picture as

pharmacological and physiological effects associated with plants and

extractives.

In our routine life, we use many cosmetic preparations without accessing quality

of product, but now in present scenario consumer demands quality, efficacy

and safety of cosmetic products. Such requirements of cosmetic products are

satisfied country wise, therefore every country obeys own definitions of

cosmetics products.

1.2 Definitions

According USFDC 1938, a cosmetic is defined as an article intended to be

rubbed, poured, sprinkled, or sprayed on, introduced in to, or otherwise applied

to the human body or any part thereof for cleansing, beautifying, promoting

attractiveness, or altering the appearance without effecting the structure and

function8• It is noteworthy that in this definition the cosmetic is not allowed to

have any activity, means without effecting the structure and function.

This definition was revaluated and described by the European council

directive (2) and defined A "cosmetic product" shall mean any substance or

preparation intended to be placed in contact with the various external part of

human body epidermis, hair system, nail, lips and external genital organs or

5 ~ CHAPTER l 1

with the teeth and the mucous membrane of the oral cavity with a view

exclusively or mainly to cleaning them, perfuming them, changing their

appearance and! or correcting body odour and! or protecting them and keeping

them in good condition.

European cosmetics directive (Article ?a) describe the product information

requirement, it is stated that proof of effect should be included. In the United

state, on the other hand, a product would be regarded as a drug if proof of

effect is mentioned9•

Pharmaceutical affairs law of Japan define cosmetic with slight difference

from the definition of the Europe. Both definitions allow cosmetics to have mild

activity. Japanese definition are as The term cosmetic means any article

intended to be used by means of rubbing, sprinkling or by similar application to

the human body for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness and

altering appearance of the human body, and for keeping the skin and hair

healthy, provided that the action of the article on the human body is mi/d. 10•

A current definition of cosmeceuticals covers all formulations "that will achieve

cosmetic results by mean of some degree of physiological action" and known

as quasi drug11•

The Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act USA defines cosmetics by their intended

use, as articles intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled, or sprayed on,

introduced into, or otherwise applied to the human body for cleansing,

beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance. Among the

products included in this definition are skin moisturizers, perfumes, lipsticks,

fingernail polishes. eye, and facial makeup preparations, shampoos, permanent

6 ~ CIIAPfER 1 1

waves, hair colors, toothpastes, and deodorants, as well as any material

intended for use as a component of a cosmetic product12•

In the series of cosmetics the herbal cosmetics comes in the sequence of

definitions according to Saudi Arabia, Ministry of health "Herbal cosmetic

preparations are as a product prepared for therapeutic and prophylactic use,

the active ingredients of which are of plant origin"12•

In India the defination of cosmetic was reevaluated and described by the Drug

and Cosmetic act 1948. "Any article intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled or

sprayed on, or introduced into, or other wise applied to the human body or any

part thereof cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the

appearance and includes any article intended for use as a component of

cosmetic"

According to the official definitions given by different countries, it has been clear

that all such cosmetic preparations can be broadly classified as two types

• Synthetic cosmetics

• Natural cosmetics

Synthetic cosmetics are the products, which are made by use of synthetic

ingredients including active materials. Synthetic colorants, treated pigments,

synthetic softeners, sun screeners, whiteners, foamier etc. are widely used to

make elegancy of formulations.

Natural cosmetics are designed by using natural ingredients as base or as

natural active materials. Natural cosmetics are being used since ancient time in

different forms or some time direct usable forms e.g. mucilaginous form of Aloe

vera and ordinary extracts of Pterocarpus santa/urn, Curcuma longa, and

7 ~ CHAPTER 1 ,

pastes made up of oat meal floor were widely used for smoothening, protection,

cooling, rejuvenations for the cuts and burns of the skin. Oils and plant

extractives are mostly used to maintain the viscoelastic properties of skin in

different mode of applications like lepas, message oils etc.

1.3. Skin and Cosmetics

New insights about the function of the skin as well as the development of new

formulations for skin care make it necessary to redefine the definitions of

cosmetics and drugs. Skin structure and physiology has provided evidence that

even small changes in environment (temperature, humidity, dusty air) can

modify the functioning and activity of skin.

Cosmeceuticals being integral content of cosmetic preparations having

medicinal or drug-like benefits are able to affect the biological functioning of

skin as properties of functional ingredients. So many skin-care products that go

beyond decorating the skin these improve the functioning texture of the skin via

encouraging collagen growth by combating harmful effects of endogenous free

radicals. Thus, maintaining keratin structure in good condition and making the

skin healthier 13'15

.

In the formulation design, initially ingredients knowledge is required because

cosmetic ingredients influences the primarily quality and efficacy of any

cosmetic formulation.

Fundamentally there may be two incompatibilities occur due to ingredients

i.e.intolerance and toxic reactions. Toxic reactions are passive damage to

organism caused by the action of some poison or toxic materials. When toxic

materials applied to the skin are called caustic or primary irritant and the effects

8 ~ CHAPTERl 1

called primary irritation. Such irritation reactions depends not only chemical

nature of compinents but also on its applied concentrations and duration of

contact. These irritation reactions reflect the nature of skin, either allergic or

nonallergic.

It is comparatively easy to avoid primary irritant effects of cosmetic ingredients

because irritant substances are generally known. But in case of new substance,

it irritant effects can be easily determined by using patch tests. It is never

possible to guarantee that any formulation will be perfectly free from

allergenous effects.

Even if a formulation has been made with nothing but basic materials of proved

compatibility, it cannot necessarily to assume quite safe formulation. Because

there is always possibility that two ingredients, both of which are safe in alone

concentration, can cause an irritation when combined14• The skin reacts to

external conditions such as heat, sunlight, smoke, dust, gases and other

radiations. Skin secretes several different kinds of substances i.e. endogenous

waste materials as toxins, secrete metabolic waste materials that is result of

poor diet, poor digestion, infection, illness, and pharmaceutical drugs inform of

sweat to maintain its texture. It also secretes sebum in order to protect the skin

from dryness in hot environment. The sebum and sweat composition affect the

quality and texture of our skin sometimes positively and sometimes negatively.

To maintain healthy nature of skin, cosmetic preparations play an important role

via direct application to site of action.

9 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

Cosmetic preparations affects the moisture content of the corneal layer (upper

layer), which directly influence the mechanical, electrical and optical properties

of the skin 15•

1.3.1 Structure and Anatomy of skin

In adults, the skin covers an area of about two square meters and weights

about four to five kilograms. It ranges in thickness from 0.5 - 4 mm.

cosmetically, the skin structure consists of two main parts. The superficial

thinner portion, which is composed of epithelial tissues, is the epidermis. The

deeper, thicker connective tissue part is the dermis.

The epidermis is the outer most layer of skin, which consists of five sub-layers,

which are progressively more compressed and horny as they approach the

surface, many small nerve endings and no blood vessels (Figure 1 F-1 & 1 F-2).

1.3.1.1 Epidermis

The epidermis is keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. It contains four

standard types of cells that are more responsible compare to anatomy of skin

for cosmetic formulations.

• Keratinocytes

• Melanocytes

• Langerhans

• Merkel

About 90% cells are keratinocytes, which are arranged in four layers and

produced the protein keratin. Keratin is tough, fibrous protein that helps to

protect the skin and underlying tissues from heat, microbes and chemicals.

10 ~ CIIAI"fER 1 1

Keratinocytes also produces lamellar granules that release a water repellent

sealant.

About 8% of the epidermal cells are melanocytes that produce the pigment

melanin. It is a brown black pigment that contributes to skin color and absorbs

damaging ultraviolet light.

Langerhans cells arise from red bone marrow and migrate to the epidermis

where they constitute a small fraction of the epidermal cells. They participate in

immune responses mounted against microbes that invade the skin and are

easily damaged by UV light.

Merkel cells are the least numerous of the epidermal cells. These are located in

the deepest layer of the epidermis where they contact the flattened process of

sensory neurons known as tactile. Merkel cells detect tactile aspects of different

touch sensations.

The anatomy of skin accounts five sub layers of epidermis.

Stratum corneum

The upper layer called the stratum corneum is composed of twenty five to thirty

layers of flattened dead keratinocytes. These cells are continuously shed and

replaced by cells from the deeper strata. The interior of the cells contains

mostly keratin. Between the cells are lipids from lamellar granules that help to

make this layer an effective water repellent barrier. Constant exposure of skin

to friction and UV light stimulates the formation of a callus, an abnormal

thickening of the stratum corneum.

11 ~ CHAPTERl 1

Stratum Lucidum

It is present only in the thick skin of the fingertips, palms and soles. It consists

of three to five layers of flattened clear and dead keratinocytes that contain

large amount of keratin and thickened plasma membrane.

Stratum Granulosum

It consists of three to five layers of flattened keratinocytes that are undergoing

apoptosis (an orderly genetically programmed cell death in which the nucleus

fragments before and cell die). A distinctive feature of these cells in this layer is

the presence of darkly staining granules of a protein called keratohyalin which

converts the tonofilaments into keratin. A membrane enclosed lamellar granules

keratinocytes are also present which secrete lipid rich secration. This secretion

fills the spaces between cells of the stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum and

stratum corneum. Lipid rich secretion acts as a water replent and retard loss of

body fluid and entry of foreign materials.

Stratum Spinosum

Superficial to the stratum basale is the stratum spinosum where eight to ten

layers of many sided keratinocytes fit closely together. Cells in the more

superficial portion of this layer become flattened. This provides strength and

flexibility to the skin. Langerhans and melanocytes also appeared in this

stratum.

Stratum Basale

This is the deepest layer of the epidermis composed of a single row of cuboidal

or columnar keratinocytes. Some cells in this layer are stem cells that undergo

cell division to continually produce new keratinocytes.

12 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

1.3.1.2 Dermis

The dermis lies between the epidermis and subcutaneous fat, it is responsible

for the thickness of the skin. It plays the key role in the cosmetic appearance.

The thickness of the dermis varies over different parts of the body and doubles

between the age of three and seven years and again at puberity (Leslie). With

aging, this basic layer decreases in thickness and moisture. It is composed of

the connective tissues containing collagens and elastic fibers16. The few cells

present in the dermis include fibroblast, macrophases, and some adipocytes.

Blood vessels, nerves, sweat and sebaceous glands and hair follicles are

embedded in dermal tissues. Collagen, one of the strongest and natural

proteins yields the durability and resilience characteristics of the skin. The

importance of the collagen is emphasized in the literaure regarding many of the

topical agents that claim to increase collagen synthsis such as glycolic acid,

ascorbic acid. Type I collagen comprises 80-85% of the dermal matrix and is

responsible for the tensile strength of the dermis. Elastin fibres are also found

at the periphery of the collagen bundles and endow the skin with recoil

properties. These fibres are assembled on bundles of microfibrils composed of

fibrillin which is a form of a template on which elastin is deposited. The optimum

level of sun exposure, elastin is degrade and seen as an amorphous substance

in the dermis. This resultant elastosis is a hallmark of the photoaged skin17•

It is responsible for the skin's pliability and mechanical properties and is

involved in the regulation of the body temperature. The dermis supplies the

nutrients to epidermis by means of its vascular network. It contains sense

organs for touch, pressure, pain and temperature (Meissner"s corpuscles,

I

13 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

Pacinian corpuscles, free nerve endings} as well as blood vessels, nerve fibres,

sebaceous and sweat glands and hair follicles.

Subc.riBrutous rayar

r-;::;;;;J::;;;:;;::=== B,.~al coli ! SQ""'"<>""' cell Horny t&y<or

He.lf toi\\Cie

oendrlttc: cells

Melanoq•tes

MeiSSner· a CO(I)UGCUIO!I

J-11'-J--+- l;;et>aceous (llanos

"""Q,j"'!-- Arrector pili muscle

B\O<>d """&-a\11

~~~~!~~ Sw".slglands Free nerve endongs

L)llllPha!rC channels

Nerve fibres

Figure 1 F-1: General structure of skin

Figure 1F-2: Cellular structure of skin

Blood vessels

These are tiny pipes through which blood circulates. The blood vessels supply

the skin with fresh blood, which contain nutrients and oxygen, and carry away

waste products.

14 ~ CIL\PTER 1 1

Meissner's corpuscle

These touch receptors are expecially effective in detecting light touch and soft,

fleeting movements.

Pacinian corpuscles

Pacinian corpuscles function as receptors for deep pressure and vibrations.

Free nerve endings

Free nerve endings are sensitive to pain, temperature changes and itchiness

and they forwards the information's to counterbalance the reflex activities.

Sebaceous glands

Sebaceous or oil glands are small, sacculated organs that secrete sebum. This

oily substance is a natural moisturizer, which conditions the hair and skin.

Sebaceos glands are found all over the body, but they are more numerous in

the scalp area and around the forehead, chin, cheeks and nose.

Sweat glands

These are sweat-producing structures consisting of a single tube, a coiled body

and a superficial duct. They are involved in thermoregulation as they cool the

skin by sweating.

Hair follicles

Hair follicles are downward growth into the dermis of epidermal tissue and

produce hair. They are found all over the body except on the palms of the

hands and soles of the feet as well as on the lips. When the body gets cold, the

hair stands upright with the help of the arrector pili muscle, closing up the skin's

pores and keeping the warmth in.

15 ~ CI!APTER 1 1

Arrector pili muscle

This small muscle is attached to the base of the follicle. When it is stimulated by

cold or fright, it pulls the hair follicle up, causing it to stand upright.

Glands

Several kinds of exocrine glands are associated with the skin e.g. sebaceous

(oil) gland, sudoriferous (sweat) gland and ceruminous glands. Sebaceous

glands are especially abundant in the scalp and face, and on the face they are

more abundant on the nose, cheeks, forehead and chin than other areas.

These glands are small, sacculated, glandular organs, lodged in the substance

of the dermis. Each gland has a single duct, which typically opens into a hair

follicle, but also along the free margin of the lips. On the nose and face the

glands are of large size and often become much enlarged from the

accumulation of pent-up secretion 18•19

.

Sebum is produced in the sebaceous glands and secreted through the

sebaceous ducts into the hair follicles, from which it ascends to the skin

surface. The flows of sebum carry dead skin cells with it that flake off from the

inside of the duct or follicle. The composition of sebum is given in table 1T-1.

Table1T-1: Composition of sebum

Composition Percentage

Ceramides 13

Fatty acids 47

Cholestrol 7

Cholestrol esters 2

Squalene 11

Tnglycerides 3

Waw. esters 17

16 ~ CIL\I"TER 1 1

Sebum protects the skin by reducing the evaporation of water from the skin

(dehydration) and blocking the penetration of excess water into the skin.

Cholesterol, ceramides and triglycerides in sebum also aid in the healing of the

skin tissue and prevent foreign organisms from infecting the skin18.

Environmental conditions, such as a cold, dry, wind and topical chemicals can

reduce sebum's protectiveness20•

Typically, sebaceous glands are more active in young condition. The lipid film

present on the surface of the skin is composed of both sebum and the lipids of

the epidermal cells. The composition of the epidermal lipids is briefed in Table

1T -2. Pores are the openings in the epidermis for the hair follicles. Pore size is

related to sebaceous gland size. Pores enlarge to accommodate greater oil

flow. Often acne clears up because the pores enlarge enough so that the

sebum no longer gets stuck there.

Table1T -2: Composition of epidermal lipids

Composition Percentage

Triglycertdes 47.8

Free fatty acids 3.0

Phospholipids 9.7

Waxes 4.0

Squalene 3.0

Hydrocarbons 10.0

Free cholestrol 7.4

Fasting acting sterols 0.4

Cholesteryl esters 3.0

Unidentified 11.7

17 ~ CIIAYI'ER 1 1

1.3.1.3 Subcutaneous layer

The subcutaneous layer below the dermis consists of loose connective tissue

and much fat. It acts as a protective cushion and helps to insulate the body by

monitoring gain and loss of heat. Not all authors consider this layer a part of the

skin, but it definitely has a strong impact on the way the skin looks.

1.3.2 Composition

The most characteristics features of stratum corneum lipid composition are its

heterogeneity, dominant presence of saturated chemical species, extensive

amounts of cholesterol and complexity in ceramides chemistry. Ceramides

constitute 47%, cholesterol 24%, fatty acids 11% and cholesterol esters 18%

21• Cholestrol has an important role to play in the lipid mixtures, as it can

increases the chain mobility of lipids in the gel state and decrease their mobility

in the liquid crystalline state, a property likely to be important for barrier function

during processing of glucosylceramides to ceramides in the lower and upper

regions of the stratum corneum22• Cholestrol sulphate is another intercellular

lipid that is believed to be hydrolysing in the surface layers of the stratum

corneum 23. These types of compositional changes could therefore dramatically

influence the conditions of the skin. The lipid packing states might not only

influence the barrier properties of the skin but also its desquamation22•

1.3.2.1 Sweat glands

There are three to four million sweat bearing glands. The cells of sweat glands

release their secretion by exocytosis and empty them into hair follicles or onto

the skin surface through pores. They are divided in to two main types, ecrine

and apocrine, based on their structure, location, and type of secretions~. The

18 ~ CHAPTERt]

gland consists of a single tube, the lower part of which is coiled into a ball, and

the upper part, or duct, which traverses the dermis and cuticle and opens onto

the surface of the skin. Their primary function is to regulate body temperature,

but they also eliminate toxic substances and waste products. The clear

perspiration they continually secrete is mostly water with traces of salt,

carbohydrates, protein and oil; it cools the body as it evaporates. Eccrine sweat

usually does not have an odor problem. Apocrine sweat glands are

concentrated in the underarm area, around the nipples, and in the genital area.

They are stimulated by the same hormones that cause hair growth in the

underarms and genital area. They secrete milky fluid which is rich in organic

material. This subjected to bacterial decay and is the primary cause of body

odor24.

Compositions of sweat

Sweat mainly consists of secretions of the ecrine glands. It is the most dilute of

all animals' fluids. The human sweat has specific gravity of about 1.001-1.006,

pH 3.8-6.5 and the average compositions is as given in Table 1T- 3. The only

conspicious constituents is NaCI, which varies between 0.2- 0.5 percent.

19 ~ CIL\PTER 1 1

1.3-2.2 Tissues

Table 1T -3: Composition of sweat

Content

Water

Solids

Ash

Creatinme

Urea

Lactic acid

Carbolic acid

Sugar as glucose

Uric acid

Ascorbic acid

Total nitrogen

Non protein nitrogen

Amino acid

Ammonia

Urea

Calcium

Iodine

Iron

Chloride,Sodium,Potassium, Sulphur, Copper

Total amino acids

. g or mg. per 100m!. .

99.22-99.74 g

1.174-1.1589

0.14- 0.56g

0.1 -1.3mg

12-57mg

285-336 mg

2-8 mg

1-3 mg

0.07- 0.25mg

0.07-0.1 mg

33.2 mg

27-64mg

1.1 -10.2mg

5-9mg

5-36 mg

1-8 mg

0.0005 - 0.001 mg

0.022-0.045 mg

0.7-36 mg

43.62 mg

In the skin, connective tissue is chiefly composed of collagen and elastin.

Collagen, elastin and reticulin are dermal proteins; they are composed of

protein fibers. These fibers are, at the macromolecular level, composed of fine

cross-striated fibrils of mucopolysaccharides linked with protein. Collagen,

elastin, and reticulin are composed of the 20 amino acids in differing

proportions. Collagen alone comprises 33% of the total body protein and 70%

of connective tissue. In the denmis it provides elasticity and strength.

20 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

Smooth, elastic skin contains mainly non-crosslinked, flexible, "soluble"

collagen. Lined, wrinkled, inelastic skin is caused by crosslinked, insoluble

collagen. Collagen is called soluble when it can absorb large quantities of

water, which allows it to remain elastic. Cross linking occurs when the sulfur­

containing amino acids in protein oxidize and form a disulfide bond. Cross

linking also affects all the other components of connective tissue.

There is a close association between the skin and the nervous system;

nervousness or anxiety can be reflected in the skin, especially as acne,

psoriasis, and eczema.

1.3.3 Properties of skin

Skin has varity of properties that directly and indirectly influences the

appearance of the skin. Color, pH, firmness, emmolliency, elasticity are the

dominating properties of skin which are influenced by aging of skin either

intrinsic or extrinsic25•

1.3.3.1 Color

The skin color is not solely depends on the pigments, it is associated with other

components and factors i.e. blood flow, micro and macro nutrients availability,

oxygen availability, thickned skin, eleidin etc. The pigments are more especially

distinct in the cells of the stratum basale (lowest level). As cells approach the

surface and desiccate, the color becomes partially lost. The pigment (melanin)

consists of dark brown or black granules of very small size, closely packed

together within the cells, but not involving the nucleus 26• The color of skin is

determined by a number of factors27•

• The amount of melanin pigments in the epidermis.

21 ~ CHAPTER1 1

• The amount of carotene in the epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous

tissues.

• The proportion of reflected and scattered light.

• The amount of blood in the dermal and subcutaneous blood vessels.

In the normal skin the brown lelanin granules are contained predominantly in a

supranuclear cap in the bassel cell (previously discussed) and to a lesser

extent in other epidermal cells. The blood vessels contributes role in skin color

reflexation due to the superficial venous plexux, which runs parallel to the skin

surface. The shade of skin also depends on the reddish or bluish appearance

produced by oxidized or reduced hemoglobin in varying ratios in the skin

vessels28. The varying ratio of oxidized and reduced form depends in turn on

the rate of blood flow through the skin. A bluish tint of skin indicates the lack of

oxygen or shortage of cell respiration, mostly seen with aged cells. At more

rapid flow rate, more of the oxidized hemoglobin from the arteries, which

reaches to the augmentory system, thus appearance of skin is reflect reddish29•

1.3.3.2 Acid mental

The acidity of skin seems to play a role in the defence against microorganisms

either bacteria or fungai. The acid mental of the skin depends on pH values,

which shows that the general body surface of the adult has a pH of 3.0-5.0. The

alkaline area of body becomes more sensitive to infections and microbial attack

like streptococci. The reconstitution of the acid pH after exposure to alkaline

materials (soap materials) forms an important defence against cheminals or

adverse pH to skin buffer. The skin physiology provides the natural buffer

system to the skin, which maintained the skin pH in adverse conditions30•

22 ~ CI!API"ER 1 1

A temporary treatement of the skin with alkaline formula results in only slight

shift of the pH values. The moment alkaline formula is removed from skin the

normal pH of skin re-established. The overall mainmtainance (re-establishment

of pH) of skin buffer is found as acid mental of skin. The pH values represent

the presence of water-soluble components on the skin surface. Prolonged

immersion of the skin in water results in the extraction of water soluble

substances from the surface and from the loosely packed harney layer, so at

this condition the the buffering capacity of the skin became greately reduced31•

1.3.3.3 Breathing

The disposal of carbon dioxide also occurs mostly through the blood and only to

a small degree into the surrounding atmoshphere. The direct breathing of skin

is restricted, even though certain amount of respiratory oxygen taken directly

from the atmosphere28•

1.3.3.4 Hydroregulatory balance

The skin has very limited water permeability. The barrier that controls the

escape of moisture from and penetration in to body does not lie immediately on

the skin surface, but below the corneal layer (Rein's barrier). When the corneal

layer dries out, it becomes brittle and will not regain its elasticity through only

fatty sunstance but only through the supply of water.

1.3.3.5 Emmolliency

Prevention of drying of skin is called emolliency or moisturizing skin.

Moisturizers are expected to increase skin hydration and via modifying the

physical and chemical nature of the skin surface provides the smoothness,

softness and flexibility or pliability of the skin 32.33

•

23 ~ CUAPTERl 1

1.3.3.6 Luster

The surface character (luster) of the skin also plays important role in skin

properties. This depends on site-to-site and avilabilty of the gland secretory

material and hairs availability, e.g. fore head, nose tends most shine as

compared to upper and lower limbs.

1.3.3. 7 Texture

Skin morphological characterics can be sense be sensory and tectile means,

texure may be smooth and rough. Healthy and nutritional skin texture is always

smooth with good emmoliency.

1.3.3.8 Firmness and Extensibility

Addition changes in skin behavior resulting from the aging process are losses

of firmness and elasticity. Looseness in skin firmness is usually accompanied

by loss of skin elasticity. Firmness is the skin ability to resist deformation and

elasticity is the rate at which a specific deformation is resolved34"35

•

1.3.3.9 Wrinkles and Folds

The loss of the elasticity into the skin's upper layer (corneum) appears the

wrinkles and folds primarily. The constantly forming of folds leave traces on the

skin and finally develop in to deep lines and wrinkles. The fine lines do not

present a cosmetic problem, but the skin pores are another matter, when these

porese swell or distend and becomes visible to naked eyes33• The skin not just

only gives us our appearance and shape, it also serves other important

functions as:

24 ~ CJIAPTER 1 1

Protection

Stratum corneum, which is the outermost layer, is horny and formed by the

keratinized stratified epithelial cells, resists the action of external agencies.

Skin is a shield that protects from:

• Mechanical impact such as pressure and stroke.

• Thermic impact such as heat or cold.

• Environmental impact such as chemicals, UV-radiation and bacteria.

Regulation of body temperature

The skin regulates body temperature and the production of sweat, which

evaporates on the skin surface, will cool down the temperature. The cutaneous

vasoconstriction diverts the blood to the interior of the body and so diminishes

heat loss. This is an important mechanism of protection against cold

environment. Vasodilatation in the skin also helps in elimination of heat from the

body and regulates the body temperature36•

Sensation

Besides the senses of smell, taste, sight and hearing the sense of touch is one

most important sense of body. The skin serves as the medium for receiving the

general sensation. Touch, pain, temperature etc., are sub served by the

respective nerve ending present in the skin. The hair roots are richly supplied

with nerves. Various cells and nerve endings in the skin, which send impulses

to our central nervous system, and made it sense possible.

Synthetic function

Vitamin D is synthesized by ultra-violet rays of the sun acting upon the

ergosterol present in the skin and subcutaneous tissue.

25 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

I

Absorption

Lipids are easily permeable through the skin. Lipid soluble substances like

vitamins are easily absorbed through the skin but hydrophilic substances are

absorbed at some limit. Waxy layer hinders water absorption through the skin.

But the skin is not completely waterproof and on prolonged exposure to water,

there is water absorption causing swelling of the stratum corneum.

The skin absorbs different nutrients and other micromolecules out of them

certain substances penetrate the epidermal and dermal layers and are

subsequently absorbed into the systemic circulation: their path is through the

hair follicles and the sebaceous glands. These substances provide the nutrition

to the skin and maintained the normal physiology against the different kind of

environmental hazards. Other substances seem to penetrate the interstitial

spaces (the gaps between the cells of the skin). Some substances are effective

carrying agents, which, when combined with other cosmetic ingredients, enable

the latter to better penetrate the skin's surface and helpful to maintain the

normal skin physiology 37•

All these functions of skin reflect properties of skin that helps a cosmetic

scientist to formulate and evaluate a cosmetic product.

1.3.4 Types of Skin

Different geographical-racial groups of people can have different skin

characteristics. These characteristics based on the variations in physiology of

skin and alterations in the structural components of the skin. These variations

are affected by the climatic conditions. For instance, the Mongols have thick

26 ~ CHAPTER I 1

skin with fewer pores, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands, and the nerve

endings are farther from the surface than the skin of caucasians.

1.3.4.1 General Classifications

The skin can be classified in different ways accordingly to the susceptibility of

individual to environmental conditions. In broad skin could be considered as

normal and abnormal.

The skin often describes as oily, normal, dry, combination, sensitive, acne-

prone, and mature, but what it really is balanced (normal), unbalanced (oily,

dry, combination, acne), and damaged (wrinkled, lined, etc.).

Normal skin is usually defined as skin that is neither oily nor dry. It produces

enough oil to prevent dehydration but not enough to thickly coat the skin. It is

the optimal condition for skin.

1.3.4.2 Physiologically based classification

Normal skin

Normal skin has an even tone, soft, a smooth texture, no visible pores or

blemishes, and no greasy patches or flaky areas. This type of skin has a clear,

fine-textured, supple and smooth surface, which is neither greasy nor dry. It

glows with an inner health, which stems from good blood circulation and

excellent health. There may be occasional pimples in women just before

menstruation due to increased hormonal activity, which makes the sebaceous

glands overactive. Acne is, however, not a problem for people with normal

27 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

Oily skin

Oily skin is shiny, thick and dull colored. Often a chronically oily skin has coarse

pores and pimples and other embarrassing blemishes. It is prone to

blackheads. In this type of skin, the oil producing sebaceous glands are

overactive and produce more oil than is needed. The oil oozes and gives the

skin a greasy shine. The pores are enlarged and the skin has a coarse look.

Dry skin

Dry skin has a low level of sebum and can be prone to sensitivity. The skin has

a parched look caused by its inability to retain moisture. It usually feels "tight"

and uncomfortable after washing unless some type of moisturizer or skin cream

is applied. Chapping and cracking are signs of extremely dry or dehydrated

skin39• Dryness is exacerbated by wind, extremes of temperature and air­

conditioning, all of which cause the skin to flake, chap and feel tight. This type

of skin is tightly drawn over bones. It looks dull, especially on the cheeks and

around the eyes. There may be tiny expression lines on these spots and at the

corners of the mouth.

Sensitive skin

A sensitive skin is a thin or a fine-textured skin. It reacts quickly to both heat

and cold; therefore, it sunburns and windburns easily. It is commonly dry,

delicate and prone to allergic reactions. Temperature changes, some

detergents, cosmetics and alcohol (used on the skin) can all cause irritation,

leaving the skin red and blotchy, with visible surface veins40•

28 ~ CIW'TERl,

Combination skin

Combination skin is a combination of both oily and dry skin. There is a greasy

center panel consisting of nose, forehead and chin and a dry panel consisting

of cheeks, mouth and the areas around the eyes. This type of skin is very

common, and it should be treated as if it were two different types of skin.

Acne-prone skin

Acne-prone skin is prone to one or more of the forms of acne. Acne-prone skin

usually has at least one "spot", although it can experience brief intervals of no

spots. It is usually also oily skin. Acne often begins when a person enters

puberty; it is thought to be a response to the hormones that are activated at that

time. It can extend into the late 40s and even beyond41•

1.3.4.3 Photosensitive classification

The photosensitive skin is classified into six categories e.g., always burn, easily

burn, some time burn and moderately burn etc. The sensitivity to sun light (UV

rays) and required sun protection factor (SPF) and detailed in table 1T-4.

Table 1T -4: Characteristics of photosensitive skin

Type Characteristics Examples Suggested SPF

A'mays burn easily, never tans Blue eyes, red hairs 15

II Bum easily, tan slightly Faired skinned 12-15

Ill Some time bum. tan gradually Most Caucasians (Pale color

8-10 skinned)

IV Bum minimally, Always tanned Asians and Hispanics (Spanish) 6-8

v Bum rarely, Tan deeply Indians 6-8

VI Almost never bum, deeply pigmented Blacks 6-8

29 ~ CIIAP'fER 1 1

1.3.5 Ageing of Skin

Aging of skin is commonly associated with increased wrinkling, sagging and

increased laxity. There are two main process of skin aging: intrinsic and

extrinsic. Intrinsic aging reflects the genetic background of an individual and

results from the passes of time. It is inevitable; thus, it is beyond voluntary

control. Extrinsic aging is caused by external factors such as smoking,

excessive use of alcohol, poor nutrition and sun exposure. This process then is

not predictable and, by, definition refers to pre mature skin aging42-4

3• However,

the vast majority of the skin's age related cosmetic problems are thought to be

as a result of cumulative exposure to sunlight.

In ageing, the skin becomes fewer firms, dry and more wrinkled, because of the

decrease level in the amount of mucopolysaccharides, collagens and elastin.

As well as the level of enzymes like sodium dismutase (SOD), catalase, and

vitamins like ascorbic acid and alpha tocopherol becomes declined. The

mitrochondrial theory of aging (MTA) was first proposed in 1972 by Denham

Harman, which supported the normal aging process. '

1.3.5.1 Natural and Intrinsic ageing

The process of intrinsic skin ageing is similar to that occurring in the most

internal organs, involving slow deterioration in tissue function. The stratum

corneum remains relatively unchanged, but the epidermis and dermis thins with

a flattening of the derma-epidermal junctions44• In natural process of skin

ageing, some changes occur abruptly in the physiology of sebaceous gland.

Glands became less active solely as a result of the lower level of circulating

30 ~ CHAPTER I J

androgens, or male sex hormones. Sweat glands become less active with age,

and the number of active eccrine glands is reduced.

Intrinsic ageing, also known as the natural aging process, is a continuous

process that normally begins in mid-20Yrs, the skin collagen production

became slows, and elastin, the substance that enables skin to snap back into

place, which has a bit less spring. Dead skin cells do not shed as quickly and

turnover of new skin cells may decrease slightly. While these changes usually

begin in twenty year, the signs of intrinsic ageing are typically not visible for

decades. The signs of intrinsic ageing are:

• Fine wrinkles

• Thin and transparent skin

• Loss of underlying fat, leading to hollowed cheeks and eye sockets as

well as noticeable loss of firmness on the hands and neck

• Bones shrink away from the skin due to bone loss, which causes sagging

skin

• Dry skin that may itch

• Inability to sweat sufficiently to cool the skin

• Graying hair that eventually turns white

• Hair loss

• Unwanted hair

1.3.5.2 Exagrated or Extrinsic ageing

A number of external factors act together with the normal aging process to

prematurely age our skin. Cigarette smoke; some topical chemicals like mineral

oil and coal tar dyes (common in makeup); allowing dead skin cells to pile up on

31 ~ CHAPTER I J

the skin; diet (caffeine beverages, alcohol, sweets, excessive red meat);

genetics heredity45. Premature aging is mostly caused by sun exposure over

the years, results in trickles, age - spots, spider veins on the face, rough and

leathery skin fine wrinkles that disappear when stretched, loose skin, a blotchy

and blemished complexion, actinic keratosis and skin cancers. Premature aging

of the human skin is result of a number of extrinsic, or external, factors often act

together with the normal aging process. Other external factors that prematurely

age our skin are repetitive facial expressions, gravity, sleeping positions, and

smoking.

• Sunburn and immune suppression occurs acutely in response to excessive

exposure to the sun, where as skin cancer and photoaging results from

accumulated damage caused by repeated exposure46•

• Skin cancer is the most prevalent form of cancer in humans typically occurs

in skin that is photoaged. Photoaged skin is characterized by wrinkles,

toxicity, uneven pigmentation, brown spots and leathery appearance, and

chronologically aged skin that have been protected from the sun47.

Photo aging

Mild sunburn is a first-degree radiation bum, which produces reddening of the

skin with accompanying pain. Generally, as the skin heals, redness may persist

and the outer layers of the epidermis will peel within a week with accompanying

itching. Prolonged exposure can result in a second-degree burn, which is

characterized by blistering of the skin and more severe pain48•

Ultraviolet rays are broadly divided into three sections according to their

wavelengths. Ultraviolet light is artificially divided into three ranges47•

32 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

UVA- Radiation in the 320-400 nm range.

UVB - Radiation in the 290-320 nm range.

UVC- Radiation in the 100-290 nm range.

UVC is totally blocked by the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere of the earth.

The ozone layer blocks some of the UVB and the entire UVA pass through the

ozone layer. Generally, UVB has been blamed for sunburn, but some studies

indicate that UVA may also cause skin damage.

The abundant literature was found, which describes the harmful effects of UV

radiations on the skin. The excessive exposure induces the extensive

generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and its reaction to DNA, proteins,

fatty acids and saccharides causing oxidative damage. Study suggests that

such injuries result in a number of harmful effects: disturbed cell metabolism,

morphological and ultrastructural changes, attack on the regulation pathways

and, alterations in the differentiation, proliferation and apoptosis of skin cells49•

50

A) Effects of UVB radiations

Solar UV radiation is the most important environmental factor involved in

the pathogenesis of skin cancers. These rays only have the strength to

penetrate the epidermis. The epidermis is the very top layer of the body

and the same thickness as a silk scarf. Melanocyte cells synthesize

tyrosinase and the pigment melanin that is transferred to the

keratinocytes or skin cells for color. UVB rays simulate the melanocyte

cell to produce more melanin, which is more color known as a suntan or

age spot5'. UVB radiations are the primary cause of sunburn because

33 ~ CHAPTER 1 J

of its shorter wavelength and Its effects on the outer skin layers. UVB

appear to damage skin cells by directly bombarding the genetic

materials, the DNA inside the skin cells. The well-known genotoxic

properties of UVB radiation (290-320 nm) mostly involve bipyrimidine

DNA photoproducts on UVB irradiation52. The bipyrimidine

photoproducts are generated in the DNA of human skin upon UVB

irradiation. The formation of photoproducts was found linear with respect

to the applied UVB dose (0-0.2 J/cm2)

53• The chronic effects of UV-B

radiation were found to be induced the biochemical changes in the skin

of mice with insufficient collagen fibers to support the increasing mass of

the tissue54.

B) Effects of UVA radiations

An UVA effect is initially seen through the epidermis then disperses in

the dermis. The dermis is dominantly affected by UV A radiations, and

slow down the normal renewing process itself in the middle age. Skin

after this age is considered "mature skin" and damages incurred are not

repairable.

UVA radiation is composed of longer wavelengths. These penetrate

more deeply and efficiently into the inner skin layers and are responsible

for tanning and allergic reactions to sunlight.

UVA radiation provokes the generation of reactive oxygen species

(ROS), which induce oxidative stress in the exposed cells leading to

extensive cellular damage and cell death either by apoptosis or

necrosis55.

34 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

Occurrence of skin cancers, which mostly arise from exposure to solar

UV radiation, has constantly increased in the recent years due to

changes in life habits. Harmful effects of UV radiation are mostly

associated with both direct and indirect photoinduced damage to DNA 53

(Cadet et al. 2005) that can lead to the induction of mutations. The

chemical nature and the formation efficiency of the DNA lesions greatly

depend on the wavelength of the incident photons. UVB radiation (290-

320 nm), the most energetic mutagenic and carcinogenic component of

solar radiation, is directly absorbed by DNA, giving rise to dimeric

photoproducts between adjacent pyrimidine bases. Two types of these

bulky modifications are produced, namely cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers

(CPDs) and pyrimidine (6-4 hydroxyl linkage) pyrimidone

photoproducts56. Evidence for the involvement of these lesions in

photocarcinogenesis is provided by the high proportion of p53 mutations

(TC to TT or CC to TT transitions) detected at bipyrimidine sites in skin

tumors52.57.ss.

UVA radiation of the range 32D-400 nm is mutagenic in cultured cells59

and induces skin tumors in mice. In addition, UVA has been shown to

be involved in immunosuppression60 and is suspected to play a major

role in the induction of melanoma54•

61, the most severe type of skin

cancers. Consequently, the carcinogenic properties of UVA have

become a matter of concern.

I

35 ~ CHAPTER 1 ,

Histopathological alterations

The immediate after exposure to a large influence of UV radiation, significantly

decreased the enzymic and non enzymic antioxidant capacity of the skin62• So

many studies showed the histologically alterations in collagen due to different

intensity of different wave length on skin exposure which become appeared as

wrinkling of skin63. The high UVA exposure produced greater skin atrophy and

fine wrinkles than the 1 MED solar stimulated UV treatment. These finding

revealed that damage to the dermal components is responsible for the clinical

manifestation of sagging and wrinkles64.

The effects of repetitive UV-A and UV-B irradiation on human showed marked "

pigmentation and thickening of the epidermis and inflammation, elastosis in the

The biochemical mechanisms responsible for the connective tissue changes

are seen in actinically sun damaged skin. Diminution and ultrastructural

alterations of collagen fibrils and deposition of elastotic material in the papillary

dermis characterize the actinic skin histologically. Such study suggests that

direct stimulation of collagenase synthesis by human skin fibroblasts by UVA

radiation may contribute to the connective tissue damage induced by ultraviolet

radiation leading to photoaging65•

The acute effects of a single exposure to near (UVA) above >320 nm on

various skin antioxidants were examined in hairless mice immediately after

irradiation. Impairment of cutaneous catalase and glutathione reductase activity

was observed. Superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase were not

significantly influenced, but found that inhibition of catalase may render skin

36 ~ CJlAI"fER 1 1

more susceptible to the damaging effects of hydrogen peroxide and its

reactions product such as the hydroxyl radical62. There was tangential (non

significant) decrease in cutaneous tocopherol ascorbic acid level, indicates

direct photo-oxidative stress.

The main damaging effects of UVA appear to be the promotions of the release

of oxidants (oxygen free radicals). These unstable particles are the results of

many chemical processes in the body66• Figure 1F-3 showed molecular

damaging mechanism of sunlight and natural healing pathway.

Ageing Mechanism

Skin tissues composed of proteins and are therefore major target for photo

oxidation with in cell. The direct photo oxidation arises from the absorption of

W radiation by the proteins. There by generating excited state species (sing let

or triplet) or radicals (as a result of photo ionization). The indirect photo

oxidation of proteins arises from the formation and subsequent reactions of

singlet oxygen generated by the transfer of energy to ground state (triplet)

molecular oxygen by either protein bound or chromophores.

Small amount of ultraviolet radiations trigger the negative effects on the skin

and damages the collagen fibers, which are the major structural proteins in the

skin and causes accumulation of abnormal elastic (this is the protein that

causes tissues to stretch). This accumulation leads to production of large

amounts of enzymes called metalloproteinases67•

These metaloproteinases degrades the collagen in extracellular matrix of the

dermis. Normal functions of these enzymes are generally positive to remodel

the sun-injured tissues by manufacturing and reforming collagen process.

37 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

The reforming collagen process causes an uneven formation (skin matrix) of

disorganized collagen fibers called solar scars and than this process recycled69•

The sign of skin aging reflects the condition of the skin matrix disarrangement.

The weaker and less regular the matrix, the more wrinkles, rung fries and sag

occur in skin.

The reactive oxygen species (ROS) can react with cellular components like cell

walls, lipid membranes, mitochondria and DNA, leading to skin damage and

increasing the visible signs of aging. Direct oxidation of amino acid, peptides

and proteins by ultraviolet light is only a significant process, if the structural

protein absorbs the incident light69•

In the whole process of skin ageing, the enzymes, which are critical moieties to

protect the skin from oxidation or oxidative stress the level of these enzymes

like sodium dismutase (SOD), catalase, glutathione, peroxidase etc. become

less 70. Therefore as people get older, they age faster and the body's ability to

protect itself is reduced. As the persons ages help can be given to supplement

natural defense systems by helping to protect the skin from the ravages of time

and environmental attack by formulating cosmetics containing safe protective

supplements.

Damage of skin cells results from photochemical reactions leads to the

stimulation of inflammatory pathways. UVB irradiations are considered the

major cause of typical sun bum, which starts to develop within a few hours.

So many studies suggest that such extrinsic damages results in a number of

harmful effects: disturbed cell metabolism, morphological and ultrastructural

changes, attack on the regulation pathways and, alterations in the

38 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

differentiation, proliferation and apoptosis of skin cells. The extensive

generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and its reaction to DNA, proteins,

fatty acids and saccharides is one of the causes of oxidative damage. These

damages can be minimized using naturally occurring herbal ingredients such as

phenolic acids, flavonoids, and high molecular weight polyphenols, which could

be use to gained considerable attention as beneficial protective agents in skin

formulations70.

The acute effects of near UV and visible light on the cutaneous antioxidant

defense system were examined. After single exposure to near (UV-A) above

>320 nm on various skin antioxidants studied in hairless mice immediately after

irradiation. Impairment of cutaneous catalase and glutathione reductase activity

was observed. Superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase were not

significantly influenced, but found that inhibition of catalase may render skin

more susceptible to the damaging effects of hydrogen peroxide and its

reactions product such as the hydroxyl radical. There was tangential (non

significant) decrease in cutaneous tocopherol ascorbic acid level, indicates

direct photo-oxidative stress62•

There is increasing evidence that the incidence of the three main types of skin

cancers (Basal cell carcinoma, Gnamons cell carcinoma and malignant

melanoma) is linked to sun exposure, individual sun sensitivity and to some

extent to the history of sunburn.

1.4 Hair and cosmetics

Ebling and Johnson have shown how each hair follicle originates from an

interaction between epidermal and dermal layers of the skin. The hair follicle is

39 ~ CIL\PTER 1 1

a sheath of epidermal cells and connective tissue that encloses the root of the

Specific cells from the superficial dermis increase in number and grow forward

to form a "peg or hook". Beneath this are specialized fibroblasts which will

become the dermal papilla. Epidermal cells adjacent to the dermal papilla

multiply and push a column of keratinizing cells towards the scalp surface, and

these keratinizing cells become the hair shaft. The hair peg migrates

downwards to form the follicle with swellings appearing as the column

elongates. These are the sites of the erector pili muscles and sebaceous

glands. The hair follicle has one of the highest rates of cell division in the

human body and makes considerable demands on energy to sustain such

growth.

1.4.1 Structure

It is the nature of the hair shaft which is of primary interest. The outermost

structure is the cuticle which surrounds the cortex. It is composed of flat cells

which overlap in a roof tile formation with an intercellular cement to bind them

together. Each cell has an outer membrane and contained within the membrane

are three distinct layers, the A layer, the exocuticle and the endocuticle.

The hair is formed by the shaft and the piliferos bulb, the visible part of the hair

is the shaft has the diameter ranging between from 40-120 microns; it is made-

up of dead cells and completely keratinized. Three concentric layers form a

cross sectional section of hair:

• The cuticle (External part)

• Marrow (Core part)

40 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

• The Cortex (Actual structure)

The cuticle is the outermost layer made-up of flattend cells that overlap in the

forms of tiles and are 45 micron long with thickness 0.5-1.0 microns. The

medulla is the core of the hair and it is made-up of overlapping cells with a low

cellular density. It has a relative importance in comparision to two other parts of

the hairs, as it contributes in little way to its chemical and physical behaviors.

The medulla forms only a small proportion of the total fibre mass and

contributes very little to the mechanical and chemical properties of the hair. It

comprises a series of vacuoles or air spaces formed due to dehydration of the

loosely packed cells during the keratinization process.

The cortex comprises the majority of the fiber mass, consisting of elongated

keratinized cells bounds together with intercellular material. The cortex is

formed by the cells, which are 1-6 micron thick and 1 DO micron in length. The

cortex made-up for about 90% of total weight of hair fiber. The fiber is formed

by long twisted proteins chain, which gave its elasticity; the color pigments re

tucked among these proteins strands and protected against external agents like

sunlight, dust, humidity.

Melanins (natural color pigments) occur within the cortex. These are derived

from an aminoacid, tyrosine and are of two types, eumelanin and pheomelanin.

These pigments are formed by melanocytes situated in the pigmented part of

the hiar bulb and the outer sheath of the hair follicle. The eumelanin gives

brown to black coloration and the pheomelanin gives an auburn tone.

An outer hair cell is a self-supporting cylinder that is attached to adjacent

epithelial cells only at the extreme base and apex72"74

• Cell shape is maintained

41 ~ CHAPTER 1 ,

I

by cortical structures, particularly by the cortical lattice, a two dimensional

cytoskeleton that lies beneath the lateral plasma membrane. One interpretation

of the structure of this lattice is that it is an anisotropic network composed of

long, circumferential filaments, 6-7 nm thick, which are cross-linked by filaments

3-4 nm thick and 40-50 nm long75-77

. Neither of these filaments has been

identified although immunofluorescence labeling suggests that they may be

composed of actin and spectrin76• Another interpretation is that the cortical

lattice is based primarily upon the thin filaments linked together by short

fragments of aclin78, thus resembling the spectrin skeleton in erythrocytes79

-80

•

The cortex of outer hair cells is further specialised by a system of concentric

endoplasmic membranes that lies immediately beneath the cytoskeletal

lattice81•

1.4.2 Chemistry of hair

Hair fibres are composed of approximately 85% of the complex protein keratin,

with some 7% of associated water. The other principal constituents are lipids

3%, and pigment 2%. The pigments are melanin, dervived in biosynthesis from

the aminoacid tyrosine. The most important material is keratin which has been

formed biochemically from the condensation of some 18 types of amino acids.

Chemically it is composed of hains:

Carbon (50%), Oxygen (25%), (Hydrogen6.5%), (Nitrogen 7.0%) and Sulphur

(4.5%). Trace amounts of many metals such as aluminium (AI), chromium (Cr),

calcium (Ca), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), magnesium (Mg) and

zinc. Phosphorous compounds are also abundant (80mg/100gm hair), mainly

derived from degraded nuclei of the cortex cells.

42 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

I

1.4.3 Hair growth biology

Hair grows from primary follicles. Actively growing hair follicles penetrate the

entire epidermis and dermis. There are approximately 5 million total body body

hair follicles, of which 100,000 to 150,000 are scalp follicles. In adults, 90% of

the hair follicles are in the growing (anagen) stage and the remainder is in the

resting stage (telogen) stage. Follicular density decreases with age (1135/cm2

at birth to 485/cm2 at age of 30 years and till 80 years decreases to 435/ cm2).

Scalp hair grows at a rate of 0.37 to 0.44 mm/day and normal scalp hair loss or

sheding in adults ranges from 50 to 100 hairs per day82•

The growth of hair in human is controlled by complicated mechanisms that can

differ among various body locations. Morphologically, there are three types of

hair; vellus, terminal, and intermediate. Vellus hair are short, fine (<0.3mm in

diameter), soft and usually nonpigmented and unmedullated.

Terminal hairs are large (>0.3mm in diameter), dark pigmented and medullated.

Ninety percent of the hairs on the chest, trunk, shoulders, legs and arms of men

are terminal hairs, whereas only 45 percent of hairs in the same regions on

women's are terminal83. Intermediate hairs occur on the scalp and they

demonstrate morphology between those of terminal and vellus hairs.

Intermediate hairs are medullated and contain a moderate amount of pigment

i.e. less than that found in terminal hairs84•

1.4.4 Hair disorders

Alopecia

Androgenetic alopecia is the most common type of hair loss in human. Its

prevalence in any population has been accurately studied, but it occurs much

43 ij CJ lAPTER 1 1

more often in Caucasians than other races85• Androgenetic alopecia affects

approximately 50 o/o of men over 40 years of age and may also affect just as

many women86•

Stretching strength

The environmental factors like temperature, humidity and major are the sun

light, which decreases the strength of hairs and hair becomes loose and

dwelling. The Sunlight produces the deleterious effects on hairs also. The photo

oxidation of hair elements, such as melanin and cuticle proteins, occurred.

In the hair fiber, the lipids and protein bound in the epicuticle, belying that this is

indeed a filament of cellular origins, not a man made fiber. The keratin of hair

gives rise to its final physical form and structure properties87. This primary

component consists of a hard, keratinized protein, with a high level of sulfydryl

amino acid and virtually none of the marker aminoacid, hydroxyl praline, found

in fibrillar connective tissue, such as collagen.

The layer of the cuticle, the cystine content can be as high as 35%. Other UV

absorbing aminoacids present in the hair includes the aromatics, tyrosine and

to a lesser extent tryptophan88. All three of these protein monomers in the pure

state and insitu are photo labile and give rise to active oxygen species, chain

reaction propagating free radicals, such as singlet oxygen, when hairs exposed

in sun light89-90

•

Loss of hair properties

Hair is the recipient of a constant series of environmental assaults termed as

weathering. Such potentially damaging influences as rain, air pollutants, wind,

sea water, chemicals contributes to the environmental process known to cause

44 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

structural and chemical degradation to hairs. Most damaging of all

environmental factors is ultraviolet radiations exposed from sun light. Most

damaging portion of hair is cuticle, the condition of a cuticle covering hair that

has been exposed to UV radiation and with other elements also.

The cuticle is considered to play a key role in determining the overall physical

properties in relation to keratin fibers. The cuticle dictates the frictional

properties of the hair fibers and also largely responsible for the integrity of the

interior portion of hairs, which ultimately decides the appearance of hairs.

In normal hair, cuticle cells are smooth rounded and tightly packed on to the

cortex, while long term exposure to sun light and other environmental damages,

results in breakdown of cuticle cells that coat exposed hair surface.

The scientific data shows that photochemical reaction occurs in hair after

exposure to ultraviolet radiations. Discoloration is the most obvious chemical

alteration caused by the high intense ultraviolet exposure. Other subtler

changes also occur due to environmental factors like changes in sorption

characteristics and the urea and bisulfite solubility of hair have been detected

after weatering exposure91•

Mechanism

A free radical mechanism has been proposed that may account for many of the

photochemical changes occurring in weathered hair.

UV radiations is absorbed by inert hair amino acids like cystine, tyrosine,

phenylalanine and other aminoacids as well as possibly some peptide bonds,

which results in the formation of free radicals and due to this hemolytic scission

of disulfide bonds, occur in hair. In the presence of such free radicals carriers

45 ~ CUAPTERt)

I as water present as humidity in the atmosphere, a sequence of radical transfer

reactions, involving hydroxyl radicals can take place. This causes random

displacement along the protein back bone that leads to an assortment of

degradation and ultimately tensile strength of hair became decreased91-92

.

Although pronounced tensile alteration is due to primarily to photochemical

effects on disulfide linkage, deamination or decarboxylation of amino acids,

disorientation of hydrogen bonds and the chemical alteration of the aromatic

nuclei in tyrosine and phenylalanine so contribute to a chemical reduction in

tensile strength of hair.

Protection of Hair

Such hair damages can be control and minimize by using conditioning

ingredients as well as photo protective types of substances, which can impart

role in ultraviolet radiations absorption at the surface level.

1.5 Cosmetic strategies

In modern skin care the cosmetic sunscreen formulations used widely for more

benefit than simple moisturizing and cosmetics, demands of users are good fed

factor. Formulation contains substances like antioxidants components, which

have cellular protective nature or maintain biochemistry of skin. Sun protective,

free radical scavengers, anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial substances

provides all the benefits, which are able to improve skin protection and delay

the onset of visible ageing and such benefits are confirmed by natural

materials. Many plants and their products are being used as medicine since

ancient time. Several studies are still going on the properties and mechanism of

these plants extracts in skin care.

46 ~ CJIAPTER 1 1

1.5.1 General skin care

The aging process can be delayed by using daily balanced diet in food and

properly utilization of micronutrients as a topical formulation application.

General skin care requires balance nutritional diet orally and topically.

The micronutrients like vitamins, enzymes, proteins and antioxidants are

capable of directly scavenging lipophilic and hydrophilic pro-oxidants through or

the topical delivery serve as an antioxidant.

Flavonoids, polyphenol and vitamins contribute to antioxidant defense

mechanism, may also contribute to retard endogeneous aging process.

Vitam in-C regenerates tocopherol from the tocopheroyl radical and transfer the

radical load to the aqueens compartinent where it is finally eliminated by

antioxidant enzymes93.

Now a day, peptide technology also is proving its ability against natural aging

via penetrating the skin without redness or irritation to improve the skin

morphometric parameters. The use of specific active peptides able to target

and regulate cell function, maximize collagen production by stimulating the

growth of collagen cells, results in reduction of fine lines, increasing skin

firmness and tone. Polyphenols are also found as efficient antioxidants

obtained from fruit and plant extracts94• These extracts are utilized as cosmetics

ingredients, having the effects on skin and hairs.

1.5.2 UV Care

Care from UV rays through the natural substances is undoughtily possible.

Substances containing variety of vitamins, proteins, peptides, flavonoids,

47 ~ CIW'TERl 1

pigments and sterols can plays protective role via different ways against the

skin aging.

1.5.2.1 Photoprotectants

These are the substances, which screen on or filter out the complete ultraviolet

radiations rages from 290-400 nm. Photoprotective products containing

ultraviolet radiation absorbing or scattering ingredients provides varying degree

of protection from sunlight, thus minimizing the deleterious effect on the skin.

When skin is exposed to sunlight, ultraviolet radiations is absorbed by skin

molecules that then can generate harmful compounds, called reactive oxygen

species (ROS) which are highly reactive molecules that can cause oxidative

damages. ROS can react with cellular components like cell wall; lipid

membranes, mitrocondria and DNA, leading to skin damage and increase the

visible sign of aging. UV filter contained in the sunscreen cut down the amount

of UV radiation that can penetrate the skin UV radiation.

Natural

Human skin is protected against UV radiation by melanin, an endogenous

pigment that scatters and absorbs UV light. The use of sun screening agents

for topical protection is promoted against skin aging process and skin cancer.

UV absorbing compounds and inorganic pigments like titanium dioxide, zinc

oxide are combined in many sunscreen formulations95• Thus, protection can be

mediated via absorption, reflection and light scattering or ultraviolet rays.

Natural protectants like minerals e.g. bentonite, china clay, soft stone, titanium

dioxide and oils e.g. tea tree, cinnamon, jajoba, bergamut oil and plant juices

and extracts like tulsi, cinnamoun, callendul\a, orange peel brahmi, rose are

I

48 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

being used since last so many time. Chlorophyll pigments, henna powder, oil

layers were used as a thick barrier system. All these natural ingredients were

used as such in paste and as an extracts lapas form. These natural

photoprotectants contained variety of substances, which plays different role in

the mechanism of the photo protection.

The naturally occurring herbal compounds such as phenolic acids, flavonoids,

and high molecular weight polyphenols have could be use to gained

considerable attention as beneficial protective agents96•

The potential effects of aloe gel revealed that significant protection on

(Giutathion, oxidative glutathion by decreasing in level and significant increment

in MDA (Melanodialdehyde) level and controlled the second-degree burns in

controlled manner was controlled by aloe gel topical administration96-97

•

Synthetic

Sunscreens were introduced in 1928, in the United States. An emulsion

containing two-sun screening chemicals i.e. Benzyl salicylate and Benzyl

Cinnamate was commercially introduced in early 1930. Australia introduces a

cosmetic sunscreen formulation containing phenyl salicylate96• In 1936, In

France a chemist E. Schueller introduce first commercial sunscreen formulation.

The varieties of synthetic sunscreen agents are given in Table 1T-5.

Sunscreen formulations contain special molecules - called UV filters, which cut

down the amount of UV radiation that can penetrate the skin. Over time,

though, these filters penetrate into the skin below the surface of the epidermis.

The additional ROS are generated only when the UV filters have penetrated

I

49 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

into the skin and, at the same time, sunscreen has not been reapplied to

prevent ultraviolet.

Hansen et al. report that three UV filters (Octyl methoxy cinnamate,

Benzophenone-3, and octocrylene}, widely used in sunscreen, generate ROS

in skin themselves when exposed to UV radiations. Many studies indicate that

the additional ROS are generated only when the UV filters have penetrated in

to the skin and can become harmful to the skin99•

In the United state lotions containing quinine oleate and quinine bisulphate

appeared in 1935, but cause of photoallergic reactions, skin rashes were found.

Para- amino benzoic acid (PABA} was first patented in 1943, leading the way

for the several PABA derivatives in sunscreen formulations. The growing public

awareness to the photosensitization reactions of PABA and its derivatives has

encouraged the use of PABA free products 100• The production of another

sunscreen, containing 4-isopropyl dibenzoyl methane was ceased in 1993 due

to the high number of photoallergy incidents.

Moreover, some of the cases of adverse reactions to sunscreen active

ingredients related to the adverse reactions with cross reactivity of several

sunscreen ingredients like cinnamate derivatives (Ibid}. In addition, several

studies have demonstrated the photoinduced DNA damage and phototoxicity of

sunscreen agents, including padimate, and phenylbenzimidazole sulfonic

acid101. Physical sunscreens angents such as titanium dioxide are known to be

photocatalysis capable of rupturing covalent bonds and have been shown to

produce reactive oxygen species under illumination 102'103

•

50 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

I Table 1T-5: Synthetic Sunscreens agents

Chemical ·Approved Type Concentration % '

Oxybenzone 2-6 UV-A Absorber

Sulisobenzone 5-10 UV-A Absorber

Dioxybenzone 3 UV-A Absorber

Avobenzone 3 UV-A Absorber

Methyl anthralinate 3-5 UV-A Absorber

Amino benzoic acid 1-5 UV-B Absorber

Amyl dimethy PABA 5-15 UV-B Absorber

Diethanolamine p- methoxycinnamate 8-10 UV-B Absorber

2-Ethoxyethyl p- methoxycinnamate . 1-3 UV-B Absorber

Benzophenone 1-10 UV-B Absorber

Butyl methoxy dibenzoyl methane 1-8 UV-B Absorber

Digaloyl trioleate 2-5 UV-B Absorber

Ethyl 4-bis hydroxy propyl amino 1-5 UV-B Absorber

benzoate

2-ethy hexyl-2-cyano-3,3 diphenyl 7-10 UV-B Absorber

acrylate

Ethyl hexyl p- methoxycinnamate 2-7.5 UV-B Absorber

2- ethyl hexyl salicylate 3-5 UV-B Absorber

Glyceryl amino benzoate 2-3 UV-B Absorber

Homomenthyl salicylate 4-25 W-B Absorber

lawsone dihydroxy acetate 0.25-3 W-B Absorber

Octyl dimenthyl PABA 2-8 UV-B Absorber

2· Phenyl bezimidazole- 5- sulphonic 1.5 UV-B Absorber

acid

Ethanolamine salicylate 5-12 W-B Absorber

Mechanism of photo protection

Structural requirements for suitable photoprotecting agent depend on the

mechanism of action of photoprotection:

(i) Increasing the barrier for UV light (UV absorbing compounds)

;o:murrrn CHAPTER 1 1 T 21847

(ii) Protecting through molecules which act as scavengers e.g.

antioxidants.

(iii) Repairing UV induced damage by induction of repair system.

(iv) Suppression cellular responses e.g. anti-inflammatory agents.

The active sun protecting agent's affects in different ways either by absorbing,

reflecting, or scattering some or all of the sun rays. Most of the sunscreen

products contain combinations of ingredients. Possible mechanism of sun

protections via natural substances includes free radical acceptance, blocking of

catalytic effect of UV, anti-inflammatory effects and in long term inhibition of UV

induced cellular stress 98. General Photoprotecting follow the mechanism are:

o Agents that attenuate the level of actinic insult (e.g. by absorbing or

acting as barrier to UVrays) in case of topical protectants104"105

.

o Agents that compete with the target molecules for the damaging product

of the aberrant agent106.

o Agents that provide restoration action (repair of the damaged target

molecules) and prevent UV suppression and contact hypersensitivity107-

108

o Agents that suppress various stages of the inflammatory responses and

mask certain manifestations of UV damages 109•

UV filter contained in the sunscreen cut down the amount of UV radiation that

can penetrate the skin UV radiation. Hansen et al. report that three UV filters

(Octyl methoxy cinnamate, Benzophenone-3, and octocrylene), widely used in

sunscreen, generate ROS in skin themselves wh~n exposed to UV radiations.

52 ~ CHAPTERl 1

They observed that the additional ROS are generated only when the UV filters

have penetrated in to the skin.

The synthetic Oxybenzone, are absorbed and subsequently excreted in human

urine with low acute toxicity in animal studies; its chronic toxicity and disposition

after topical application in people were found. Study concluded that sunscreen

in the product (i.e. greater than 1 0%) over the period of application showed

critical condition of skin. That's why sunscreens should not be the sole method

of sun protection 110•

Side effects and toxicity

The synthetic sunscreen compounds like butyl methoxy dibenzoyl methane

(BMDBM) and bezophenone are the most efficient and frequently used UV

filters. These agents generate carbon centered free radicals, when illuminated

with simulated sunlight and causes in vitro strand breaks in DNA and oxidative

modification 111"112

• Many studies on photoinduced allergic reactions were

carried out. The photoallergic reactions of sunscreen were noticed from study of

355 consecutive patients with suspected photosensitivity test with different UV

filters. Schauder et al. (1998) showed the sunscreen allergy and photoallergy

reactions in 402 patients with suspected clinical photosensitivity via patch and

photo patch testing with the commercial sunscreens and facial cosmetics

containing chemical UV absorbers, fragrance materials, preservatives, and

emollients 100• The study found that such allergies are due to the real frequency

of sunscreens exposure.

The intolerance of sunscreen agents with suspected photodermatosis and

positive reactions was noted in sixty one positive photopatch for photocontact

53 ij CHAI'TER t 1

allergy to sunscreens contains-oxybenzone and to para-aminobenzoic acid and

its derivatives.

More than one third photoallergies had due to a moisturizer contained

oxybenzone. The butyl methoxy dibenzoylmethane, methoxycinnamate and

benzophenone were found to be major cause of photoallergic contact

dermatitis 113.114

.

Topically applied sunscreens penetrated into human viable epidermis to put the

local keratinocyte causing risk of toxicity (e.g. avobenzone, octinoxate,

octocrylene, oxybenzone and padimate) showed by keratinocyte culture

response curves (changes in cell morphology and proliferation) 115"116

• The fetus

malformations was observed after use of widely suncreening agent (2-3' ,5'-Di­

tert -butyl-2' -hydroxyphenyl)-5- ch lorobenzotriazole 117.

1.5.2.1 Photoprotection via antioxidants

From the earlier, it appeared that natural antioxidants are photoprotective.

Pauling codedfirst time that diet rich in ascorbic acid was beneficial in reducing

UV-B induced neoplasma in animals 118• Diet rich in antioxidants mixtures was

found to be reduced UV induced carcinogenesis119. Vitamin E alone decreases

lipid peroxidation reaction generated due to sunlight. Ascorbic acid is one of the

most effective antioxidant in vivo, and found to be logical candidate as topical

photoprotectant to control sunburn cell formation and tumor formation63•

Besides the vitamin C and E, another natural antioxidants has been studied for

their photoprotective efficiency i.e. polyphenolic components, carotene and

enzymes like SOD which are found to be regenerative of vitamin E, vitamin C

and glutathione. More with these compounds ability, to alter the physical and

54 ~ CIIAPTER 1 1

mechanical properties of the skin, thereby inhibiting penetration of UV

wavelengths and counter act the oxidative stress in skin 98•

Like most antioxidants, idebenone is primarily preventive and another super

antioxidant, plant-derived ferulic acid, fern extract and green tea has been

shown to strengthen the natural photoprotective effects of topically applied

vitamin C and E.

An extract obtained from buckwheat herb and compared with rutin, which is the

main constituent of the extract, regarding their antioxidant and radical

scavenging activity with, the photoprotective properties. These extract were

compared to those of a commercial UV absorber, indicates the extract prevents

the UV-induced peroxidation of linolic acid effectively than rutin and the

commercial UV absorber. The use of the extract from buckwheat herb seems to

be more beneficial than the use of pure rutin. This could be referred due to the

presence of minor phenolic compounds in the extract. The results indicate that

it is advisable to use antioxidants rather than only UV absorber to obtain a

maximum of photo protection 120.

The methanol extracts of Eucommia ulmoides (52%), Evodia officina/is (45%),

and Pleuropterus multiflorus ( 41%) was used to get potent inhibitory effect on

the matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) production in ultraviolet 8 (UV-8)

irradiated human fibroblasts 57•

From the abovementioned studies, it can be appreciated that the overwhelming

evidence of natural suggests that phytochemical, antioxidants are effective at

inhibiting UV damages to skin and could be used as a potential agent in

preventing photoaging.

55 ~ CHAPTER I ,

1.5.2.2 Photoprotection via enzymes

The herbs as biological additives in form of extracts are utilizing since long

period of time in the cosmetic formulation and scientific evidences proven that

many plant extracts showed their photo protective activity and shows significant

improvement in enzymes like superoxidedismutase, catalase, and total protein

and ascorbic acid level121-122

. Many plants, citrus fruits and leafy vegetables as

source of ascorbic acid, vitamin C and phenolics compounds containing

enzyme extracts of different varieties possess the ability to reduce the oxidative

damage. These oxidative damages ultimately reduce the protective enzyme

level and maintain the level of total protein and ascorbic acid in cells.

Klingman L.H. (1986) studied on histological examination of skin samples that

had been irradiated with daily dose of UV-A light for a week, results revealed

that a strong degradation of dermal collagen could be preserved or minimized

after treatment with palmitoyi-Giy-His-Lys123.

The potential roles of herbal enzymes were studied several times. The

aqueous extract of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) contains its peroxidase

enzymes in the form of peroxisomes delivery with excellent cosmetic

properties124• The treatment with such herbal extracts containing creams could

be utilized for the protection of photo induced intrinsic oxidative stress as well

as structural alteration in skin.

Proteolytic enzymes like bromelaine, papain etc. has been used125 for skin

peeling and smoothing. the review provide condensed studies regarding

topically applied DNA repair enzymes to prevent UVB radiation - induced skin

damage and the protective mechanism of superoxide dismutase and

56 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

peroxidase which were extracted from yeast are utilized as efficient tool to

reduce UV-induced erythema, which can also be thought of as free radical

scavenging ability125• Recent studies indicated that endogeneous SOD activity

is important in the severity and treatment of a wide range of inflammatory skin

disease 126•127

• Superoxide dismutase (SOD) plays a prominent role in regulating

cellular superoxide anion level, and does so by dismutation to hydrogen

peroxide (HzOz). A hyaluronidase derived protein, SOD are effective in

treatment of a wide range of inflammatory responses. Lipid peroxidation has

been suspected of being a source of sunlight induced cellular damage and

initiated by free radical attack126•129

. The SOD activity in those patients with

severe disease who were highly recalcitrant to therapy was found to be slightly

elevated and marked decrease. These studies have opened up new avenues to

photoprotection reaction occurring within the cell. Several non-enzymatic

(ascorbic acid, vanillin, propyl gallate) superoxide anion and scavenging

antioxidants also have a photoprotective and anti aging effects on repeated UV

induced cutaneous damage116· 119.

1.5.2.3 Photo protection via Vitamins

There are different strategies for protection of skin against the UV radiations

damages, which are closely associated with skin aging. It has been speculated

that an increased topical protection against UV light might affect endogenous

vitamin D synthesis in the skin and may causes disorders related to vitamin D

deficiency. Even, like reduce bone strength at present use of vitamin D in

sunscreen and in cosmetics are controversially. Vitamin C does slowdown the

skin-damaging free radical activity 118• It is also required for collagen synthesis,

57 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

which declines markedly in aging skin. As humans age, they suffer diminished

microcapillary circulation within the skin, thereby depriving skin cells of the

supply of vitamin C it needs for youthful collagen synthesis. The topical

application of vitamin C in a skin-penetrating medium can enhance the

availability of vitamin C for collagen production. Vitamin C helps to regenerates

vitamin E in the skin and can only suppress a limited number of free radicals

before it runs out of electrons to donate66• Vitamin C regenerates vitamin E and

enables vitamin E to provide sustained antioxidant protection in the skin's

elastin fibers. Vitamin C also plays a vital role in skin repair. When skin is

injured, its vitamin C content is used up rapidly in the scavenging of free

radicals, and in synthesizing collagen to speed healing. The protective effects

of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) containing formulation proved that the ascorbic acid

levels of the skin was severely depleted after UV irradiation, which would lower

skins innate protective mechanism as well as reduces the risk of impaired

healing after photoinduced damage. These damages can be minimize using

topical application of vitamin C, which can enhance the collagen production118•

1.5.2.4 Photo protection via Extracts

Botanicals are playing an increasingly important role in the activity and safety of

cosmetics, they allow for renewal of the source of active ingredients. Cosmetic

formulas contain plant extracts, were tested and conventionally grouped into

four major classes.

1. Primary antioxidants (Considered as free radical acceptors).

2. Secondary antioxidants (Acts synergistically with primary antioxidants.

3. UV absorbers (Blocks the catalytic effect of UV and visible light).

I

58 ~ CHAPTER 11

4. A miscellaneous group that comprises largely reducing agents with free

5 H-groups including some radioprotectors that are not considered as

antioxidants.

Topical application of polyphenols to human skin inhibited the UV-B induced

erythema response and decreased the formation of cyclobutane pyrimidine

dimer in skin found both in epidermis and dermis. There are numerous

mechanisms by which a cell may deal with electronically activated species and

some mention is warranted of naturals, endogenous free radical defense

mechanism 130.

Flavonoids recently been shown to have one of the highest 'active-oxygen'

scavenging abilities of different plant extracts tested. Such extracts are more

powerful anti-oxidants than vitamin E, and also exhibit potent cell-protective

effects, which are linked to the well-known anti-ageing properties of anti-

oxidants 131•

1. 6 Cosmetic Classifications

All the cosmetic formulations can be classified on the basis of-

1. Site of application

2. Dosage forms

3. Pharmacological and Physiological

4. Consumers

1.6.1 Site of application: According to site, cosmetics are classified as-

(i) Skin cosmetic: These are directly and indirectly used to adorn the skin

via improving luster and glow of skin. e.g. bath products, deodorants,

antiperspirant, powders, rouges, perfume, oils, colorants, face packs.

59 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

(ii) Eye cosmetics: These are directly or indirectly used to improve the

appearance of eyes. e. g., eye pigment, shadow, linear lashes, wax

carbon.

(iii) Hair cosmetics: Strengthening, antidandruff and antioxidants agents

are used in many hair formulations like shampoos, coloring materials,

detangling hair care, hair grooming and cream and gels.

(iv) Nails: Nail formulations like nail liquor and polishes contains hydrating

agents, coloring pigments and reflectors.

1.6.2 Dosage Form

Solid

(a) Powders: For scenting, washing, coloring, dyeing and pigmentation

(Insoluble in liquids).

(b) Pearls: Drugs are encapsulated within layers of protein and

calcium carbonate. These layers reflect sunrays and act as sunscreen.

Semisolids

Liquid

Creams, lotions, ointment, gels, sticks, eyeliners, cheek shave,

shampoos.

Hair oils, after shave lotions, shampoos, color dyes, bath oil and body

oils.

Novel cosmetics: Lioposomal, microspherical beads, nanosoms, multiple and

micro emulsion

Aerosols: Air brushing, mist color foundations

60 ~ CHAPTERl 1

1.6.3 Pharmacological and Physiological

Antiaging: Creams and lotions

Antiperspirants and deodorants: Sticks, powder and sprinkles via

different physiological mechanism.

Antidandruff: Shampoos and creams,

Antiwrinkles-Antiaging: Antioxidant creams, herbal extracts and

anticellutile skin toners.

Antiseptic: Creams and lotions.

Photoprotective: Creams, lotions and oils.

Aromatic: Oils and creams.

Skin whiteners: Creams, solutions and lotions (Chemical like

antitryosinase properties)

1.6.4 Consumer classification

1.6.4.1 Face and skin preparation

i. Powders: Compact powders, face powders, talcum powders.

face mask, face packs, triple mild talc powder, luminizing

powders and concealer powder.

ii. Cosmetic Creams: Barrier creams, antiwrinkles, antiseptic,

sun protectives, cold creams, cleansing creams, emollient,

massage creams, bleaching creams, lubricating or night

creams, skin protective and hand creams, vanishing creams­

foundation creams. liquid creams and miscellaneous creams.

iii. Sticks: Anti perspirants, deodorants, lipsticks and colorants.

61 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

iv. Lotions: Moisturizers, photoprotetives, hand lotions, skin

toning lotions, skin fresheners, astringent lotions, bleaching

and freckle lotions, medicated lotions, after shaving lotions.

v. Shaving preparation: Lather shaving stick, lather shaving

creams, shaving foam, shaving gels, after shave lotions.

1.6.4.2 Hair Preparations

Hair shampoos (Clear liquid, aerosol egg shampoo, bath foams) hair

tonics, hair conditioners, hair lotions, hair waiving, hair strengthens,

rinses, oily scalp hair tonics, hair dressings, fixatives, bleaches.

1.6.4.3 Dental preparations

Tooth powders, toothpastes, dentifrices, anti carries liquid solutions,

mouth washes, cosmetics for teeth and mouth washes

1.6.4.4 Foot preparation

Foot powders, foot sprays, foot creams and lotions for sportsmen are

available.

1.6.4.5 Manicure preparations

Nail polish, nail liquor and bleaches.

1.6.4.6 Eye preparations

Shadows, liners, erasers, flesh toned crayon, Mascara, Lashes, Brows

putty.

1.6.4.7 Lip preparations

Nondrying lipsticks, color coordinate lip liners, lip glows,dual pencil

sharpeners.

62 ~ Cl L\l'TER 1 1

1.6.4.8 Color makeup

Lipsticks, rouges, mascaras, eye make-up, eyeliner, eyebrow pencils,

liquid foundation, stick foundation.

1. 7 Herbal cosmetics

Cosmetics are used almost regularly and universally in different forms

according to the body needs. The purpose of developing a cosmetic, such as

one for reducing wrinkles, fighting acne, or for oil control and for more any types

of (skin protective, hair protective) formulations are designed using varieties of

materials either natural or synthetic with the aim of quality standard. The

development process for cosmetic formulation needs maintenance of quality

standard as per the requirement. The qualities of a formulation should satisfy

the consumer's need in terms of its performance. Recently herbal cosmetics

(lipsticks, shampoos, toothpaste, body and hair oil, soaps, sun blocking cream

or gel, moisturizer, facial scrub etc.) products have gained much recognition

and became very popular in Indian consumers as well as abroad. These

formulations claims to have no side effects commonly seen with synthetic

products. The herbs used in preparation of these cosmetic products also have

varieties of properties like antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic and

antibacterial. Popularity of herbal cosmetic in society and technological

advances in manufacturing process has resulted in flooding of market with

herbal fonmulations in India. So in the present study we explore the scientific

data of traditionally used herbs in skin and hair preparations and tried to

develop herbal cosmetic preparations.

63 ~ CIL\PTER 1 1

1.7.1 Traditional system

India is a land of sandalwood, cinnamon and precious spices, of exotic flowers

like gardenia, rose, lavender and hibiscus and oils of exotic roses, lemon grass,

and sensuous jasmine. Indian system of cosmetic is rich in history and well

tested in the use of plants, through the practices of Ayurveda, Unani and

Siddha systems of medicine.

The medicinal herb mentioned in Ayurveda by experienced sage basically state

about function of Ayurvedic herbs in to blood and eliminates doshas (vata, pitta

kapha) from the body, as they are mainly responsible for any type of body

ailments132•

Among the written information in Ayurveda also, like is Charak sahita, the sage

charakh stated numerous medicinal plants in Varnya kashaya. The herbs like

chandan, halid, khus, nagkheshara, manjistha, yastimadhu, are use to obtained

glowing complexion and arusa, amala, bavchi, guduchi, chakmard, are

mentioned as kustaharan 133.

There are certain herbs which are mentioned in Kushthagna Mahakashiya like

amalaki, haridra, abhaya, khadira, vidyanga, jati, saptapama, karavira of

various potential for effective curative skin disorder.

Charak and other sages Sushruit stated in the literature that the Eladi Gana

containing ela, tagar, kusstha, jatamani, tvak, dhmamaka, potra harenuka,

shutki, stouneyaka, choraka, guggol sarjarasa, aganu, devdanu and

padmakesher could be use to eliminate toxins from the body and clear the

complexion that leads to glow on the skin and protect from kushtha and boils' 3'.

64 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

Among the naturals, plant extracts are gaining popularity as ingredients in

cosmetic formulations, primarily because of "the poor image that animal-derived

extracts have acquired during the past few years." Historically, plants were the

main source of cosmetic ingredients, until methods for synthesizing substances

with similar properties were discovered. Although natural molecules derived

from plant extracts are currently the constituents of many commercial cosmetic

products and offer "a particularly exciting avenue for further research". The

stability, color, odor, and transparency of many extracts are limiting factors.

Additionally, plant extracts may be perceived as more dilute than are purified

synthetic agents.

1. 7.2 Present status

The global market for cosmetics and toiletries reached nearly $150 billion in

2004, up by more than 4 per cent from 2003, according to a new study that also

highlights major growth in key developing markets 135.

The herbal market has been boosted by increasing demand for natural

alternative medicines. World demand for herbal products has been growing at a

rate of 10% -15% per annum. The medicinal plants related trade in India alone

is approximately Rs. 5.5 billion. Disappointment with conventional medicines is

growing and customer perceptions of the health benefits of herbals and

botanicals are under going major change. W.H.O. (World Health Organisation)

has forecasted that the global market for herbal products would be worth $5

trillion by the year 2050. Global sales of herbal products are expected to reach

$26.2 billion dollars in 2007. Europe and the United States are the two major

65 ij CHAP'IT:.R 1 1

herbal products markets in the world, with a market share of 41 percent and 20

percent respectively 136.

According to the worldbank, the global market for medicinal plants and products

includes the potential sectors of pharmaceuticals, neutraceuticals, and

cosmeceuticalis to be estimated of worth US$ 62 billion, offers a plethora of

opportunities for the Indian pharma and cosmetic companies (Figures as

quoted by Asia-Pacific Traditional Medicine and Herbal Technology Network

(APTMNET). India's current share in the global herbal market is just $1 billion

and a huge opportunity awaits the indeginious Indian cosmaceuticals.

1.7.3 Natural extractives

Natural extracts, whether from animal (Enzymes, Proteins, peptides vitamins

etc.), botanical, and mineral origin (bentonites, titanium dioxides and different

forms of clays and mud), have been used as active cosmetic ingredients or

cosmetics for as long as human history can go.

Herbal extracts have been used for centuries and are present in today's

cosmetic formulations either for their own properties or as substitutes of

synthetic materials that may have to be removed from formulations because

toxic and unwanted post used effects.

The botanical extract is active cosmetic ingredient, it may contain hundreds of

chemical structures and it has a proven activity. These botanical cosmetic

ingredients can be separated out from drug, because the drug needs to know

the chemical structure of the active ingredient within the extract, required

purifying it or sythesizing it.

66 ij CHAPTER 1 1

These natural extractives can be utilizes in different forms like:

I. Total extracts

II. Selective extracts

Ill. Biotechnology extracts

From these natural extractives, total extracts are the most common in the

cosmetic formulations. They are generally known from traditional usages, which

have a long history. Their activities are often impirical and their active

ingredients are not always identified, but their benefits are, very often, without

possible doubt. Their mode of pareparations is also adopted from traditional

systems of different countries like China, India, Africa, Europe America or from

traditional practitioners.

The contents of such total extracts are very much a function of the type of

solvent, the temperature, plant solvent ratio, the time of contact, the part of

plant use, their species and seasonal collection.

Here is need to clarify the ambiguity of such cosmetic extracts from the drug

extractive materials. In the drug industry, especially, the extract must be

concentrated and isolated by selective techniques like chromatographic, UV

spectrophotomteric, and electrophoresis.

The solvent used for herbal extracts is again matter of selection criteria, solvent

selection is not only considered for extraction of materials, but also for their

compatibility with the final formulation and harmlessness94•

Historically, many herbals have been used for the treatment of various skin and

hair conditions. Traditional uses and scientific studies of these natural extractive

demonstrate the potential functional actions (anti-inflammatory, antioxidants,

67 ij CHAPTER 1 1

antimicrobial, antihyluronidase, antityrosinase and antimelanogenesis) in

cosmetics

1.7.3.1 Cosmeceuticals

In ancient Greece and Rome, countless ointments and tonics were

recommended for the beautification of the hair, as well as remedies for the

treatment of scalp diseases. Henry de Mandeville was the first to make a

distinction between medicinal therapies intended to treat diseases and cosmetic

agents for the purpose of beautification 137• But today's delineation of cosmetics

from pharmaceuticals has become more complex through the development of

cosmetics with physiologically active ingredients, i.e. cosmeceuticals.

Cosmeceuticals are topical cosmetic-pharmaceutical hybrids intended to

enhance the beauty through ingredient that provide additional health related

function or benefits. They are applied topically as cosmetics, but contain

ingredients that influenced the skins biological function 138. These

cosmeceuticals, serving as a bridge between personal care products,

pharmaceutical and phytomaterial, have been developed specially for their

medicinal and cosmetic benefits.

Cosmeceutically active ingredients are now constantly being used by big and

small corporations engaged in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology,

natural products, and cosmetics. The advances in the field of cosmetics and

knowledge of skin biology and pharmacology have facilitated the cosmetic

formulations139. The development of novel active and natural compounds is

being rapidly used as cosmeceuticals. The desirable features of cosmeceutical

68 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

agents are efficacy, safety, formulation stability, novelty, and easy metabolism

within skin and inexpensive, which became essentiality of cosmetics 140.

Natural extracts from plant, animal, mineral origin, have been used as active

ingredients of cosmetics for as long as human history can go. Oil, butter, honey,

beeswax, lead and lemon juice and aloe gel etc. were common ingredients of

the beauty recipes.

Natural functional actives play an important role in alteration of skin physiology

and cosmetic science. With the great advances in research, now it is possible

to think of a single substance that can alter the skin function and tactile sense

of skin or hair. The most convincing example is water, which is considered

innocuous or safe. On the other hand, when cotton pad moistened with water is

sealed to human skin for two days, pro inflammatory substances such as

interleukins are released from the dead stratum corneum. These provoke a

series of cytotoxic changes in the viable epidermis 141• In another few days, an

inflammatory reaction is provoked in the dermis. This the basis for the adverse

clinical events associated with prolonged exposure to water.

Another traditional substance considered inert is petrolatum. However, various

studies show that petrolatum promotes healing of wounds and prevent

ultraviolet induced tumors, even though it is not a sunscreen 141•

These are clearly medicinal effects that affect the structure and function of skin.

From these and any other examples, it is apparent that nearly all cosmetic

articles would have to be reclassified as drugs, if a strict interpretation of the •

Structure and function" proviso of the FDC act of 1938" A cosmetic is defined

as an article intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled, or sprayed on,

69

introduced into, or other wise appled to the human body or any part thereof for

cleansing, beautyfing, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance

without affecting structure or function. It is noteworthy that in this defination the

cosmetic is not allowed to have any activity (i.e. without affecting structure or

function).

In India the defination of cosmetic was reevaluated and described by the Drug

and Cosmetic act 1940. "Any article intended to be rubbed, poured, sprinkled or

sprayed on, or introduced into, or other wise applied to the human body or any

part thereof cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the

appearance and includes any article intended for use as a component of

cosmetic"

Antioxidant

Natural antioxidants includes minor lipids are of increasing interest for cosmetic

and skin care formulations. They also offer extended shelf-life to vegetable oil

based formulations as well as protection of skin cell constituents such as

proteins, lipids and DNA.

Many common natural oils such as rapeseed oil, sunflower oil and soybean oil

are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, mainly linoleic (18:2n-6) and linolenic

(18:3n-3) acids. These natural oils are of significant nutritional importance and

are also desirable emollients for skin care applications. However, the drawback

of the unsaturated oils is their high sensitivity to oxidation and many of them

present limited shelf-life during storage as well as in application. Natural oils like

bergamot, levender, rose, majoram, chamomile also proves cosmetic values via

different activities like antityrosinase, antielsatage and antioxidant142.

70 ij CHAPTER t 1

In addition, natural oils are good sources for tocopherols and phytosterols,

components offering both antioxidant activity and bioactivity for skin care

applications. By careful processing of these minor lipids can be retained and

even enriched during the purification of vegetable oils 143.

Mechanism

The changes in skin contour are always symptoms of aging process of skin,

either by external or internal oxidative stress. Besides external inducers of

oxidative attack, the skin has to cope with endogenous generation of reactive

oxygen species (ROS) and other free radicals, which are continuously

produced during physiological cellular metabolism. To counter act the harmful

effects of reactive oxygen species, the skin is equipped with antioxidant

systems, which an equilibrium between prooxidants and antioxidants.

In the recommendation of skin advancement, a variety of primary (preventive,

vitamin C) and secondary (interceptive, vitamin E) antioxidant mechanism have

been developed, which form an antioxidative network of closely interlinked

components.

Antioxidants intervene at different levels of oxidative process 144-145

i. Scavenging free radical.

ii. Scavenging lipid peroxyl radicals.

iii. Binding with metal ion.

iv. Removing oxidatively damaged biomolecules.

However, the antioxidant defense in cutaneous tisues can be overvvhelmed

either by an increased exposure to exogenous (e.g., UV exposure) or

endogenous (e.g., inflammatory disorders) sources of reactive oxygen species

71 ~ CllAM'ER 1 1

or by primarily depleted antioxidant defense (e.g. malnutrition) facing a normal

level or prooxidative challenge.

The imbalance of the prooxidant or antioxidant may results in oxidative damage

of biomolecules, such as lipids, proteins and DNA, and has been termed as

oxidative stress 146'147

•

Vitamins

Dietary ascorbate is absorbed and distributed throughout the body with in a few

hours. The biochemical importance of Vit.C in cosmetic is primarily based on its

reducing potential, as is required in a number of hydroxylation reactions.

Several hydroxylases involved in collagen synthesis require ascorbate as a

reductant93•

In human skin, which is dependent on dietary vitamin C, the epidermis

apparently contains apptroximately five foild higher levels than the dermis99•

The major lipophilic antioxidant are vitamin E, which is collectively refers to

eight naturally occurring molecules (four tocopherols and four tocotrienols),

which exhibit antioxidant activity. In human skin a- tocopherol is the most

abundant vitamin E homologue, followed by y- tocopherol.

Vitamin E is act as an antioxidant by scavenging free radicals, which can

either directly or indirectly. initiate ( HO*, and 0* 2} or propagate (lipid peroxyl

radical) lipid chain reactions147'148

•

Tocopherols are important antioxidants frequently used in both food and skin

care applications. In vegetable oils their main function is to protect

polyunsaturated fatty acids against oxidation, properties of importance also for

72 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

the shelf-life of the oil during storage. In the human skin they are part of the

natural defence system with tocopherol being the predominant lipid-soluble

antioxidant in human stratum corneum. The tocopherols protect cellular

components such as DNA, proteins and lipids against free radicals and reactive

oxygen species caused by UV radiation, pro-oxidative environments and air

pollutants 149.

Dietry vitamin A is available in the form of provitamin A compounds (e.g., a-13-

carotene, and cryptoxanthin)142• Vitamin A generically encompasses retinol,

retinal and retinoic acid. The main focus of retnoid usage in cosmeceuticals has

been its role as the mythical "fountain of youth" (i.e. reversal of photoaging).

Retinol is necessary dietry nutrient, required for growth and bone development,

and skin keratosis.

Besides the Vitmin E, C and A, several other compounds with antioxidative

potential have been found to skin care, when applied topically. Application of

different plant extracts, particularly flavonoids, were found to diminish acute and

chronic skin damages Flavonoids (e.g., apigenin, catechin, epicatechin, a­

glycosylrutin and silymarin) are polyphenolic compound that occur in plants and

due to their free phenolic groups, exhibit antioxidative capacity.

1.7.3.2 Skin effectiveness

Protecting and preserving the skin is essential to good health. Environmental

elements, air pollution, exposure to solar radiation as well as normal aging

process cause cumulative damage to building blocks of skin - DNA, collagen,

and cell membranes. Use of simple cosmetics or beauty products will not cause

73 ~ CHAPTER! 1

the skin to change or heal. These products are just meant to cover and

beautify, while natural cosmeceuticals provides over all protection to body.

Cosmeceuticals being cosmetic products having medicinal benefits and able to

affect the biological functioning of skin owing to type of functional ingredients

they contain. There are skin-care products that go beyond coloring and

adorning the skin. These products improve the functioning/texture of the skin by

encouraging collagen growth by combating harmful effects of free radicals, thus

maintaining keratin structure in good condition and making the skin healthier150•

Kuno and Matsumoto had patented an external agent for the skin comprising an

extract prepared from olive plants as a skin-beautifying component, in

particular, as an anti-aging component for the skin and/or a whitening

component151• Dry emollient preparation containing monounsaturated Jojoba

esters was used for cosmeceutical purpose 140• Martin utilized plant extract of

genus Chrysanthemum in a cosmetic composition for stimulating skin and/or

hair pigmentation 152. Novel cosmetic creams or gels with active ingredients and

water-soluble barrier disruption agents such as vitamin A palmitate have been

developed to improve the deteriorated or aged skin 142.

Moisturizers are used to smooth out the age lines, help brighten, and tone the

delicate skin. Moisturizers usually consist of emollients to smoothen the skin

surface by working their way into the nonliving outer layers of the skin, filling

spaces between the layers and humectants to help skin cells to absorb and

retain moisture in these layers. Healthy balancing lotion has been created for

menopausal women, which diminish the appearance of fine lines, and wrinkles,

74 ~ CHAPTER11

uplift the neck area and moisturize the dry sagging skin. Some of those

ingredients include black cohosh, soy extract, and natural oils.

Augmenting the skin's natural moisture balance are a nourishing complex

containing hyaluronic acid and a revival complex containing green tea leaf

extract, and glutathione153.

Skin lightening

A variety of herbal skin lightening formulations is available in the word market.

Such formulations contain natural extracts, which directly or indirectly influence

the melanization process in the skin. The first and rate-limiting step of melanin

formation is mediated by tyrosinase. This enzyme catalyses the hydroxylation

of tyrosine in to 3, 4- dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) and the subsequent

oxidation of DOPA into DOPA quinone. The pharmacological inhibitors of

tyrosinase or other melanogenesis pathway targets may serve as topical

inhibitors of melanogenesis resulting as skin lightening properties.

A variety of skin lightening formulations is commercially available. They contain

one or several different combination of natural extractives like Arbutin (Uvae

ursifoliumt), Azelaic acid (Malassezia), Kjoic acid (Aspergillus spp), a.- and p -

hydroxyacids from citrus fruits, Resveratrol (Morus alba) and Liquorice (G.

glabra) 154• The synergistic action of these extracts with each other or separately

in formulations could be used as an additive in skin whitening cosmetic

formulations.

Skin pigmenting

Certain plant extracts have been used as traditional herbal cosmetics for the

utilization in vitiligo. These extracts now known to contain furocoumarins, which

75 ~ CHAPTI.R 1 1

was first characterized with the isolation of beregapten (5- methoxy psoralen)

from oil of bergamot155. Psora/ea corlifolia and Amni majus have been tested to

treat depigmented areas of the skin in India and Egypt respectively.

1. 7 .3.3 Hair effectiveness

The appearance of the hair is a feature of the body over which humans, unlike

all other mammals, has direct control. One can modify the length, color and

style of hair according to wish to appear. Hair care, color, and style play an

important role in person's physical appearance and self-perception. Among the

earliest forms of hair cosmetic procedures in ancient Egypt were hair setting by

the use of mud and hair coloring with henna.

Shampooing is by far the most frequent form of cosmetic hair treatment. While

shampoos have primarily been products aimed at cleaning the hair and scalp.

Current formulations are adapted to the variations associated with hair quality,

hair care habit, and specific problems such as treatment of oily hairs156,

dandruff157 and for androgenic alopecia related to the superficial condition of the

scalp158.

Cosmetics for the treatment of hair are applied topically to the scalp and hair

while they can never be used for therapeutic purposes; they must not be

harmful! to the skin and scalp, hair and to the mucous membranes and should

be nontoxic. A patented shampoo composition is reported to clean the hair and

scalp without causing any damage to the fragile biological equilibrium of the

scalp and hair159• A haircare cosmetic composition comprising synthetic

ingredients with a nonallergenic dry extract of yarrow (Achillea millefolium) has

been patented, prepared from oxidation of a water- alcohol solution extract of

76 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

flower tops of yarrow. The extract contains less than 0.5% by weight of

polyphenolic derivatives and is used for the treatment of hair, particularly in oily

hairs 156•

The other functional ingredients include butcher's broom, chamomile, vitamin E,

antioxidants - vitamins A, C and E, green tea (Marticaria chamomilla), tiare

flower, Ginkgo biloba, cucumber, calendula and a-bisabolol (an active

constituent of chamomile) to calm irritated skin. A key ingredient in the eye

lifting moisture cream, that treats puffiness, irritation, and also protects against

future skin damage is yeast which helps to plump up the wrinkles. The eye

wrinkle cream helps forestall the signs of aging and generally contains wheat

germ and corn oil, squalene and carrot extract. Eye firming fluid has aosain, an

algae extract from seaweed that helps the skin to maintain elasticity.

1.7.4 Need

As discussed previously that India is the birthplace of renewed system of

indigenous medicine such as Siddha, Ayurveda and Unani and enriched with

flora and therefore plants have been used since ancient times for the simple

remedies and became popular. The physician of the traditional medicines in

different parts of India and local believer (base on traditional used) always tried

to utilize the local plants as cosmetics for the maintenance of skin appearances

as well as to maintain their beauty.

• Selection can be done easily based on recognized natural system of

cosmetic by referring to well recognized, validated and well accepted

books on natural system of medicines as well as cosmetics, where the

safety and effects are time tested.

77 ij ClL\P"ffiR 1 1

• Selection of plants in present study is based on new claim and

discoveries mentioned in the research review.

Following criteria for the selection of herbal cosmetics-

• 80% of the world populations still depend on natural products.

• It is in line with nature without hazardous reactions.

• Many of these having some scientific as well as traditional evidences

that are based on experiment data on animals and ethno botanical

survey.

1. 7.5 Benefits

• It helps to cleanse and purify the body without the side effects.

• It normalizes the body functions.

• It is extremely nutritional, high contents in vitamins and minerals.

• It raises the energy level of the body.

• It stimulates the body immune system.

• It works synergistically with the body and without disturbing inherent

physiology of the body.

• Variety of phytoconstituents could be used.

1.7.6 Limitations

• At present poor scientific justification.

• More susceptible to microbial and inorganic contamination.

• Poor stability.

• Poor organoleptic properties.

• Low efficacy.

78

• Substantial identity of herbs.

• Multi phytoconstituents evaluation is hard-hitting.

• Staining at the site of applications may occur.

• High dose is required.

• Limited incorporation of naturals.

1.7.7 Advantages

However, in developing countries, the use of easily accessible, low cost herbal

products are still continued, along with modern agents in the form of

biotechnologically produced extracts and isolated effective components. Lately

there has been a revival of interest in the use of herbal cosmetics because of

observed and proven efficacy of natural oil like almond, sesame, mustered and

many herbs like Aloe vera, Curcuma /onga, Melaleuca alternifolia, Sesamum

indicum, Santa/urn album, Lavendula angustifolia, Embellica officina/e.

Pomegranatum as paste or face mask. Because of the fact that herbal

cosmetics are free from serious toxic effect associated with synthetic agents

e.g. Butyl methoxy dibenzoyl methane (BMDBM), bezophenone,

phenylbenzimidazole and sulfonic acid, whidh are found to be allergic and free

radical generator and may be natural cause of aging 16o-161.

The synthetic cosmetic ingredients protect the skin from extrinsic aging

process, but they may produce other kinds of damage. A number of studies

suggest that the use of sunscreens may actually increase their risk of

melanoma because they spend too much time in the sun. Serious side effects

79 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

like interference with normal sexual development, ooze, rashes, burning and

pus in hair follicles etc. observed with synthetic sunscreen 162"163

•

The profile of various plant extracts and oils 164.181 used in cosmetics and toiletry

preparations as, hair care 182-207 and skin care208

"262 as antiaging ingredients as

cosmeceutical are shown in Table 1T-6-1T-8.

Table 1 T -6: Profile of cosmetically active plant extracts and oils

Extracts , Application Efficacy Reference

Green tea Skin tumor Protective 164

Polypodtum leucotomos Eryhemal skin Protective aginst UV 165-166 phototoxiity induced damages

Epigallocatechin Skin tumor Protective 167

Silymarin (ThisHe herb) Edema sunburn Protective 168

Cysteine derivative UV induced binding of epidermal Protective 169 biomacromolecules

Melatonin Erythemal skin Protective 169-170

Superoxide dismutase Skin wrinkle, erythematic ski~ Protective 171-172 Bitidus extract

Wheat germ oil Aged skin Antioxidant and antiaging 173

Rosa canina Erythemal and aged skin Antioxidant as source of 174 ascorbic acid

C. asiatica Aged and photoirradiated skin Antioxidant Elastin and 175 collagenase inhibitor

MafpMg1a punicifofia Erythemal skin Antioxidant and skin 176 protective

Fagopyrum Loose skin Antifree radical and 177 histamine inhibitor

Eucalyptus sambucus Erythemal skin Antffree radical 178

Sophora japonica Erythemal skin Antifree radical 179

Syzygium aromaticum Erythemal skin and aged Skin Protect collagenase activity 180

Gennanium thumbergii Erythemal skin and aged Skin Protect collagenase activity 180

Chamaemelum nobile Topical Antiinflammatory and 181

antihy/uronidase

80 ~ CHAPTER11

~ § ~

Table 1T-7: Profile of cosmetically active plats used for hair care

Plant Source Plant Activity Use Reference part

Aloe A. vera Leaf Moisturizing Emolhency 182-183

Ami a £mbflca Fruits Prevents grayness Hair care 184-185 officina/is and Anti stress

Bhringraj Ecfipta alba Entire Promoting hair growth Hair oil as 186-187 herb strengthening

Brahmi B.monneri Entire Hair strenthining and Hair promoting and 188-189 herb antioxidant cooling

China rose Hibiscus Flower Improves hair Prevents premature 166/190 rosasinensis greyness

Gotukola C. asiatica Entire Hair strengthening Hair promoting cooling 191-195 herb and antioxidant and darkening Lemon

Citrus limon Peel Conditioning Prevents hair loss 196-198 Peel

Neem A. indica Leaf Ant fatigue Hair growth and 199-202 HaJr promoting antidandruff

Orange Citrus Peel Soaps, Shampoos

203 aurantium Conditioning

Shikakai Aconcina Pod Detergency Cleansing 202 Antidandruff

Baheda Terminalia Fruit Hair tanning Halrtonic 203-205 belerica

Benjamin Moringa oteifera Seed Scalp strengthen Hair oils 203

Chamomile Marticaria Flower Antioxidant Hair tonic 203-206 chamomffla

Fenugrick T. gracecum Seed Improves hair, Washing Shampoo 203-204 Conditioning and massage oils

Henna Lawsonia alba Leaf Hair growth Natural dye and 205 Natural conditioner

Soap wort Sapindus Frwt Natural detergent Washing Shampoos 205 trifoliatus

Til Sesamum Seed Hair tonic Check hair fall 206 indicum

Wheat Triticum Germ Vit- E Scalp strengthen and

207 germ sativum Improves hair

81 ~ CHAPTER11

~ t:l

9 0 z

Table 1T-8: Modern plats widely used in Skin care cosmetics

Plant Source Plant Activity Use Reference part

Aloe Aloe vera leaf Moisturizer, Emollient Protective, Sun

208-210 and antioxidant screen,

Beetle nut A. catechu Seed Anthy!uronidase Antiaging and

211-213 anti elastase firmimg agent

Psorolea Antigranulating, Pigmenting agent

Bavchi Seed and melanin spot 214-217 corylifolia Keratinocyte inhibitor

formation

Carrot Daucus carota Seed Ant1oxida nt Natural source of Vit

218 A ProtectiVe

Chakramard Cassia tora Seed Antifungal and Nourishing and

219-225 antioxidant moisturizer

Marticaria Antoxidant Skin cleanser Chamomile Flower 226

chamomi/la Detergency Antiaging

Cobras Mesua ferrea

saffron Flower Astringent Coloring agent 227

Entire Antioxidant, Antiaging and

Gotukola C. asiatica firmimg agent and 228-231 herb antiproliferative

red

Garlic Allium sativum Promotes skin

Bulb Antibacterial 232 healing

Green tea Thea viridis Leaves Antioxidant Rejuvenator 233-235

Hard a Terminalia

chebula Fruit Astrmgent Skin tenner 235-236

Pongamia Antibacterial and Extemally for skin

Karanj Seed disorders and UV 237-238 glabra antifunga~

protective

Glycyrrlliza Liquorice

glabra Root

Anti inflammatory and

antioxidant

Decrease

pigmentation and 239-240

cooling effects

Manjistha Rubia cordifolia Root Wound healing lighten pigment 241

Marigold Calendula

officina/is Flower

Anti-inflammatory,

Antiseptic Skin care 242-244

Nagarmotha Cyperos

Roots rotundus

Suntan, Astringent Skin care 245

Azadirachta Antiseptic and Neem leaf Reduce dark spots 246-248

indica Antibacterial

82 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

~ § ~

Oat Avena sativa Fruit Moisturizer, Skin tonic 249

Citrus Skin protective 250 Orange Peel Anti acne, Anti bacteria

aurantium creams,

Passion Passiflora Emollients, 251 Seed Antioxidant

flower incamata Protective on skin

Pleasure oil Came/ina

Seed Antioxidant Emollients 251 sativa

Entire Skin diseases and Spurge Herb Euphorbia hirta Antiinfective 252

herb Cracked lips

Ocimum Entire Antibacterial and 253-254 Tulsi Decrease dark. spots

sanctum herb antiseptic

Turmeric Curcuma longa Rhizom Anti bacterial, Anti Pigmenting agent

254-255 microbial and antiaging

Pterocarpus Astringent, cooling, Scar remover

Sandal santalinus Wood deodorant and ant1acne, contact 256-258

disinfectant, dermatitis

Triticum Antioxidant and Natural source of Vit Wheat gemn Germ 259

sativum antibacterial E

Zizyphus Zizyphus jujuba Fruit anti-infective Skin care 260-261

Rosemary Rosemarinus Antioxidant and Flower Antiaging 262

extract officina/is antimicrobial

1.8 Objective

Many of the world's popular cosmetics brands entered the Indian market in the

1990s as the Indian market opened up to foreign companies. The cosmetics

and personal care industry has been growing at an average rate of 15-20

percent for the last few years. Growth has come mainly from the low and

medium-priced categories, which account for 90 percent of the cosmetics

market in terms of volume. Even though mass-market products still constitute

the major portion of the India cosmetics and toiletries market, increased

disposable income has led to growth in demand for premium products.

The urban population in particular, with its rising purchasing power, is the main

force that drives the demand for various cosmetic products in India. The

83 ~ CHAPTER 1 1

reasons for the growing demand for cosmetic products in India also include

greater product choice and availability.

Even with double-digit growth rates, the market penetration of cosmetics and

toiletries products in India is very low. Current per capita expenditure on

cosmetics is approximately $0.68 cents, as compared to $36.65 in other Asian

countries. This low market penetration for cosmetics and personal care

products in India can be viewed as an opportunity for more significant growth

down the road in this country of more then 1 billion people.

The current size of India's cosmetic and toiletries market is about $950 million.

The global market for natural personal care product only for skin and hair is

around 2.8 billion $and total Indian cosmetic market is about one thousand cr.

Around three billions people realizes blindly on herbal cosmetics because of the

non-polluting, renewable resources and hope for sustainable supplies of

cheaper products for world growing population. Approximately 80% of the

cosmetic product in the market are illegal, risk to consumer and fooled by

substantial claims. The herbal cosmetics have own way of caring but it needs

quality assurance.

These utility products are used extensively throughout the world for maintaining

and improving general appearance of body. Cosmetics alone are not sufficient

to take care of skin and body parts, it require association of active substances

so the herbal cosmetics are now emerged as the appropriate solution for such

formulations. The use of herbs in cosmetic formulation also serves the care of

body apart from cosmetic effects because the botanical ingredients also

influence biological function of skin.

84 ~ CHAPTER I 1

India has a great wealth of traditional knowledge and wisdom and richest in

terms of mineral resources and having naturally occurring varieties of herbs

with ingredients of proven cosmetic value. To benefit from the present global

advancement and regulatory guidelines of developed country in the field of

herbal technology regarding safety, purity, identity and efficacy of cosmetic

products will play a key role in the development and study of quality control

parameters for creating wealth to make country for globally competitive in an

increasingly technologically sophisticated world.

The objective of research was based on the utilization of scientific technology

for the development and evaluation of herbal formulation free from serious toxic

effect associated with synthetic agents for safety and quality control parameters

in the area of cosmetics. The selected herbs Cassia torra, G/ycyrriza glabra,

Centella asiatica, Aloe vera, Punica granatum, Psoro/ea cory/ifo/ia, Areca

catechu and Curcuma tonga have proven their effectiveness for the cosmetic

purposes like antiaging, sunprotective, moistening, cleanse, disinfectant,

soothe, heal, lubricate, stimulate and refine the skin. Ethano/ic extracts of these

herbs were used as such or in combination with other natural ingredients to

perform all the functions of cosmetics as similar to commercial marketed

cosmetics with inherent benefits of the natural agents as gentler and more

effective then modern day cosmetic with chemicals.

This research work provided vast information about potentiality of herbal

cosmetic and enhances the utilization of popular herbs in national and

international market.

I

85 ~ CIIAPfER 1 1

1.9 PLAN OF WORK

1 Literature Review

2. Selection of herbs

• Procurement and collection of herbs

• Identification of herbs

• Preparation of the Extracts

• Evaluation of the Extracts

3. Selection of formulation

• Cream

• Lotion

• Shampoo

4. Preparation and selection of bases

• Natural base

• Alternative base

5. Formulation preparation

6. Evaluation of formulations

• Physicochemical, Microbiological and psychometric parameters

• In-vitro

• Physiological evaluation

• In-vivo studies

•Biochemical

• Histological

7. Patent Filing.

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