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Development management deals with the coordination and management processes of international development programs and projects. The dominant paradigm indevelopment management is the intervention in the form of a transfer of aid by anexternal agency/donor and the oversight of the related project cycle, i.e. projectidentification, planning (formulation and appraisal), implementation and monitoring, and

evaluation.

A broad range of donors and implementing organisations use the Logical Framework Approach to provide a structured method of project cycle management

The main article for this category is Development studies.

Development studies is a multi-disciplinary social science which studies the principlesand processes governing structural and qualitative changes in the way society functionswhich increase its capacity to accomplish its objectives. In the broadest terms applicableto all societies and historical periods, development studies is concerned with the upward

directional movement of society characterized by greater levels of energy, efficiency,quality, productivity, complexity, comprehension, creativity, mastery, enjoyment andaccomplishment.

Each field of social science views the overall development of society in relation tochanges within its respective field. Development science seeks to identify the underlyinglaws, processes and stages common to all fields and expressions of developmentalchange.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Development

Millennium Development Goals

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search "M DG" redirects here. For other uses, see M DG (disambiguation).

The Millennium Development Goals are a UN initiative.

The MDGs in the United Nations Headquarters in New-York



TheMillennium Development Goals (MDGs) are eight international development goalsthat all 192 United Nations member states and at least 23 international organizations haveagreed to achieve by the year 2015. They include eradicating extreme poverty, reducingchild mortality rates, fighting disease epidemics such as AIDS, and developing a global partnership for development.[1]

Contents

[hide]

y 1 Background y 2 Goals

o 2.1 Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger o 2.2 Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education o 2.3 Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women o 2.4 Goal 4: Reduce child mortality rate

o 2.5 Goal 5: Improve maternal health o 2.6 Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases o 2.7 Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability o 2.8 Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development

y 3 Progress y 4 Review Summit 2010 y 5 Challenges of the Millennium Development Goals

o 5.1 Controversy Over Funding of 0.7% of GNI y 6 Related Organizations

o 6.1 MDG Related projects y 7 References

y 8 External links o 8.1 United Nations o 8.2 Others

Heads of State at the Millennium Summit

In 2001, recognizing the need to assist impoverished nations more aggressively, UNmember states adopted the targets. The aim of MDGs is to encourage development byimproving social and economic conditions in the world's poorest countries.

They derive from earlier international development targets,[2] and were officiallyestablished at the Millennium Summit in 2000, where all world leaders present adoptedthe United Nations Millennium Declaration, from which the eight goals were promoted.



[ edit ] Goals

The percentage of the world's population living in extreme poverty has halved since1981. The graph shows estimates and projections from the World Bank 1981±2009. Mostof this improvement has occurred in East and South Asia.

TheMillennium Development Goals (MDGs) were developed out of the eight chaptersof the United Nations Millennium Declaration, signed in September 2000. There are eightgoals with 21 targets,[3] and a series of measurable indicators for each target.[4][5]

[edit] Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

y Target 1A: Halve the proportion of people living on less than $1 a day o P roportion of population below $1 per day ( PPP values) o P overty gap ratio [incidence x depth of poverty] o S hare of poorest quintile in national consumption

y Target 1B: Achieve Decent Employment for Women, Men, and Young

People o GD P Growth per Employed P erson o Employment Rate o P roportion of employed population below $1 per day ( PPP values) o P roportion of family-based workers in employed population

y Target 1C: Halve the proportion of people who suffer from hunger o P

revalence of underweight children under five years of age o P roportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy

consumption[6]

[edit] Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education

y Target 2A: By 2015, all children can complete a full course of primary

schooling, girls and boys



o Enrollment in primary education o C ompletion of primary education o Literacy of 15-24 year olds, female and male

[7]

[edit] Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women

y Target 3A: Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education

preferably by 2005, and at all levels by 2015 o Ratios of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education o S hare of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector o P roportion of seats held by women in national parliament

[8]

[edit] Goal 4: Reduce child mortality rate

y Target 4A: Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five

mortality rate

o U nder-five mortality rate o I nfant (under 1) mortality rate o P roportion of 1-year-old children immunised against measles

[9]

[edit] Goal 5: Improve maternal health

y Target 5A: Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal

mortality ratio o M aternal mortality ratio o P roportion of births attended by skilled health personnel

y Target 5B: Achieve, by 2015, universal access to reproductive health

o C ontraceptive prevalence rate o Adolescent birth rate o Antenatal care coverage o U nmet need for family planning

[10]

[edit] Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases

y Target 6A: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of

HIV/AIDS o HIV prevalence among population aged 15±24 years o C ondom use at last high-risk sex

o P roportion of population aged 15±24 years with comprehensive correct knowledge of HIV/AI DS

y Target 6B: Achieve, by 2010, universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for

all those who need it o P roportion of population with advanced HIV infection with access to

antiretroviral drugs

y Target 6C: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of

malaria and other major diseases



o P revalence and death rates associated with malaria o P roportion of children under 5 sleeping under insecticide-treated bednets o P roportion of children under 5 with fever who are treated with

appropriate anti-malarial drugs o P revalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis o P

roportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under DOT S (Directly Observed Treatment S hort C ourse)

[11]

[edit] Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability

y Target 7A: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country

policies and programs; reverse loss of environmental resources y Target 7B: Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant

reduction in the rate of loss o P roportion of land area covered by forest o C O2 emissions , total, per capita and per $1 GD P ( PPP ) o C

onsumption of ozone-depleting substances o P roportion of fish stocks within safe biological limits o P roportion of total water resources used o P roportion of terrestrial and marine areas protected o P roportion of species threatened with extinction

y Target 7C: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable

access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation (for more information see

the entry on water supply) o P roportion of population with sustainable access to an improved water

source , urban and rural o P roportion of urban population with access to improved sanitation

y Target 7

D: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the livesof at least 100 million slum-dwellers

o P roportion of urban population living in slums[12]

[edit] Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development

y Target 8A: Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, non-

discriminatory trading and financial system o I ncludes a commitment to good governance , development, and poverty

reduction ± both nationally and internationally y Target 8B: Address the Special Needs of the Least Developed Countries

(LD

C) o I ncludes: tariff and quota free access for L DC exports; enhanced

programme of debt relief for HIPC and cancellation of official bilateral debt; and more generous OD A (Overseas Development A ssistance) for

countries committed to poverty reduction y Target 8C: Address the special needs of landlocked developing countries and

small island developing States



o Through the P rogramme of Action for the S ustainable Development of S mall I sland Developing S tates and the outcome of the twenty-second special session of the General A ssembly

y Target 8D: Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing

countries through national and international measures in order to make debt

sustainable in the long term o S ome of the indicators listed below are monitored separately for the least

developed countries ( L DC s), A frica, landlocked developing countries and small island developing S tates.

o Official development assistance (OD A ): N et OD A , total and to L DC s, as percentage of OE C D / D AC

donors¶ G N I P roportion of total sector-allocable OD A of OE C D / D AC donors to

basic social services (basic education, primary health care,

nutrition, safe water and sanitation) P roportion of bilateral OD A of OE C D / D AC donors that is untied

OD A

received in landlocked countries as proportion of their G N I

s OD A received in small island developing S tates as proportion of

their G N I s o M arket access:

P roportion of total developed country imports (by value and excluding arms) from developing countries and from L DC s,

admitted free of duty Average tariffs imposed by developed countries on agricultural

products and textiles and clothing from developing countries A gricultural support estimate for OE C D countries as percentage

of their GD P P roportion of OD A provided to help build trade capacity

o Debt sustainability: Total number of countries that have reached their HIPC decision

points and number that have reached their HIPC completion points (cumulative)

Debt relief committed under HIPC initiative,US $ Debt service as a percentage of exports of goods and services

y Target 8E: In co-operation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to

affordable, essential drugs in developing countries o P roportion of population with access to affordable essential drugs on a

sustainable basis

y Target 8F: In co-operation with the private sector, make available the

benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications o Telephone lines and cellular subscribers per 100 population o P ersonal computers in use per 100 population o I nternet users per 100 P opulation

[13]



[ edit ] Progress

Progress towards reaching the goals has been uneven. Some countries have achievedmany of the goals,[14] while others are not on track to realize any.[15] The major countriesthat have been achieving their goals include China (whose poverty population has

reduced from 452 million to 278 million) and India due to clear internal and externalfactors of population and economic development.[16] However, areas needing the mostreduction, such as the Sub-Saharan Africa regions have yet to make any drastic changesin improving their quality of life. In the same time as China, the Sub-Saharan Africareduced their poverty about one percent, and are at a major risk of not meeting the MDGs by 2015.[16] Fundamental issues will determine whether or not the MDGs are achieved,namely gender, the divide between the humanitarian and development agendas andeconomic growth, according to researchers at the Overseas Development Institute.[17]

Achieving the the MDGs does not depend on economic growth alone and expensivesolutions. In the case of MDG 4, some developing countries like Bangladesh have shown

that it is possible to reduce child mortality with only modest growth by rolling outinexpensive but effective interventions, such as measles immunisation, widely.[18]

Goal 8 of the Millennium Development Goals is unique in the sense that it focus ondonor government commitments and achievements, rather than successes in thedeveloping world. The Commitment to Development Index, published annually by theCenter for Global Development is often considered to be the numerical targetingindicator for the 8th MDG.

[19]It is a more comprehensive measure of donor progress than

simply Official Development Assistance as it takes into account policies on a number of indicators that affect developing countries such as trade, migration, and investment.

To accelerate progress towards the MDGs, the G-8 Finance Ministers met in London inJune 2005 (in preparation for the G-8 Gleneagles Summit in July) and reached anagreement to provide enough funds to the World Bank , the IMF, and the AfricanDevelopment Bank (ADB) to cancel an additional $40±55 billion debt owed by membersof the HIPC. This would allow impoverished countries to re-channel the resources savedfrom the forgiven debt to social programs for improving health and education and for alleviating poverty.[20]

Backed by G-8 funding, the World Bank , the IMF, and the ADB each endorsed theGleaneagles plan and implemented the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative ("MDRI") toeffectuate the debt cancellations. The MDRI supplements HIPC by providing each

country that reaches the HIPC completion point 100% forgiveness of its multilateral debt.Countries that previously reached the decision point became eligible for full debtforgiveness once their lending agency confirmed that the countries had continued tomaintain the reforms implemented during HIPC status. Other countries that subsequentlyreach the completion point automatically receive full forgiveness of their multilateraldebt under MDRI.[20]



While the World Bank and ADB limit MDRI to countries that complete the HIPC program, the IMF's MDRI eligibility criteria are slightly less restrictive so as to complywith the IMF's unique "uniform treatment" requirement. Instead of limiting eligibility toHIPC countries, any country with annual per capita income of $380 or less qualifies for MDRI debt cancellation. The IMF adopted the $380 threshold because it closely

approximates the countries eligible for HIPC.

[20]

Yet, as we head towards 2015 increasing global uncertainties, such as the economic crisis and climate change, have led to an opportunity to rethink the MDG approach todevelopment policy. According to the 'In Focus' Policy Brief from the Institute of Development Studies, the 'After 2015' debate is about questioning the value of an MDG-type, target-based approach to international development, about progress so far on poverty reduction, about looking to an uncertain future and exploring what kind of system is needed after the MDG deadline has passed.[21]

Further developments in rethinking strategies and approaches to achieving the MDGs

include research by the Overseas Development Institute into the role of equity.

[22]

Researchers at the ODI argue progress can be accelerated due to recent breakthroughs inthe role equity plays in creating a virtuous circle where rising equity ensures the poor participate in their country's develop and creates reductions in poverty and financialstability.[22] Yet equity should not be understood purely as economic, but also as political.Examples abound and include Brazil's cash transfers, Uganda's eliminations of user feesand the subsequent huge increase in in visits from the very poorest or else Mauritius'sdual-track approach to liberalisation (inclusive growth and inclusive development) aidingit on its road into the World Trade Organization.[22] Researchers at the ODI thus proposeequity be measured in league tables in order to provide a clearer insight into how MDGscan be achieved more quickly; the ODI is working with partners to put forward leaguetables at the 2010 MDG review meeting.[22]

The effects of increasing drug us

R eview Summit 2010

A major conference will be held at UN headquarters in New York on 20-22 September 2010 to review progress to date, with five years left to the 2015 deadline.

[ edit ] Challenges of the Millennium Development Goals

Although developed countries' aid for the achievement of the MDGs have been risingover the recent year, it has shown that more than half is towards debt relief owed by poor countries. As well, remaining aid money goes towards natural disaster relief and militaryaid which does not further the country into development. According to the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2006), the 50 least developed



countries only receive about one third of all aid that flows from developed countries,raising the issue of aid not moving from rich to poor depending on their developmentneeds but rather from rich to their closest allies.

[24]

Many development experts question the MDGs model of transferring billions of dollars

directly from the wealthy nation governments to the often bureaucratic or corruptgovernments in developing countries. This form of aid has led to extensive cynicism bythe general public in the wealthy nations, and hurts support for expanding badly neededaid.

[edit] Controversy Over Funding of 0.7% of GNI

Over the past 35 years, the members of the UN have repeatedly made a "commit[ment]0.7% of rich-countries' gross national product (GNI) to Official DevelopmentAssistance."[25] The commitment was first made in 1970 by the UN General Assembly.

The text of the commitment was:

Each economically advanced country will progressively increase its official developmentassistance to the developing countries and will exert its best efforts to reach a minimumnet amount of 0.7 percent of its gross national product at market prices by the middle of the decade.[26]

However, there has been disagreement from the US, and other nations, over theMonterrey Consensus that urged "developed countries that have not done so to makeconcrete efforts towards the target of 0.7 per cent of gross national product (GNI) asODA to developing countries."[27][28]

Support for the 0.7% Target

The UN "believe[s] that donors should commit to reaching the long-standing target of 0.7 percent of GNI by 2015".[26]

The European Union has recently reaffirmed its commitment to the 0.7% aid targets. TheEU External Relations council says that, as of May 2005, "four out of the five countries,which exceed the UN target for ODA of 0.7%, of GNI are member states of the EuropeanUnion."[29]

Many organizations are working to bring U.S. political attention to the MillenniumDevelopment Goals. In 2007, The Borgen Project worked with Sen. Barack Obama onthe Global Poverty Act, a bill requiring the White House to develop a strategy for achieving the goals. As of 2009, the bill has not passed, but Barack Obama has since been elected President.[30][31]

Challenges to the 0.7% Target



MDG Related projects

Accessing Development Education:[39] Portal developed within the EU funded project

'Accessing Development Education (ONG-ED/2007/136-419). Provides relevantinformation about Development Education/ Global Education and helps educators findresources and materials that are most suitable for their work.

TeachMDGs:[40] European project that aims to increase awareness and public support for the Millennium Development Goals by actively engaging teacher training institutes,teachers and pupils in developing local oriented teaching resources promoting the MDGswith a particular focus on sub-Saharan Africa and integrate these into the educationalsystems

Management in all business areas and organizational activities are the acts of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives efficiently and effectively.Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, andcontrolling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment andmanipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, andnatural resources.

Because organizations can be viewed as systems, management can also be defined as

human action, including design, to facilitate the production of useful outcomes from asystem. This view opens the opportunity to 'manage' oneself, a pre-requisite to attemptingto manage others.

Management can also refer to the person or people who perform the act(s) of management.

Performance management (PM) includes activities to ensure that goals are consistently being met in an effective and efficient manner. Performance management can focus onthe performance of an organization, a department, employee, or even the processes to build a product or service, as well as many other areas.

Performance management as referenced on this page is a broad term coined by Dr.Aubrey Daniels in the late 1970s to describe a technology (i.e. science imbedded inapplications methods) for managing both behavior and results, two critical elements of what is known as performance.[1]



There are many ways and methods to measure employee performance but one of the mosteffective ways is using automated tools. The following are the advantages for using anautomated performance management systems:

y Automation of Processes:Organisations can improve their HR Reporting and

analytics with the automation of their performance measurement process. It alsosaves time and money.y Goal clarity and alignment: Everyone in the organisation is clearly aware about

the common organisational goals and objectives. Once the goals are clearlydefined, everyone works for the growth of the organisation.

y Remote Workers (out of office operations):Technological advancements havelead to the growth of alternate working arrangements. With an EPM, employeesworking out of offices can coordinate their efforts with their managers.

y Flexibility and customisation: The employee performance management solutionscan be customised according to the needs of the organisation.

y Competency management: Every organisation has some competencies around

which their business operations revolve. An efficient and effective employee performance measurement solution ensures that the competencies are managedwell.

y Talent management ( retention and growth): Employee performance managementis an important factor for Talent Management. It helps identify knowncompetencies, develop succession plans, notice talent gaps and establishcompensation scales based on employee assessment.

Application

This is used most often in the workplace, can apply wherever people interact ² schools,

churches, community meetings, sports teams, health setting, governmental agencies, andeven political settings - anywhere in the world people interact with their environments to produce desired effects. Armstrong and Baron (1998) defined it as a ³strategic andintegrated approach to increasing the effectiveness of organizations by improving the performance of the people who work in them and by developing the capabilities of teamsand individual contributors.´

It may be possible to get all employees to reconcile personal goals with organizationalgoals and increase productivity and profitability of an organization using this process. Itcan be applied by organisations or a single department or section inside an organisation,as well as an individual person. The performance process is appropriately named the self-

propelled performance process (SPPP).

[citation needed ]

First, a commitment analysis must be done where a job mission statement is drawn up for each job. The job mission statement is a job definition in terms of purpose, customers, product and scope. The aim with this analysis is to determine the continuous keyobjectives and performance standards for each job position.



Following the commitment analysis is the work analysis of a particular job in terms of thereporting structure and job description. If a job description is not available, then asystems analysis can be done to draw up a job description. The aim with this analysis isto determine the continuous critical objectives and performance standards for each job.

Benefits

Managing employee or system performance facilitates the effective delivery of strategicand operational goals. There is a clear and immediate correlation between using performance management programs or software and improved business andorganizational results.

For employee performance management, using integrated software, rather than aspreadsheet based recording system, may deliver a significant return on investmentthrough a range of direct and indirect sales benefits, operational efficiency benefits and by unlocking the latent potential in every employees work day (i.e. the time they spend

not actually doing their job). Benefits may include:

Direct financial gain

y Grow salesy Reduce costsy Stop project overrunsy Aligns the organization directly behind the CEO's goalsy Decreases the time it takes to create strategic or operational changes by

communicating the changes through a new set of goals

Motivated workforce

y Optimizes incentive plans to specific goals for over achievement, not just businessas usual

y Improves employee engagement because everyone understands how they aredirectly contributing to the organisations high level goals

y Create transparency in achievement of goalsy High confidence in bonus payment processy Professional development programs are better aligned directly to achieving

business level goals

Improved management control

y Flexible, responsive to management needsy Displays data relationshipsy Helps audit / comply with legislative requirementsy Simplifies communication of strategic goals scenario planning y Provides well documented and communicated process documentation



Organizational Development

In organizational development (OD), performance can be thought of as Actual Results vs

Desired Results. Any discrepancy, where Actual is less than Desired, could constitute the performance improvement zone. Performance management and improvement can bethought of as a cycle:

1. P erformance planning where goals and objectives are established2. P erformance coaching where a manager intervenes to give feedback and adjust

performance3. P erformance appraisal where individual performance is formally documented

and feedback delivered

A performance problem is any gap between Desired Results and Actual Results.

Performance improvement is any effort targeted at closing the gap between ActualResults and Desired Results.

Other organizational development definitions are slightly different. The U.S. Office of Personnel Management (OPM) indicates that Performance Management consists of asystem or process whereby:

1. Work is planned and expectations are set2. Performance of work is monitored3. Staff ability to perform is developed and enhanced4. Performance is rated or measured and the ratings summarized

5. Top performance is rewarded[2]

Management in all business areas and organizational activities are the acts of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and ...

Quality management can be considered to have three main components: quality control,quality assurance and quality improvement. Quality management is focused not only on product/service quality, but also the means to achieve it. Quality management thereforeuses quality assurance and control of processes as well as products to achieve moreconsistent quality.

Organization development (OD) is a planned, organization-wide effort to increase anorganization's effectiveness and viability. Warren Bennis has referred to OD as aresponse to change, a complex educational strategy intended to change the beliefs,attitudes, values, and structure of organization so that they can better adapt to newtechnologies, marketing and challenges, and the dizzying rate of change itself. OD isneither "anything done to better an organization" nor is it "the training function of theorganization"; it is a particular kind of change process designed to bring about a



particular kind of end result. OD can involve interventions in the organization's"processes," using behavioural science knowledge[1] as well as organizational reflection,system improvement, planning, and self-analysis.

Kurt Lewin (1898±1947) is widely recognized as the founding father of OD, although he

died before the concept became current in the mid-1950s. From Lewin came the ideas of group dynamics and action research which underpin the basic OD process as well as providing its collaborative consultant/client ethos. Institutionally, Lewin founded the"Research Center for Group Dynamics" (RCGD) at MIT, which moved to Michigan after his death. RCGD colleagues were among those who founded the National TrainingLaboratories (NTL), from which the T-group and group-based OD emerged. In the UK,the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations was important in developing systems theories.The joint TIHR journal Human Relations was an early journal in the field. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Sciences is now the leading journal in the field.

The term "Organization Development" is often used interchangeably with Organizational

effectiveness, especially when used as the name of a department within an organization.Organization development is a growing field that is responsive to many new approachesincluding Positive Adult Development.

U nderstanding organizations

Weisbord presents a six-step model for understanding organization:

1. Purposes: The organization member are clear about the organization¶s missionand purpose and goal agreements, whether people support the organization¶ purpose.

2. Structure: How do we divide up the work? The question is whether there is anadequate fit between the purpose and the internal structure.3. Relationship: Between individual, between units or department that perform

different tasks, and between the people and requirements of their job.4. Rewards: The consultant should diagnose the similarities between what the

organization formally reward or punished for doing.5. Leadership: Is to watch for blips among the other boxes and maintain balance

among them6. Helpful mechanism: Is a helpful organization that must attend to in order to

survive which as planning, control, budgeting, and other information systems thathelp organization member accomplish.[7]

[edit] Modern development

In recent years, serious questioning has emerged about the relevance of OD to managingchange in modern organizations. The need for "reinventing" the field has become a topicthat even some of its "founding fathers" are discussing critically.[8]



With this call for reinvention and change, scholars have begun to examine organizationaldevelopment from an emotion-based standpoint. For example, deKlerk (2007) [9] writesabout how emotional trauma can negatively affect performance. Due to downsizing,outsourcing, mergers, restructuring, continual changes, invasions of privacy, harassment,and abuses of power, many employees experience the emotions of aggression, anxiety,

apprehension, cynicism, and fear, which can lead to performance decreases. deKlerk (2007) suggests that in order to heal the trauma and increase performance, O.D. practitioners must acknowledge the existence of the trauma, provide a safe place for employees to discuss their feelings, symbolize the trauma and put it into perspective, andthen allow for and deal with the emotional responses. One method of achieving this is byhaving employees draw pictures of what they feel about the situation, and then havingthem explain their drawings with each other. Drawing pictures is beneficial because itallows employees to express emotions they normally would not be able to put into words.Also, drawings often prompt active participation in the activity, as everyone is required todraw a picture and then discuss its meaning.

[ edit ] Action research

Wendell L French and Cecil Bell define organization development (OD) at one point as"organization improvement through action research".[4] If one idea can be said tosummarize OD's underlying philosophy, it would be action research as it wasconceptualized by Kurt Lewin and later elaborated and expanded on by other behavioralscientists. Concerned with social change and, more particularly, with effective, permanent social change, Lewin believed that the motivation to change was stronglyrelated to action: If people are active in decisions affecting them, they are more likely toadopt new ways. "Rational social management", he said, "proceeds in a spiral of steps,each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about the

result of action".

[10]

Figure 1: Systems Model of Action-Research Process

Lewin's description of the process of change involves three steps [10]:



"Unfreezing": Faced with a dilemma or disconfirmation, the individual or group becomesaware of a need to change.

"Changing": The situation is diagnosed and new models of behavior are explored andtested.

"Refreezing": Application of new behavior is evaluated, and if reinforcing, adopted.

Figure 1 summarizes the steps and processes involved in planned change through actionresearch. Action research is depicted as a cyclical process of change. The cycle beginswith a series of planning actions initiated by the client and the change agent workingtogether. The principal elements of this stage include a preliminary diagnosis, datagathering, feedback of results, and joint action planning. In the language of systemstheory, this is the input phase, in which the client system becomes aware of problems asyet unidentified, realizes it may need outside help to effect changes, and shares with theconsultant the process of problem diagnosis.

The second stage of action research is the action, or transformation, phase. This stageincludes actions relating to learning processes (perhaps in the form of role analysis) andto planning and executing behavioral changes in the client organization. As shown inFigure 1, feedback at this stage would move via Feedback Loop A and would have theeffect of altering previous planning to bring the learning activities of the client systeminto better alignment with change objectives. Included in this stage is action-planningactivity carried out jointly by the consultant and members of the client system. Followingthe workshop or learning sessions, these action steps are carried out on the job as part of the transformation stage.[6]

The third stage of action research is the output, or results, phase. This stage includesactual changes in behavior (if any) resulting from corrective action steps taken followingthe second stage. Data are again gathered from the client system so that progress can bedetermined and necessary adjustments in learning activities can be made. Minor adjustments of this nature can be made in learning activities via Feedback Loop B (see Figure 1). Major adjustments and reevaluations would return the OD project to the first,or planning, stage for basic changes in the program. The action-research model shown in Figure 1 closely follows Lewin's repetitive cycle of planning, action, and measuringresults. It also illustrates other aspects of Lewin's general model of change. As indicatedin the diagram, the planning stage is a period of unfreezing, or problem awareness.[10] The action stage is a period of changing, that is, trying out new forms of behavior in aneffort to understand and cope with the system's problems. (There is inevitable overlap between the stages, since the boundaries are not clear-cut and cannot be in a continuous process). The results stage is a period of refreezing, in which new behaviors are tried outon the job and, if successful and reinforcing, become a part of the system's repertoire of problem-solving behavior.

Action research is problem centered, client centered, and action oriented. It involves theclient system in a diagnostic, active-learning, problem-finding, and problem-solving



process. Data are not simply returned in the form of a written report but instead are fed back in open joint sessions, and the client and the change agent collaborate in identifyingand ranking specific problems, in devising methods for finding their real causes, and indeveloping plans for coping with them realistically and practically. Scientific method inthe form of data gathering, forming hypotheses, testing hypotheses, and measuring

results, although not pursued as rigorously as in the laboratory, is nevertheless an integral part of the process. Action research also sets in motion a long-range, cyclical, self-correcting mechanism for maintaining and enhancing the effectiveness of the client'ssystem by leaving the system with practical and useful tools for self-analysis and self-renewal

OD interventions

"Interventions" are principal learning processes in the "action" stage (see Figure 1) of organization development. Interventions are structured activities used individually or incombination by the members of a client system to improve their social or task

performance. They may be introduced by a change agent as part of an improvement program, or they may be used by the client following a program to check on the state of the organization's health, or to effect necessary changes in its own behavior. "Structuredactivities" mean such diverse procedures as experiential exercises, questionnaires,attitude surveys, interviews, relevant group discussions, and even lunchtime meetings between the change agent and a member of the client organization. Every action thatinfluences an organization's improvement program in a change agent-client systemrelationship can be said to be an intervention.

[11]

There are many possible intervention strategies from which to choose. Severalassumptions about the nature and functioning of organizations are made in the choice of a

particular strategy. Beckhard lists six such assumptions:

1. The basic building blocks of an organization are groups (teams). Therefore, the basic units of change are groups, not individuals.

2. An always relevant change goal is the reduction of inappropriate competition between parts of the organization and the development of a more collaborativecondition.

3. Decision making in a healthy organization is located where the informationsources are, rather than in a particular role or level of hierarchy.

4. Organizations, subunits of organizations, and individuals continuously managetheir affairs against goals. Controls are interim measurements, not the basis of

managerial strategy.5. One goal of a healthy organization is to develop generally open communication,mutual trust, and confidence between and across levels.

6. People support what they help create. People affected by a change must beallowed active participation and a sense of ownership in the planning and conductof the change.[3]



Interventions range from those designed to improve the effectiveness of individualsthrough those designed to deal with teams and groups, intergroup relations, and the totalorganization. There are interventions that focus on task issues (what people do), andthose that focus on process issues (how people go about doing it). Finally, interventionsmay be roughly classified according to which change mechanism they tend to emphasize:

for example, feedback, awareness of changing cultural norms, interaction andcommunication, conflict, and education through either new knowledge or skill practice.[12]

One of the most difficult tasks confronting the change agent is to help create in the client system a safe climate for learning and change. In a favorable climate, human learning builds on itself and continues indefinitely during man's lifetime. Out of new behavior ,new dilemmas and problems emerge as the spiral continues upward to new levels. In anunfavorable climate, in contrast, learning is far less certain, and in an atmosphere of psychological threat, it often stops altogether. Unfreezing old ways can be inhibited inorganizations because the climate makes employees feel that it is inappropriate to reveal

true feelings, even though such revelations could be constructive. In an inhibitedatmosphere, therefore, necessary feedback is not available. Also, trying out new waysmay be viewed as risky because it violates established norms. Such an organization mayalso be constrained because of the law of systems: If one part changes, other parts will become involved. Hence, it is easier to maintain the status quo. Hierarchical authority,specialization, span of control, and other characteristics of formal systems alsodiscourage experimentation.[11]

The change agent must address himself to all of these hazards and obstacles. Some of thethings which will help him are:

1.

A real need in the client system to change2. Genuine support from management3. Setting a personal example: listening, supporting behavior 4. A sound background in the behavioral sciences5. A working knowledge of systems theory6. A belief in man as a rational, self-educating being fully capable of learning better

ways to do things.[11]

A few examples of interventions include team building, coaching, Large GroupInterventions, mentoring, performance appraisal, downsizing, TQM, and leadershipdevelopment



Varieties of individual power

According to Patrick J. Montana and Bruce H. Charnov, the ability to attain these unique

powers is what enables leadership to influence subordinates and peers by controllingorganizational resources. The successful leader effectively uses these power(s) toinfluence employees, and it is important for the leader to understand the uses of power tostrengthen the leadership functioning.

The authors distinguish the following types of organizational power:

y Legitimate Power refers to the different types of professional positions within anorganization structure that inherent such power. E.g. Manager, Vice President,Director, Supervisor, et cetera. These levels of power commands to thehierarchical executive levels within the organization itself. The higher position

such as President of the company has a higher power than the rest of professional positions in the hierarchical executive levels.

y Reward Power given the power to managers that attain administrative power over a range of rewards. Employees whom work for managers desire the rewardfrom the manager, they will be influenced by receiving them as the product of work performance. The rewards may be the obvious²pay raise or promotions.

y Coercive Power given the manager's ability to punish an employee whom did notfollow the company policy, loss of profit, et cetera. Punishment can bedetermined range of mild to serious punishment... a mild punishment is a

suspension and serious punishment is actual termination.

y Expert Power an expert power attained by the manager by their own talents suchas skills, knowledge, abilities, or previous experience. Any of these manager hasthe power within the organization will be very valuable and important manager inthe company.

y Charisma Power a manager has a charisma that will positively influence onworkers, and admired manager that creates the opportunity for interpersonalinfluence. A person has charisma, and this will confer great power as a manager.

y Referent Power a power that gained by association. This person with whom he or she is associated or has a relationship, often referred to assistant or deputy.

y Information Power a person who has possession of important information at aimportant time when such information is needed to organizational functioning.Someone who has this information knowledge has genuine power. Manager'ssecretary would be in a powerful position if a secretary has information power

major prob

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