medicine in east asia hi 176: lecture 6 dr. howard chiang
TRANSCRIPT
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Medicine in East Asia
HI 176: Lecture 6Dr. Howard Chiang
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Historical Context
Periodization of East Asian History- China: Ming (1368-1644), Qing (1644-1911),
Republican (1911-49), PRC (1949-present)- Japan: Edo/Tokugawa (1603-1868), Japanese
Empire (1868-1945), Showa (1926-89), Hesei (1989-present)
- Korea: Choson (1392-1897), Korean Empire (1897-1910), Japanese Colony (1910-45), 2 Koreas (1945-)
Qing:- Manchu preserved basic social/political frameworks- Kaozheng or ‘evidential scholarship’ movement- Opium War (1839-42); Taiping Rebellion (1851-64)- ‘Self-Strengthening’ (1861-95); Sino-Jap War (1894-
5)
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First Opium War
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Fuzhou Shipyard
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Partitioning of China- Queen Victoria
- William II (Germany)- Nicholas II (Russia)- French Marianne
- Meiji Emperor
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Medical Systems: East Asia
Until rather recently:- All healers and medical systems operated within a
common set of limits: none had any route of direct access to the internal workings of the body
- inferred from a narrow range of indirect evidence- Human body is a microcosm of the universe- Disease is a state of body imbalance
Chinese/East Asian Medical System:- Five ‘elements’/‘phases’ theory (wuyuan) –
metal (the lungs), wood (the liver), water (the kidneys), fire (the heart), and earth (the spleen)
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Body as microcosmof the universe
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Medical Systems: East Asia
Chinese/East Asian Medical System:- Yin (‘feminine’) and Yang (‘masculine’)
- dark/light, wet/dry, cold/warm- Does not impose a rigid duality
- within each predominantly yin or yang entity, characteristics associated with its opposite occur
- Huangdi Neijing or the Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor: the earliest surviving medical text (200BCE)
- major channels known as jing and mai, through each of these channels flows a fluid substance called qi
- Healthy body depends on free circulation of qi- qi is polysemic: literal breath, wind in the meteorological sense, vital principle, life force
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Hua Shou (1341) v. Vesalius (1543)
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Social, Cultural, Intellectual Trends
- Qing period – fluid boundaries between multiple realms of curative and health-promoting activities
- No regulations controlled who could provide healing services – the ability to attract patients was the ‘practical’ requirement to become a healer
- Everyday knowledge exchange among friends, relatives, and neighbors
- ‘daily use encyclopedias’- ‘protecting life’ (weisheng) and ‘nourishing life’
(yangsheng) – former becomes ‘hygiene’ in 20th c.- Internal (neidan) vs. external alchemy (waidan)- People consult & compare multiple practitioners- Everyone could be his/her own doctor
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Daoist Alchemy
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Gentrification of Medicine
- 1772: Qianlong Emperor’s Complete Books of the Four Treasuries (Siku quanshu) – literary purge?
- ‘evidential research’ – to recover the original form and meaning of Han Dynasty (206BC-220 AD) works, which was allegedly distorted by Song-era (960-1279) commentaries- challenge Song-era Neo-Confucianism- close relationship to literate medicine in Qing
- Gentrification of medicine:- ‘medical legitimacy’ – from ‘3 generations of medicine’ (hereditary physicians, shiyi) to mastery of ‘3 canonical texts’ (scholarly physicians, ruyi)
- Qing: qualification & authority constructed on cultural terms rather than legal regulations
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Complete Books of Four Treasuries
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Global Medical Exchange
- The materia medica Bencao gangmu (1578) by Li Shizhen (1518-1593) could be purchased in Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and communities in Southeast Asia
- Tribute system – structured China’s relations with other kingdoms and conduit for medical exchange
- New in Qing: between China and the West- founding the Society of Jesus in 1540
- 18th century: - European interest in acupuncture and moxibustion- European interest in Chinese drugs: e.g., ginseng, ‘China root’, rhubarb, and tea
- 19th century: opium
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Li shizhen’s Bencao Gangmu
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Acupuncture / Moxibustion
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Ginseng, Rhubarb, Tea
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Western Medicine & Self-Strengthening
- Treaty ports – e.g., Shanghai & Tianjin- ‘cultural imperialism’ – Western medicine to E Asia- Tokugawa Japan – Dutch East India Company- 17th & 18th c. China – Jesuit Missionaries
- 1693, French Dominique Parennin, Manchu Anatomy
- 19th c. China – Protestant Missionaries- British Benjamin Hobson, Outline of Anatomy and Physiology (1851) – first systematic translation- Tongwen Guan in Beijing – translators’ school- Scottish John Dudgeon, Gray’s Anatomy (1886)- American John Kerr, Refuge for the Insane (1898)
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Manchu Anatomy (1693)
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Benjamin Hobson (1851)
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Kerr Refuge for the Insane
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20th Century Transformations
- In the 20th century, the cacophonous medical marketplace was eventually harmonized into a single medical system in which modern biomedicine became the model against which acceptable versions of Chinese medicine were measured
- 1928 – Ministry of Health in China- Yu Yunxiu (1879-1954) led the movement to
‘abolish old-style medicine’- Chinese medicine made appear more ‘scientific’
- edited new textbooks- founded new schools of Chinese medicine- National Studies movement – ‘national medicine’- embodied experience, what Western med. lacked
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20th Century Transformations
Chinese medicine in the PRC (1949-present):- 1949-53 – subsumed under biomedicine- 1954-65 – creation of ‘traditional Chinese
medicine’- 1966-77 – led by ideological simplification- 1976-89 – exploded into myriad
options/possibilities- 1989-present – integration into global health care
Globalization:- Actively supported by WHO, promoted by the
Chinese state, dispersed by Chinese physicians, studied by conventional and alternative practitioners throughout the world, sought after by international clientele of patients
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Chinese medicine- cultural imperialism?