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CHAPTER 1 - THE CL I ENCY REL ATI ONS HI P AND I TS ROL E I N POSTWAR U. S.F OREI GN POL I CY

I n t hi s and t he f ol l ow ng chapt er , t he t heor et i cal f r amewor kt hat gui des t hi s st udy i s l ai d out . The concept of cl i ency i sel abor at ed i n some det ai l her e. I t s i mpl i cat i ons f or t he cl i ent ' sdomest i c pol i t i cs ar e di scussed i n chapt er 2. Thi s chapt er begi nsw t h a r i gor ous def i ni t i on of cl i ency. The mot i ves whi ch br i ng t hepat r on and cl i ent t oget her and t he goods and ser vi ces whi ch t r an-spi r e under a cl i ency r el at i onshi p ar e t hen di scussed. Next , t heconcept of cl i ency i s f ur t her i l l ust r at ed by cont rast i ng i t w thsever al r el at ed concept s. Thi s chapt er concl udes w th a br i efdescr i pt i ve over vi ew of U. S . cl i ency r el at i onshi ps i n t he post warera.

1) DEF I NI T I ONS OF CL TENCY AND THE CL I ENT ST ATE

THE CL I E NCY REL ATI ONSHI P AND I TS MOTI VAT I ONS

Cl i encv i s a l ong- t erm asymmet r i c,r el at i onshi p bet ween t wo i ndependent and

mut ual l y- benef i ci alautonomous count r i es

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PAGE 5whi ch di f f er gr eat l y i n t hei r si ze, weal t h, and m l i t ar y and pol i -t i cal power . Th~ cl i Qncy r el at i onshi p 1S secur i t y- or i entQd, basedon a br oad spect r um of secur i t y concer ns whi ch ar e compl ement aryand of t en i dent i cal f or t he count r i es i nvol ved. The si m l ar i ty oft hese concer ns and t he gr eat di s par i t y i n t he capabi l i t i es of t hepat r on and cl i ent cr eat e st rong i ncent i ves f or t hem to cooperatei n or der t o f ur t her t hei r mut ual i nt er est s. Thi s cooper at i onconsi st s of a r eci pr ocal exchange of ser vi ces and mat er i alr esour ces whi ch ar e di ssi m l ar and whi ch hel p t o enhance t he secu-r i t y i nt er est s of t he two count r i es . Whi l e t hi s exchange i s t hemost vi si bl e and concr et e aspect of t he cl i ency r el at i onshi p, i t; s t he r ecogni t i on of mut ual i nt er est s and t he comm tment s andcooper at i on whi ch f ol l ow t hat ar e i t s def i ni ng character i st i cs.The cooper at i ve nat ur e of t he cl i ency r el at i onshi p means t hat i ti s f undamental l y non- coer ci Ve, and t he pat r on and cl i ent ar eaut onomous i n t hi s sense. I t s non- coer ci ve char act er and i t s secu-r i t y or i ent at i on ar e t he maj or f act or s di s t i ngui shi ng cl i ency f romot hQr asymmet r i c i nt er nat i onal r el at i onshi ps, such as econom cdependence, t he sat el l i te r el at i onshi ps of cont empor ar y East er nEur ope, col oni al i sm and i mper i al i sml Cl i ency and t hese ot herr el at i onshi ps w l l be cont r ast ed i n some det ai l i n sect i on 1. 2 oft hi s chapt er .

The goal s whi ch br i ng t he pat r on and cl i ent t oget her i n acl i Qncy r el ~t i onshi p may var y consi der abl y, dependi ng on domest i c,r egi onal , and gl obal ci r cumst ances. However , some basi c mot i vescan be out l i ned her e.

I n ent er i ng i nt o a cl i ency r el at i onshi p, t he pat ron pr i mar i l yseeks a st abl e and cooper at i ve al l y i n an ar ea vi t al t o i t s SQCU-r i t y whi ch can det er t hr~at s by r i vdl power s and hel p def end i t s

i t s nat i onal bor der smay i ncl udeor ot her

r egi onal i nt er est s.t he def ense of

The pat r on' s r egi onal i nt er ests

s t rategi cal l y- i mpor t ant ar eas, pr ot ect i on f or near by al l i es, and

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PAGE 6econom c concer ns such as t he pr ot ect i on of i nvestment s by i t snat i onal s or sour ces of vi t al r aw ma~eri al s. The pat r on may al sohave var i ous secondar y goal s, i ncl udi ng cooper at i ~n f r om t hecl i ent on i nt el l i gence mat t er s, suppor t i n i nt er nat i onal f or ums,m l i t ar y assi st ance i n ext r a- r egi onal conf l i ct s, and ar r angement sf or m l i t ar y bases and ot her ki nds of f aci l i t i es .

The cl i entsecur i t y- or i ent ed

general l ygoods and

seeks a r el i abl eser vi ces t o enhance

sour ce ofi t s dom9s t i c

stabi l i t y and i t s m l i t ar y capabi l i t i es vi s- a- vi s ot her count r i es.These may i ncl ude var i ous ki nds of m l i t ar y and econom c ai d andf ormal or i nf ormal comm tment s by t he pat r on t o assi st i t i n t heevent of threat s t o i t s secur i t y.

The mot i ves of t he pat r on and cl i ent i n est abl i shi ng a cl i encyr el at i onshi p t hus conver ge on t wo basi c goal s: a st r onger cl i entm l i t ar y appar at~s and gr eat er st abi l i t y i n t he cl i ent count r y. Ast r ong cl i ent i s cl ear l y essent i al f or t he patron' s pr i mar y goal sof det er r i ng host i l e power s and pr ot ect i ng i t s r egi onal i nt er ests .However , t he cl i ent ' s domest i c st abi l i t y can be equal l y i mpor t antf or t he pat r on. A cl i ent whi ch exper i ences f r equent unr est may beweakened by di ssent i on i n i t s pol i t i cal l eader shi p or i t s m l i t ar yf or ces. Thi s di ssent i on may make i t di f f i cul t f or t he cl i ent t oact deci si vel Y on b~hal f of t he pat r on' s i nterest s. Uncer t ai nt yabout t he cl i ~nt ' s f ut ur e st abi l i t y can present ser i ous pr obl emsf or t he pat r on' s l ong- t erm i nt erest s and f or ce i t t o r~eval uat ei t s r egi onal pol i cl es. The pat r on w i l gener al l y seek t o m nim z et hese pr obl ems by act i ng t o ~n5ur~ t hat t he cl i ent i s suf f i ci ent l yst abl e t o pr esent a cr edi bl e m l i t ar y t hr eat and j ust i f y al ong- t erm comm~men~.

The cl i ent gov~rnm~nt al so has an obvi ous i nt er est i n becom ngm l i t ar i l y st r onger and mor e st abl e. Whi l e t he broad goal s ofm l i t ar y st r~ngt h and st abi l i t y ar e hel d by bot h t he patron and

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PAGE 7t he cl i ent , i n pr act i ce t hey may have ver y di f f er ent r easons f orpursui ng t hese goal s and di f f er ent concept i ons of what t heyent ai l . The c l i ent may have r egi onal ambi t i ons whi ch ar e notshar ed by t he patron or whi ch may, i n f act , conf l i ct w t h t hepat r on' s i nt erest s. Bui l di n~~ up t he cl i ent ' s m l i t ar y f or ces w t h-out some cont r ol over t hei r use may t hen have adver se consequencesf or t he pat r on. Of per haps gr eat er i mpor t ance ar e di f f er encesbet ween t he pat ron and cl i ent over how t o achi eve domest i c st abi l -i t y. Whi l e t he pat ron may seek a measur e of pol i t i cal consensus t om ni m ze unr est and ensur e peacef ul changes of gover nment , acl i ent gover nment may be more i nt er est ed i n st r engt heni ng i t sdomest i c posi t i on by r epr essi ng popul ar movement s and act i ngagai nst i t s opposi t i on. Si nce t he cl i ent government i s t he mai nreci pi ent of t he ser vi ces and r esour ces t r ansf er r ed under t hecl i ency r el at i onshi p, cl i ency can hel p i t t o achi eve t hese par t i c-ul ar goal s. Repressi on of popul ar movement s and supr essi on of t heopposi t i on can l ead t o condi t i ons whi ch j eopar di ze t he cl i ent ' sl ong- t erm st abi l i t y. Consequent l y, at t empt s by t he pat r on t oenhance t he cl i ent ' s st abi l i t y may al so have adver se l ong- t ermi mpl i cat i ons f or t he pat r on' s i nt er ests .

Cl I ENCY I NST RUMENTS

The r esour ces and servi ces provi ded by t he pat r on t o t he cl i entunder t hi s r el at i onshi p w l l be r ef er r ed t o her e as cl i encyi nst r umGnt s. Thr ee mai n cat egor i es can be di st i ngui shed: i ) m l i -t ar y and econom c t r ansf er s, i ncl udi ng l oans and gr ant s, t rai ni ngf or secur i t y f or ces, and i ndi r ect t ransf er s vi a l oan guar ant ees,quot as, f avor abl e cr edi t t erms, et c . ; i i ) over t and cover t i nt er -vent i ons, i ncl udi ng i nt el l i gence - .SSl s~ance7 di r ect mani pul at i onof domest i c pol i t i cal act or s, and m l i t ar y or par am l i t ar y act i ons

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PAGE 8agai nst par t i cul ar domest i c or f or ei gnagr eement s, such as t r eat i es, pact s,

targets; and iii) securi t yand ot her l ess f ormal

ar r angement s. These goods and ser vi ces ar e pr ovi ded by t he pat r ont o enhance t he st rengt h and st abi l i t y of t he cl i ent , t o ensur e i t scont i nued cooper at i on, and of t en t o achi eve mor e speci f i c secur i t ygoal s.

For ei gn ai d i s an i nst r ument t hat has been used t o achi eve abroad var i et y of f or ei gn pol i cy goal s, 2 many of whi ch do noti nvol ve a cl i ency r el at i onshi p. I t can, however , be of consi der -abl e i mpor t ance i n t hi s cont ext as wel l . I n suf f i ci ent magni t ude,economc ai d can bol st er t he cl i ent ' s economy by i ncr easi ng domes-t i c demand and augment i ng i nvest ment i n i nf r ast ruct ur e and ot herkey ar eas. I t can be used t o f i nance t r ansf er s t o speci f i c domes-t i c gr oups by enabl i ng t he cl i ent government t o al l ocat e soci alser vi ces and devel opment pr oj ect s mor e sel ect i vel y and f und mor edi r ect t r ansf er s such as subsi di es and t ax concessi ons. Thesemechani sms can be qui t e usef ul l n pl acat i ng popul ar unrest,par t i cul ar l y i n cr i s i s per i ods, and can t hus enhance t he cl i ent ' sst abi l i t y. Econom c ai d can al so be used t o bui l d up t he cl i ent ' sm l i t ar y capabi l i t i es by pr ovi di ng i t w t h st r at egi cal l y- i mport anti nf rastr uctur e and by al l ow ng ot her f unds t o be di ver t ed f orm l i t ar y spendi ng. I ndi r ect f i nanci al t ransf er s can pl aya si m l arr ol e, al t hough t hey do not necessar i l y accr ue t o t he cl i entgovernment and ar e usual l y smal l er i n vol ume t han di r ect econom cai d.

Tr ansf er s of m l i t ar y equi pment and t r ai ni ng f or m l i t ar yper sonnel can mor e di r ect l y enhance t he m l i t ar y capabi l i t i es anddomest i c st abi l i t y of t he cl i ent count ry. Sophi s t i cat ed m l i t ar yequi pment i s, of cour se, avai l abl e i n t he i nt er nat i onal armsmar ket . However , t he pat r on can pr ovi de i t at no cost or on f avor -abl e t erms, and can of t en pr ovi de i t ems whi ch ar e mor e advancedt han t hose avai l abl e el sewher e. Whi l e most di scussi ons about U. S.

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PAGE 9arms t r ansf er s have f ocused on maj or weapons syst ems f or usepr i mar i l y i n i nternat i onal engagement s. a si zabl e por t i on of U. S.m l i t ar y ai d has act ual l y gone f or domest i c count er i nsur gencyoper at i ons.

3Of par t i cul ar i mpor t ance i n t hi s cont ext has beenspeci al t r ai ni ng f or count er i nsur gency uni t s. bot h at U. S. bases

and l ocal l y t hr ough m l i t ar y m ss i ons. Sophi s t i cat ed equi pmentand speci al t r ai ni ng can boost moral e and make m l i t ar y and par ami l i t ar y oper at i ons mor e ef f i c i ent , enhanci ng t he cl i ent ' s m l i t ar ypost ur e and enabl i ng i t t o mai nt ai n domest i c st abi l i t y i n a mor eef f ecti ve manner .

M l i t ar y and econom c t ransf er s can i ncr ease t he cl i ent ' s m l i -t ar y capabi l i t i es and i t s abi l i t y t o cont ai n domest i c unr est .However , t hey may not be suf f i ci ent t o achi eve t he pat r on' spar t i cul ar r egi onal goal s or mai ntai n t he cl i ent ' s st abi l i t y.Over t or cover t i nt er vent i ons by t he pat ron or secur i t y agr eement spr ovi di ng f or i nt er vent i on under cer t ai n ci rcumst ances may benecessar y. Act i ons of t hi s sor t gener al l y i mpl y a st r onger comm t -ment by t he pat r on t o t he cl i ent ' s secur i t y, and t hus a st rongerand mor e vi t al cl i ency r el at i onshi p.

I n i t s most beni gn f orm i nt er vent i on can i nvol ve r el at i vel yi nnocuous act i ons by t he i nt er veni ng power such as t he pr ovi si onof subsi di es, advi ce, and t echni cal ass i st ance f or domest i c or gan-i zat i ons whi ch ar e seen as f avor abl e t o i t s goal s. These mayi ncl ude l abor uni ons, pol i t i cal par t i es, busi ness f i rms, newspa-per s, and ot her pr i vat e or gani zat i ons whi ch pl aya si gni f i cantpol i t i cal r ol e. 4 Mor e ef f ect i ve cover t act i ons may i ncl ude pr opa-ganda, sabot age, assassi nat i ons, and ot her par am l i t ar y act i vi t i esdi r ect ed agai nst gr oups who ar e seen as a t hr eat t o t he cl i entgover nment . s These act i ons ar e gener al l y t ar get ed at nat i onal s oft he cl i ent count r y, ei t her at home or i n exi l e. They can have a5ub5t ant i al i mpact on t he or gani zat i on and ef f ect i veness off r i endl y or hosti l e gr oups, and can t hus si gni f i cant l y af f ect t he

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P AGE 10cl 1Qnt ' s st abi l i t y. Cover t act i ons may al so i nvol ve f orei gnt ar get s, as when a host i l e count r y pr ovi des cr i t i cal suppor t f ordomest i c gr oups. Act i ons such as t hese can st r engt hen t he cl i entvi s- a- vi s ot her count r i es, i n addi t i on t o enhanci ng i ts domes t i cst abi l i t y.

Over t i nt er vent i ons i ncl ude di r ect i nvol vement of t he pat ron' sm l i t ar y f or ces on behal f of t he cl i ent count r y and t he t emporar yor permanent st at i oni ng of i t s t r oops w t hi n t he cl i ent ' s bor der s.Di r ect m l i t ar y i nvol vement by t he pat ron i s gener al l y a means ofl ast r esort. The st at i oni ng of t r oops i n a cl i ent count ry 1s usedmore f requent l y t o det er host i l e aggr essi on. Over t i nt er vent i onsmay be di r ect ed ei t her at domest i c gr oups. whi ch mayor may notr ecei ve out s1dQ suppor t . or at near by count r i es whi ch ar e host i l et o t he cl i ent . They may consequent l y be used ei t her t o pr omot et he cl i ent ' s domest i c st abi l i ty or t o enhance i t s m l i t ar y capa-bi l i t i es vi s - a- vi s ot her count r i es. I n many cases ( such as t hel ar ge- scal e U. S. i nt Qr vent i on i n Vi et nam t hese two goal s may bei ndi st i ngui shabl e.

Bi l at er al t r eat i es, mul t i l at eral pact s and secur i t yor gani za-t i ons, and ot her secur i t y ar r angement s of t en ser ve as t he l egalbasi s f or i nt ervent i ons. I n addi t i on t o l egi t i m zi ngi ntervent i ons, t hese ar r angement s symbol i ze t he pat ron' s comm t -ment t o t he cl i ent and consequent l y can pl ay an i mpor~ant r ol e i ndeter r i ng aggr essi on by host i l e f or ei gn or domest i c gr oups.

THE CLI ENT STATE

The mai n t hesi s of t hi s st udy i s t hat cl i ency can ser i ous l yaf f ect t he domest i c pol i t i cs of t he cl i ent count r y. The i mpact of

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PAGE 11cl i ency on t he cl i ent ' s domest i c pol i t i cs i s embodi ed her e i n t heconcept of t he cl i ent st at e. The cl i ent st at e i s a par t i cul ar f ormof st at e i n whi ch st at e- soci et y r el at i ons have been f undament al l yal t er ed as a r esul t of t he cl i ent gover nment ' s par t i ci pat i on i n acl i ency r el at i onshi p. St at e- soci et y r el at i ons ar e af f ect ed by t het r ansf er of t he goods and ser vi ces r ef er r ed t o above as cl i encyi nstr ument s t o t he cl i ent gover nment . These i nst rument s can obvi -at e t he cl i ent gover nment ' s need f or suppor t f r om domest i c soci algr oups and enabl e i t mor e ef f ect i vel y t o under mne t he pol i t i calpower of gr oups t hat oppose i t . Domest i c gr oups consequent l y havever y l i t t l e pol i t i cal i nf l uence i n ~ cl i ent st at e, and t he st at e' spol i ci es may become di vor ced f r om t he i nt er est s and needs of soci -et y.

Thi s can have i mpor t ant l ong- t er m consequences. A st at e whi chi s not const rai ned by soci et al pr essur es can under take vi r t ual l yany pol i ci es i t sees f i t , r egar dl ess of t hei r i mpact on soci et y.Over a l ong per i od of t i me t he ~bsence of publ i c i nput i nt o st at epol i cymaki ng can l ead t o ser i ous pr obl ems i n t he economy, i nf or ei gn r el at i ons, and i n ot her pol i cy ar eas, of t en r esul t i ng i ndomest i c unr est . Thi s may be par t i cul ar l y t rue i n under devel opedcount r i es, wher e unr est can be augment ed by t he absence of i nst i -t ut i ons t o channel and cont ai n publ i c di scont ent and wher e economi c pl anni ng i s gener al l y of gr eat i mpor t ance. By undermni ngsoci et al i nf l uences on st at e pol i cy cl i ency can t hus par adoxi cal l yl ead t o l ong- term i nstabi l i t y. Fur t hermor e, i f t he pat r on powerbecomGs cl osel y i dent i f i ed w t h t he cl i ent st at e i n t he eyes ofdi scon~ent ed soci al gr oups, t hei r anger may be di rect ed at i t aswel l as at t he cl i ent gover nment . Hence i n t he l ong t erm cl i encycan have consequences whi ch ar e qui t e di f f er ent f r om t hoseor i gi n~ l y envi s i oned by t he pat ron and cl i ent governments .

I n or der t o ad~quat el y di scuss how cl i ency can l ead t o t heest abl i shment of a cl i ent st at e and t o succi nct l y char act er i ze

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P AGE 12s t at e- s o c i et y r el a t i ons 1n s uc h a s t a t e i t i s nec es s a r y t o di s c us ss ever a l o t h er conc ep t s whi ch bea r on t hes e ma t t er s . Thi s wi l l bedone i n c hapt er 2. Chapt er 2 wi l l a l s o r evi ew a nu mber of s t udi eswhi c h gi ve i mpo r t a nt i ns i ght s i nt o t he na t ur e of pol i c y - ma ki ng i na c l i ent s t a t e a nd i t s pos s i bl e l ong- t e r m cons equenc es . Ther ema i nde r of t hi s c hapt er f ur t her i l l us t r a t es t he c onc ept ofc l i e nc y by c ompa r i ng i t wi t h o t h er as ymmet r i c i nt er nat i o nalr e l a t i ons hi ps and by pr es ent i ng s ome emp i r i c a l da t a whi c h hel p t oi dent i f y U. S. c l i ent s i n t he post war per i od.

2) Cl I ENCY AND OTHER I NT ERNAT I ONAL RELATI ONSHI P S

I n t h i s s ec t i on c l i enc y i s c ompa r ed wi t h de pend enc y, wi t h t hes a t el l i t e r el a t i o ns h i p s whi c h exi s t i n c ont empo r ar y Eas t er nEur ope , and wi t h c ol on i a l i s m and i mper i a l i s m T hes e f i ve t ypes ofi nt er n at i ona l r el at i ons hi p a r e c ont r a s t ed i n f i gu r e 1a c c o r di ng t ot wo k ey i s s ue s : i ) whet her t he mor e power f ul c ount r y mus t us ec oer c i on t o mai nt a i n t he r el a t i ons hi p and i i ) whet her i t i s pr i ma-r i l y a n ec onom c r el at i onshi p, a s ec ur i t y - or i ent ed r el a t i ons hi p,or a c ombi nat i on of t he t wo. A c ompa r i s on of t hes e f i ve r el a t i 6 n-s hi ps ac c or di ng t o t hes e i ss ues hel ps t o i dent i f y t he uni quea s pec t s of c l i en c y . I t i s a l s o us ef ul i n br oadl y i l l us t r a t i ng howt he domes t i c i mpac t of c l i enc y ma y di f f er f r om t hat of t he ot herr el at i ons hi ps di s c us s ed her e.

- f i gur e 1about her e-

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) J ) ) ) )

F i g ur e 1 - Cl i enc y Cont r a s t ed wi t h Ot her I nt er na t i o na l Rel at i on s hi p s

Co er c i onRequi r ed t oVa i n t a i nRel a t i ons hi p?y esno

Pr i ma r y Or i ent a t i on of Rel a t i ons hi p

Sec ur i t y Ec onom c Bot h

s a t el l i t e c ol oni a l i s m i mpe r i a l i s m II c l i enc y dependenc y I-. .!-.._~__ ._ __L _ _ _ J

)

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PAGE 13DEPENDENCY

As i s evi dent i n f i gur~ I . cl i ency bears a great er si m l ar i t yt o dependency and t o sdtel l i zat i on t han t o col oni al i sm or i mper i -al i sm Cl i encyand dependency ar e bot h non- coerci ve, but di f f e ri n t hei r pr i mar y or i ent at i on. Dependency t heor y. at l east i n i t sor i gi nal Lat i n Amer i can t r adi t i on, 6 i s mai nl y concer ned w t h t heef f ect of such economc i nteract i ons as t r ade, capi t al f l ows, andt echnol ogy t r ansf er on t he econom c devel opment of t he weaker ,dependent count r y. Thi s appr odch has been ext ended by wr i t er ssuch as Fr ank, Cardoso, and O' Donnel l , who have examned how t hesei nt er act i ons af f ect soci al and pol i t i cal st r uctur es i n t he depend-ent count r y. ' As i s cl ear f r om t he above di scussi on, cl i encyi nvol ves very di f f erent ki nds of i nt er act i ons ( al t hough econom cai d and ot her f i nanci al t r ansf er s are capi t al f l ows and hencecont r i but e t o dependence) . Fur t hermor e, cl i ency i s f undament al l ya sta te- to - state r el at i onshi p mot i vat ed by secur i t y concer ns. Bycont r ast , dependency gener al l y i nvol ves pr i vat e act or s i n bot hcount r i es and i s mot i vat ed essent i al l y by t he desi r e t o expl oi ti nt er nat i onal di spar i t i es i n f act or endowment s.

Despi t e t hese di f f er ences, cl i ency and dependency ar e bot hnon- coerci ve i n t he sense t hat nei t her count r y i s f or ced by t heot her t o ent er i nt o t he r el at i onshi p. I n bot h cases, publ i c and/ orpr i vat e deci si on- maker s i n t he t wo count r i es engage i n ther el at i onshi p because i t af f ords t hem ( al t hough not necessar i l yt hei r r espect i ve soci et i es) mut ual , i f asymmet r i c, bGnef i t s.Because t hey ar e bot h non- coer ci ve and ent ai l ver y di f ferent ki ndsof i nt eract i ons, cl i ency and dGpendency ar e compl ement ar y and mayvery easi l y coexi st . Thi s appears t o be t he case i n t he r el at i on-shi ps between t he Uni t ed st at es and several count r i es i n Cent r aland Sout h Amer i ca, where st r ong commer ci al and secur i t y- or i ent ed

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PAGE 14bonds have t r adi t i onal l y gone hand- i n- hand. As w l l becomeevi dent i n l at er chapt er s. economc dependence and even secur i t yconcer ns ar i si ng f r om econom c i ssues have, by cont r ast , pl ayed ar el at i vel y m nor r ol e i n post war U. S. - I r ani an r el at i ons.

T HE S A T E L L I T E R E L A T I ONS HI P

The sat el l i t e r el at i onshi ps of cont empor ar y East er n Eur ope ar epr i mar i l y secur i t y- or i ent ed, but , unl i ke t he cl i ency r el at i onshi pdepi ct ed her e. must be mai nt ai ned w t h a hi gh degree of coer ci on.Econom c i nt er act i ons among t he East er n Eur opean count r i es ar equi t e st r ong and t hei r econom es ar e i n f act hi ghl y i ntegr ated.However . econom c t i es among t hese count r i es have al ways beensubordi nat ed t o pol i t i cal and m l i t ar y concer ns, s and i t i s t hel at ter t o whi ch t he concept of sat el l i zat i on general l y r ef er s.

Coer ci ve dom nat i on i n t he sat el l i te r el at i onshi p i s mai nt ai nedi n several ways. The most pr om nent f orm of domnat i on has beent he t hr eat or act ual use of m l i t ar y f or ce t o mai nt ai n a count r yi n t he sat el l i t e syst em as has occur r ed i n Hungar y, Czechosl ova-ki a, and r ecent l y i n Pol and. Cl osel y r el at ed t o t hi s has been t heuse of t he Sovi et secr et pol i ce t o spy on and occasi onal l y ar r estsat el l i t e l eader s and act i vi st s, a pr act i ce whi ch was used mor ef r equent l y i n t he St al i ni st er a t han i n l at er year s. The abi l i t yt o i mpl ement t hese f or ms of coer ci on has al so gi ven Sovi et l eader sa l ar ge measur e of i ndi r ect i nf l uence over deci si on- maki ng i n t hesat el l i t e count r i es, gener al l y mani f est ed t hr ough i nf ormal chan-nel s. Mor e di r ect cont r ol has r esul t ed f rom t he occupat i on bySovi et of f i cer s of hi gh posi t i ons i n t he arm es of t he sat el l i t ecount r i es. Si m l ar l y. much of t he m l i t ar y and econom c pol i cy oft he sat el l i t es i s cont r ol l ed and coordi nated t hr ough t he War saw

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P AGE 15Tr ea t y Or ga ni z a t i on a nd COMECON, whi c h ar e dom nat ed by Sov i etdec i s i on- mak er s .

Anot her maj o r f or m of dom nat i o nhas r es ul t e d f r om t he i d eol o gi c a la nd s a t el l i t e l eader s and t he

i n t he s at el l i t e r el a t i o ns hi ps i m l ar i t i es bet ween t he Sovi e t

s t r ong per s ona l bonds t h at l i n kt hem The l ea der s hi p i n t he s a t el l i t e c ount r i es was i ni t i a l l yi ns t a l l ed at t he end of Wor l d War I I , when c ont endi ng pol i t i c a lf or ces wer e ext r emel y wea k . I t has s ubs equent l y emer ged t h r ought h e Co mmun i s t pa r t i es of t hes e c ount r i es , whos e i deol ogi c al or i e n-t at i ons ha ve been vi r t ua l l y i dent i ca l t o t hos e of t he Sovi etCo mmuni s t par t y and whos e l o y a l t y has been r ei nf or c ed by Sov i etc oer c i o n and by pos t war Ea s t - Wes t t ens i on. The l o ya l t i es a nd s i m -l ar wor l d- v i ews of t he s at el l i t e l e ader s hav e been i n s t r ument al i nmai nt ai n i ng t he c ohes i o n of t he Sov i e t bl o c .

Al t hough t he s at el l i t e r e l a t i ons hi p a l s o i nv ol v es t r ans f er s oft he k i nds of goods and s er v i c es ex c hanged under t he c l i enc yr el a t i o ns hi p , t he c oer ci v e meas ur es i t ent ai l s c l e a r l y di s t i ngui s hi t f r om c l i e nc y. Thes e c oer c i ve mea s ur es a l s o mean t hat s a t el l i -z at i on ha s a s t r onger and muc h mor e bl a t ant i mpa c t on t he domes t i cpol i t i c s of t he s at el l i t e c ount r y . Sa t el l i t e l eader s emer ge onl yt hr ough a ver y c i r c ums pec t s el ec t i on pr oc es s , a nd t hei r pol i c yopt i ons a r e hi ghl y c ons t r a i ned. Pol i t i c a l ac t i vi t i es out s i de oft he par t y a nd t he s t at e appa r a t u s es ar e r i gi d l y r epr es s ed. Cens or -s hi p and hi gh l y c ont r o l l ed f or ms of s oc i a l i z at i o n and mobi l i z at i o nhel p t o f ur t her r es t r i c t a c t i v i t i es whi c h m ght c onf l i ct wi t h t hegoa l s and met hods of t he Sovi e t Uni o n and t he s at el l i t e Communi s tpa r t i e s .

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PAGE 16COLONI AL I SM AND I MP ERI AL I SM

Col oni al i sm and i mper i al i sm di f f er f rom cl i ency bot h i n havi nga subst ant i al coer ci ve component and i n havi ng st rong, i f notexcl usi ve, economc mot i vat i ons. Col oni es have gener al l y beenest abl i shed by armed conquest and mai nt ai ned by an occupyi ng ar myand col oni al adm ni st r at i on, t he upper l evel s of whi ch ar e sta f fedmai nl y by f unct i onar i es f r om t he col oni z i ng count r y. Dur i ng t heear l y er a of Eur opean col oni zat i on col oni es wer e sought mai nl y t osecur e excl usi ve cont r ol over sour ces of pr eci ous met al s and ot herval uabl e commodi t i es. I n t he ni net eent h and ear l y t went i et hcent ur i es col oni es of t en t ook on an added i mpor t ance as capi t alout l et s, excl us i ve mar ket s f or goods pr oduced i n t he home count r y,and sour ces of cheap l abor f or l i ght i ndust r i es such as t ext i l es.The i mpact of col oni zat i on on t he pol i t i cal and soci al st ruct ur esof t he col oni zed soci et i es has been sever e, and i n many ways st i l lper s i s t s. 9 However . t he absol ut e cont r ol i t ent ai l s and i t s st r ongeconom c mot i ves cl ear l y dl st l ngU1Sh col oni zat i on f r om cl i ency.

I mper i al i sm i s t he most i l l - def i ned of t he f our r el at i onshi psdi scussed i n t hi s sect i on. and f or t hi s r eason i t i s not easi l ycompar ed w t h cl i ency. Al l wr i t er s seem t o agr ee t hat i mper i al i smr ef er s t o an aggr essi ve. expansi oni st f or ei gn pol i cy. and t hat ani mper i al i st i c r el at i onshi p i s consequent l y expl oi t at i ve and hegemoni c, t hough i t does not ent ai l t he f ormal cont rol of col oni al i smMar xi s t s and many non- Marxi s t s 5~~ i mper i al i sm as a re l at i onshi pt hat i s mot i vat ed excl usi vel y or pr i mar i l y by pr i vat e econom cconcerns, much l i ke t hose t hat mot i vat ed col oni al i sm 1o Ot herwr i t er s. however . deny t he i mport ance of pr i vat e economc mot i vesand mai nt ai n t hat i mper i al i sm i s based on br oader consi der at i onsof t he i mper i al i st power ' s nat i onal i nt er est s. II

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PAGE 17The ec onom c mot i v es a t t r i b ut ed t o i mper i a l i s m by ma ny wr i t er sd i s t i ngui sh t h i s c onc ept i on of i t f r om c l i enc y i n a n obv i ous

wa y. However , i mper i a l i s m a l s o ent ai l s a h i gh degr ee of c oer c i ont ha t i s per ha ps l es s di r ec t t ha n i n c ol oni a l a nd s a t el l i t er el a t i o ns hi p s but t hat never t hel e s s does not a ppea r i n t he c l i enc yr el a t i ons hi p. T h i s c oer c i on i s gener a l l y ma ni f es t ed i n t he t hr ea tor a c t ua l us e of m l i t a r y f or c e. I t gi ves t he i mper i al i s t power al a r ge mea s ur e of i nf or mal i n f l u enc e over t he s ubj u ga t ed c ount r y.By c ont r as t , t he c l i enc y r el a t i o ns hi p i s mai n t a i n ed by t he per cep-t i on of mut ua l i nt er es t s on t he pa r t of t he pa t r on a nd c l i entgover nment s a nd by t he r ea l i z at i on t hat c ooper at i on c an f ur t hert hes e i nt er es t s . Bec a us e of t he c oer c i ve i nf l uenc e i t ent a i l s ,i mper i a l i s m c a n ha ve a ver y di r ec t a nd bl a t a nt i mpac t on t hedo mes t i c pol i t i c s of t he s ubj uga t ed c ount r y, muc h l i k e t hat ofs a t el l i z a t i on. 12

3) A BRI EF OVERVI EW OF POSTWAR U. S. CL I ENCY REL AT I ONS HI P S

Ta bl e 1 c ont ai ns dat a on var i ous f or ms of U. S. s ec ur i t y a s s i s t -a nc e t o 50 ma j or t hi r d wor l d c ount r i es i n t he pos t wa r per i od, a swel l a s f i gur es on u . s . di r ec t i nves t ment a nd t r a de wi t h t hes ec ount r i es . Th i s t a bl e hel ps i l l us t r a t e t he di sc us s i on i n t h i sc ha pt er by s howi ng whi c h c ount r i es c a n be c ons i der ed U. S . c l i e nt sa nd by hel pi ng t o i dent i f y t he mot i ves whi c h gui ded U. S . pol i c y -ma k er s i n es t a bl i s h i ng t hes e r el at i ons hi ps . I t i s a l so us ef ul i ni l l us t r at i ng how t he r el at i ons hi p bet ween t he Uni t ed St a t es a ndI r a n ha s c ompdr Qd wi t h ot hQr c l i Qnc y r Ql a t i ons hi ps whi c h ma y bQmor e f a m l i a r t o t he r eader .

- t a bl e 1 about her e-

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J J

T abl e 1 - Ma j or T hi r d Wor 1d ~ec i pi ent s of U. S. Sec ur i t y As si s t a nc e, 19 50 - 1980

~Co l ] . 1r on 1

. RegLon a ndCou nt r y

2 3 4 5 6

j:!'MC / ) " dp.

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J J J J ) j ) -)Table 1 (continued)Column 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1Region/CountrySub- SaharanAfrca 50-80 816 94 8 .8 1117 1 10 299 1361 39Liberia 50-80 10640 (9) 512 (33) 100 17.1 (21) 28 (37) a 0 EA 1951 82 124 1Nigeria 60-80 620(42) 55 (46) 12 .4(47) 10(49) 0 0 1952 10* 219 18Zaire 60-80 2077(33) 261(40) 20 2.1(40) 38 (36) a 6 1963 8* - 2Kenya 63-80 1277(36) 291 (39) 40 .8(44) 6(50) 0 1Ethiopia 50-74 852(41) 520(32) 12 5.6(32) 1225(11) 1 1 -, - 1South Africa 50-80 0(50) 33(47) 5 0(50) 26(38) 0 0 140 490 12Middle East/North Africa 50-80 4790 7337 37 7.6 16918 5 94 84 2093 75Morocco 57-80 4135(23) 1208(16) 22 7,3(23) 3328 (10) 1 0 - 1Tunisia 56-80 11167(7) 1014(21) 38 9.7(29) 22 (44) 0 0Libya 51-70 10286(10) 1583(12) 1 14.2(24) 3758 (9) 1 0 - 305 1Iran 50-79 1649(34) 13351 (7} 75 12.7(27) 630 (13) a 1 CE,EA 1947 - 314 12Turkey 50-80 4626(18) 6704(10) 72 17.4(20) 6806 (7) 3 10 CE,NA,EA 1952 16 158 5Iraq 50-67 481(45) 687(27} a 2.4(39) 25(39) 0 4 CE* - 1Egypt 74-80 18417 (5) 1551 (13) 2 . 7(45) 224(16) a 17 39 - 9Lebanon 50-80 4325(21) 1057(19) 23 23.6(17) 646(12) a 11 - 1Jordan 50-80 26022 (3) 17236 (6) 78 31. 7(l3) 13(48) 0 10 - 1Israel 68-S0 100666 (1) 184008 (1) 93 0(50) 57(25) 0 13 1951 15 64 14Saudi Arabi.a 5D-80 293(48) 52579 (3) 52 7.4(30) 603(14) 0 7 1977 - 17Asia 50-80 2272 1741 . 52 8.9 241534 96 103 791 1308 93Afghanis tan 51-78 2446(29) 26 (49) 0 1.4(42) 17(46) 0 0Pakistan 50-SO 4150(22) 814(25) 18 2.4(38) 485(15) 1 2 CE,SE,EA 8 71 4India 50-80 973(39) 21(50) 3 .0(48) 63(24) a 3 38 226 14Burma 50-SO 296(47) 197(42) 55 1.0(43) 18(45) a 0Thailand 50-80 1140(37) 2308 (11) 89 15.5(23) 13025 (4) 7 3 SE 1951 51 4Cambodia 55-75* 11091(8) 13228 (8) 90 593.9 (2) 52(29) a 6 SE* 1951Laos 55-75 23605 (4) 34745 (4) 90 706.3 (1) 48(31) 0 8 SE* 1951South Vietnam 55-75 29943 (2) 56233 (2) 100 124.2 (3) 129581 (1) 59 11 SE* 1951 - 3Malaysia 58-80 523(44) 874(23) 37 3.0(36) 17(47) 0 2 57 7Indonesia 50-80 862(I}O) 119(44) 28 1.5(41) 45 (32) 0 7 58 106 12Phil ippines 50-80 2302(31) 1058 (18) 86 14.2(25) 17287 (3) 6 0 SE,MDT,EA1951 149 486 14Taiwan 50-80 6733(16) 17273 (5) 99 56.5 (6) 5214 (8) 3 11 MDT 1952 58 14South Korea SO-SO 9956(12) 10270 (9) 97 33.8(10) 66992 (2) 54 3 MDT 1950 42 15

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T abl e 1- Not e s and Sour c es

Col umns 2, 3, 5, 6, and 12 gi v e aver ages f or t he var i abl es s hown over t hey e a r s i n c ol umn 1. F i gur es i n pa r en t hes es i n c ol umns 2, 3, 5, and 6 gi vet he c oun t r y' s r a nk a mong t he 50 c ount r i es s hown i n t he t abl e. Col umns 2 and3 ar e i n t hou s ands of 1975 dol l ar s , and c ol umn 12 i s i n m l l i ons of 1975do l l ar s , def l at ed wi t h t he U, S. GDP def l at o r , obt ai ne d f r om I nt er nat i ona lMone t ar y F und , I nt en1 at i onal F i na nc i a l St at i s t i c s , Suppl ement on Pr i c eS t a t i s t i c s , 1981. Pop ul at i on d a t a f or per c api t a f i gur es i n c ol umns 2, 3,and 5 ar e f or 1970, f r om U. S. Ar ms Co nt r ol and Di s ar ma me nt Agenc y, U. S.Depar t ment of St at e, Wor l d Mi l i t ar y Expendi t ur es and Ar ms Tr a ns f e r s ,1969- 1978 ( Has h i ngt on: U. S. Gover nment Pr i n t i ng Of f i c e, 19 80) . Tabl e I I .Re gi onal f i gur es gi ve aver age s or t ot al s f or al l t hi r d wor l d c o u n t r i esi n t he par t i c ul ar r egi on ( exc l udi ng Chi na) . The t i me per i od i n c ol umn 1f or Ca mbodi a al s o exc l udes 1965- 1969, when t he gover nment i n power hadpo or r el at i ons wi t h t he Un i t ed St at es . F ur t h er not es and s our c es f ors pec i f i c c ol umns ar e as f ol l ows :2) Ec onom c ai d i nc l udes bo t h l oans and g r a nt s . Cal c ul at ed f r om yea r l ys er i es pr ovi ded by t he Agen c y f or I nt er nat i onal Devel opmen t , publ i s hed i na c ondens ed f or m i n Agenc y f or I nt er nat i onal Devel opment , U. S. Depar t mentof St at e, U. S. Ove r s eas L oans and Gr ant s and As s i s t a nc e f r o m I nt er nat i onalOr g ani z at i ons ( Bur eau f or Pr ogr am and Pol i c y Co or di na t i on, Was h i ngt on, 1 982) .3) Mi l i t a r y t r ans f er s i nc l u de bot h ai d and s al es , f r om U. S. Depa r t ment ofDef e ns e. F i s c a l Year Ser i es , 1980 ( Dat a Mana ge~ent Di v i s i on, Was hi ngt on ,1981) .4) Ca l c ul at ed f r om U. S. Ar ms Co nt r ol and Di s ar mament Age nc y, U. S. Depar t men tof St at e, Wor l d : Hi l i t ar y Expe ndi t ur es and Ar ms T r a de, 1963- 1. 973 ( Was hi ng t o n:U. S . Gover nment P r i nt i ng Of f i c e, 1975) , Tabl e I I I , and Wor l d Mi l i t a r yExpendi t ur es and Ar ms Tr ans f er s , 1969- 1978, Tabl e I V.5) Cal c ul at e d f r om Def e ns e Sec ur i t y As s i s t anc e Age nc y, U. S. Depar t ment ofDe f e ns e, F i s cal Yea r Ser i es , 1980 .6 ) U. S. t r oops i nc l ude al l m l i t ar y pe r sonnel s t a t i on ed i n t he c ount r y .Aver ages exc l ude 1951 and 1952, f or whi c h dat a wer e unavai l abl e. Thes ef i gur es wer e c al c ul a t e d f r om wor k s heet s pr ovi ded by t he Di r ec t or at e f orI nf or mat i on Oper at i ons and Repo r t s ( DI OR) , U. S. Depar t men t of Def en s e,Washi ngt on~ D. C.7) Congr es s i onal Quar t e r l y Ser vi c e, Gl obal Def e ns e: U. S. Mi l i t ar y Comm t ment sAbr oad ( S ep t e mber , 1969) , p. 38 .8) Mi l i t ar y ac t i ons her e i nc l ude vi o l e nt and non- vi ol ent r es pons es t o bo t hdo mes t i c and i nt er na t i ona l ac t i ons per t ai ni ng t o t he par t i c ul ar c ou nt r y.The dat a was obt a i ned f r om I nt er - Uni v er s i t y Cons or t i um f or Pol i t i c al andSoci a l Res ear c h, Pol i t i c a l Us e of t he Uni t ed St at es Ar med F o r c e s , 1946 - 19 76( I CPSR 759 5) . Thi s r i at a was t he bas i s f or Bar r y M. Bl e c hman and St ephen s.Ka pl an, F or c e W t hout War : U. S. Ar med F or c es as a Pol i t i c a l I ns t r ument( W a shi ngt on: Br o ok i ngs , 1978).

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Tabl e 1 - Not e s and Sour c es ( c o nt i nu ed)

9) I nc l udes t he Ri o Pac t ( RP) , Exec ut i ve Agr eement s ( BA) , Cent r a l Tr eat yOr ga ni Za t i on ( CE) t Nor t h At l ant i c Tr eat y Or gani z at i on ( NA) t and Mut ualDe f e ns e Tr e a t i es ( MDT) , f r om Congr es si onal Quar t er l y Ser vi c e, Gl obal Def ens e,p. i v. T r ea t i es ar e no l onger i n f or ce f or c oun t r i es mar ked wi t h an as t er i s k.10) u. S. Depar t men t of St at et T r e a t i es i n F or ce ( Was hi ngt on: u. S. Gov er nmentPr i nt i ng Of f i c e, J anuar y 1980) . Year s hown i s t he ear l i es t year a m l i t ar ym s s i o n was pr ovi ded or i n whi c h t he mut ual Sec ur i t y Ac t was s i gned .11) 19 50 f i gur es ar e f r om u. S. Of f i c e of Bus i nes s Ec onom c s , Di r ec t Pr i vat eF or ei gn I nves t ment s of t he Uni t ed St at es ( Was hi ngt on: U. S. Gover nmentPr i n t i n g Of f i c e, 1953) , p. 44. 1966 f i gur es ar e f r om u. S. Depar t ment ofCommer c et u. S. Di r ec t I nv es t ment Abr oad, 1966 ( Wa s h i ngt on: U. S. Gover nmentPr i nt i ng Of f i c e, 1967) t p. 31. Mi s s i n g dat a ar e due t o r egi onal ag gr e ga t i onsgi ven i n t he s e t abl es t and gener al l y r ef l ec t l ow l evel s of i nves t ment .12) Tr ade i s i mpor t s pl us expor t s , c a l c ul at ed f r om a 1978 t ape bas ed onI nt er nat i onal Monet a r y F und, Di r e c t i on of Tr ade. Wher e nec es s ar y t hi s dat awas s uppl ement ed wi t h dat a f r om t he or i gi na l s o u r c e.

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PAGE 18The sampl e used i n t hi s t abl e was chosen by sel ect i ng t hoset hi r d wor l d count r i es whi ch ei t her : i ) r ecei ved a subst ant i al

vol ume of U. S. m l i t ar y t ransf er s or econom c ai d; i i ) wer e t het ar get of a maj or U. S. i nt er vent i on; or i i i ) wer e engaged i n amaj or secur i t y agr eement w t h t he Uni t ed St at es i n t he postwarper i od. I t was made suf f i ci ent l y l ar ge t o ensur e t hat al l coun-t r i es whi ch m ght possi bl y be consi der ed U. S. cl i ent s woul d bei ncl uded. The per i ods shown i n col umn I gi ve t he year s i n whi cheach count r y had a cl ose r el at i onshi p w t h t he Uni t ed St at es andf or whi ch t he year l y aver ages i n col umns 2. 3. 5. 6. and 12 ar ef i gur ed. The per i od 1950- 1980 i s used f or t hose count r i es whi chwere cl osel y al l i ed w t h t he Uni t ed St at es i n t he ent i re postwarper i od. Shor t er per i ods ar e used i n cases wher e a count ry becamei ndependent af t er 1950. or wher e a t r eat y or conf l i ct . or a coup.r evol ut i on. or ot her change of gover nment subst ant i al l y al t er edt he count r y' s r el at i onshi p w t h t he Uni t ed St at es. The dat a gi veni n col umns 2- 10 show how t he f or ei gn pol i cy t ool s r ef er red t o her eas cl i ency i nst rument s have been used by t he Uni t ed St at es i n t hepost war per i od. Fi gur es i n col umns 2. 3, and 5 ar e gi ven on a percapi t a basi s t o f aci l i t at e cr oss- nat i onal compar i sons and t o i ndi -cat e t he r el at i ve magni t ude of ext er nal ver sus domest i c r esour cesof a par t i cul ar t ype.

POSTWAR U. S. CLI ENTS

IAl t hough t he Uni t ed St at es has mai nt ai ned al l i es i n al l r egi onsof t he t hi rd wor l d. i t i s cl ear f r om t hi s t abl e t hat t he st rongestU. S. cl i ency r el at i onshi ps have been w t h count r i es i n t he M ddl eEast and i n Asi a east of Bur ma. These t wo r egi ons account ed f or 21and 57 PQr cent of U. S. econom c ai d t o al l t hi rd wor l d count r i esi n 1950- 1980 r espect i ~el y, and 41 and 55 per cent of U. S. m l i t ar y

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PAGE 19t r ansf er s ( bot h sal es and ai d) . 13 The Uni t ed st at es has al sost at i oned a l ar ge number of t roops, mai ntai ned numerous m l i tarybases, engaged i n f r equent m l i t ar y act i ons ( i ncl udi ng t wo maj orwar s) , and made strong f ormal comm tment s t o t he secur i t y of coun-t r i es i n t hese r egi ons, especi al l y i n East Asi a.

I n t he M ddl e East I sr ael has been t he maj or U. S. cl i ent ,f ol l owed cl osel y by Saudi Ar abi a and r ecent l y by Egypt . Si nce t he1967 war I sr ael has r ecei ved U. S. econom c ai d and m l i t ar y t r ans-f er s at a hi gher per capi t a r at e t han any ot her count r y i n t hewor l d, and has been . al most excl us i vel y dependent on t he Uni t edStat es f or sophi st i cat ed m l i t ar y equi pment . Saudi Ar abi a was t het hi r d l ar gest per capi t a r eci pi ent of U. S. m l i t ar y t r ansf er s i n1950- 1980. Egypt has r api dl y emer ged as a maj or r eci pi ent of U. S.m l i t ar y and economc ai d i n r ecent year s. These t hr ee count r i eshave al so f i gur ed pr om nent l y i n U. S. secur i t y ar r angement s f ort he r egi on. Al though none have concl uded maj or f ormal secur i t yagr eement s w t h t he Uni t ed States, a var i et y of i mpor t ant i nf ormalagreement s has been r eached w t h each.

Lar ge amount s of U. S. m l i t ar y and/ or econom c ai d have al sobeen gi ven t o Li bya ( under Ki ng I dr i s) , I r an, Tur key, and J ordan.Li bya and Tur key pr ovi ded t he maj or U. S. m l i t ar y bases i n t her egi on dur i ng t he post war per i od, each hos t i ng a l ar ge cont i ngentof U. S. t r oops. I r an pr ovi ded sever al i mpor t anti nt el l i gence- gat her i ng si t es on t he Sovi et bor der and was t hetarget of a maj or cover t U. S. i nt er vent i on i n 1953. I r an andTur key wer e t he key member s of CENTO i n t he r egi on, and Tur key i sal so a member of NATO and pr ovi ded t r oops f or t he war i n Vi etnamMorocco and Lebanon can pr obabl y be consi dered m nor U. S. cl i ent s.Each r ecei ved moderat el y hi gh l evel s of U. S. econom c ai d andm l i t ar Y t r ansf er s. Mor occo has pr ovi ded a maj or m l i t ar y base f ort h e Uni t ed St at es. whi l e Lebanon was suf f i c i ent l y i mpor t ant t oU. s. pol i cymaker s t o war r ant maj or i ntervent i on i n 1958 and 1982.

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PAGE 20

,

Of t he Asi an count r i es l ocat ed between I r an and Thai l and showni n t abl e 1, onl y Paki stan can be consi der ed a U. S. cl i ent or evena U. S. al l y. Al t hough t he f i gur es shown f or Paki st ar i i n 1950- 1980do not suggest a st r ong cl i ency rel at i onshi p, t hey ar e consi der -abl y hi gher f or a per i od i n t he l at e 1950s and ear l y 1960s whenPaki st an pl ayed an i mpor t ant r ol e i n t he U. S. st r at egy of contai n-i ng t he Sovi et Uni on and Chi na. Thai l and, Laos, Cambodi a, andespeci al l y South Vi et nam have been qui nt essent i al U. S. cl i ents.Each r ecei ved ver y l ar ge vol umes of U. S. m l i t ar y and econom c ai dand par t i c i pated on a l ar ge scal e i n U. S. m l i t ar y act i vi t i es i nSoutheast Asi a. Much t he same can be sai d f or t he Phi l i ppi nes,Tai wan, and Sout h Kor ea. Each pr ovi ded maj or m l i t ar y bases f ort he Uni t ed Stat es and si gned a Mutual Def ense Tr eat y w t h i t .Tai wan and Sout h Kor ea wer e maj or r eci pi ent s of U. S. m l i t ar y andeconom c ai d. The Phi l i ppi nes, w t h no i mmedi at e t hr eat f r om i t snei ghbor s, r ecei ved moderat l y hi gh l evel s of U. S. ai d. As showni n col umn 8, U. S. m l i t ar y f or ces have been used ext ensi vel y i nt hi s r egi on. The Uni t ed St at es i nter vened i n South Korea on al ar ge scal e i n t he ear l y 1950s and on a smal l er scal e i n t hePhi l i ppi nes i n t he ear l y 1950s and i n t he Formosa St r ai t s i n t hel at e 1950s.

The U. S. r el at i onshi ps w t h count r i es i n Cent r al and Sout hAmer i ca and Sub- Sahar an Af r i ca have been consi der abl y weaker t hant hose w t h count r i es i n t he M ddl e East and East Asi a, at l east i nt erms of t he secur i t y-or i ent ed i ndi cat or s used i n t hi s t abl Q.NonQ of t hQ COUh~r ; e5 in t hese r egi ons r ecei ved hi gh l evel s of PQrcapi t a m l i t ar y t ransf er s f r om t he Uni t ed Stat es, al t hough sever alwerQ pr i mar i l y armed by i t . Whi l e a number of t hese count r i esr e c e i v e d f a i r l y hi Qh per capi t a l evel s of U. S. economc ai d, secu-r i t y concerns can cl ear l y be i dent i f i ed as t he pr i mar y mot i ve f ort hi s ai d onl y f or t he count r i es of Central Amer i ca and possi bl yChi l e. M l i t ar y bases wer e onl y pr ovi ded by Cuba, Panama, andEt hi opi a i n t hese r egi ons, and t hese count r i es wer e t he onl y ones

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PAGE 21i n whi ch l ar ge number s of U. S. t r oops wer e st at i oned. U. S. m l i -t ar y f or ces wer e qui t e act i ve; n t he Car i bbean and; n Cent r alAmer i ca, w t h vi r t ual l y ever y count r y i n t hese r egi ons bei ng t het ar get of a U. S. i nt er vent i on at some t i me i n t hi s cent ur y. U. S.i nt er vent i ons i n Sout h Amer i ca and Sub- Sahar an Af r i ca have beenl i m ted t o cover t act i ons i n Chi l e and Zai r e and count er i nsur gencyassi st ance i n count r i es such as Venezuel a and Bol i vi a. Whi l e al lof t he count r i es i n Sout h Amer i ca and Sub- Sahar an Af r i ca shown i nt he t abl e have been f ai r l y cl ose U. S. al l i es, i t woul d be di f f i -cul t t o ar gue t hat any ot her t han Panama and possi bl y t he Dom ni -can Republ i c have had r el at i onshi ps w t h t he Uni t ed St at esappr oachi ng t he l evel s of some count r i es i n t he M ddl e East andEast Asia.

On t he basi s of t hi s di scussi on, t hr ee br oad cat egor i es of U. S.cl i ent s can t ent at i vel y be i dent i f i ed:

st rong Cl i ency Rel at i onshi Ds! I s r ael , Saudi Arabi a, Thai l and,Cambodi a, Laos, Sout h Vi etnam t he Phi l i ppi nes, Tai wan, Sout hKoreaModer at e Cl i encv Rel at i onshi ps: Li bya, I r an, Tur key,J or dan, Paki st an, Panama, Dom ni can Republ i cWeak Cl i ency Rel at i onshi ps: Morocco, l ebanon, Cuba, Guat emal a,Hondur as, Ni car agua, EI Sal vador , Cost a Ri ca, Bol i vi a, Chi l e,l i ber i a, Zai r e, Et hi opi a.

Egypt ,

These cat egor i es ar e pr ovi ded t o gi ve some i dea of whi ch count r i est he concept s devel oped i n t hi s st udy ar e meant t o appl y t o. Thei ncl usi on of many of t hese count ri es 1n a par t i cul ar cat egor y cancer t ai nl y be debat ed. The weak cl i ent s ar e best vi ewed as mar gi nalcases whi ch may have been l egi t i mat e cl i ent s f or br i ef per i ods butar e cl ear l y not compar abl e w t h count r i es i n t he st r ong and moder -at e cat egor i es. The concept s devel oped i n t hi s st udy shoul d bet hought of as appl yi ng mai nl y t o t he st r ong and moder at e cl i ent s.

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PAGE 22U. S. MOTI VES I N ESTABL I SHI NG CL I ENCY REL ATI ONSHI PS

Col umns 11 and 12 gi ve f i gur es on U. S . di r ect i nvest ment i n1950 and 1966 and t ot al U. S. t rade i n t he per i ods shown i n col umn1 w t h t hese 50 count r i es. A compar i son of t he di f f er ent r egi onsshows t hat no cl ear r el at i onshi p exi st s bet ween t he vol ume ofdi r ect i nvestment or t r ade and use of t he f or ei gn pol i cy t ool sshown i n t hi s t abl e. Sout h and Cent ral Amer i ca had t he hi ghestvol umes of U. S. i nvestment and t r ade of t he f i ve. r egi ons, and,w t h t he except i on of U. S. bases and m l i tar y act i ons i n Cent r alAmer i ca, among t he l owest l evel s of t he f or ei gn pol i cy t ool s.Sub- Sahar an Af r i ca had gener al l y t he l owest vol ume of U. S. i nvest -ment and t r ade and l evel s of t he f or ei gn pol i cy t ool s not muchl ower t han i n Sout h Amer i ca. Asi a and t he M ddl e East r ecei ved t hehi ghest l evel s of t he f or ei gn pol i cy t ool s shown but onl y modestvol umes of i nvest ment and t r ade, par t i cul ar l y i n t he ear l Y post warper i od. Further mor e, no si gni f i cant cor rel at i on was f ound amongt he 50 count r i es bet ween i nvest ment or t r ade and t he f i gur es showni n col umns 2, 3, 5, and 6. 14

The est abl i shment of cl i ency r el at i onshi ps by t he Uni t ed St at eshas al so not been cl ear l y associ at ed w t h sour ces of essent i al r awmat er i al s . The desi r e t o pr ot ect oi l deposi t s and shi ppi ng r out esi n t he Per si an Gul f has cer t ai nl y been an i mpor tant mot i ve i n U. S.pol i cy t owar d t he M ddl e East . However , i t has not di ssuaded U. S.pol i cymaker s f r om gi vi ng ext ensi ve suppor t t o I s r ael . ot her sour c-es of st rat egi c r aw mat er i al s i n Sub- Sahar an Af r i ca and i n Sout hAmer i ca have evi dent l y not war rant ed such at t ent i on by t he Uni t edSt at es. The count r i es of t he Medi t er ranean M ddl e East and EastAsi a whi ch have r ecei ved hi gh vol umes of U. S. secur i t y assi st ancedo not cont ai n, or even bor der on, maj or sour ces of st rat egi c r awmat er i al s.

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PAGE 23Whi l e t he pr ot ect i on of f or ei gn i nvest ment , mar ket s, and sour c-es of r aw mat er i al s or ot her goods cer t ai nl y cannot be r ul ed

out on t he basi s of t hi s br i ef di scussi on as an i mpor t ant U. S.goal i n est abl i shi ng cl i ency r el at i onshi ps, i t IS cl ear l y not byi t sel f a suf f i ci ent expl anat i on. Mar xi st s such as Magdof f havesuggest ed t hat U. S. f or ei gn pol i cy i n gener al i s based on mot i vessuch as t he desi r e t o pr ot ect pr i vat e U. S. and Western economci nt er est s, combat soci al i sm and mai nt ai n an open door f or mul t i -nat i onal corporat i ons . I S Al t hough t hese f dct or s have undoubt edl yi nf l uenced U. S. f or ei gn pol i cy i n many i nst ances, t hey cannotexpl ai n why t he Uni t ed St at es has become mor e heavi l y i nvol ved i nt he M ddl e East and East Asi a t han i n Sout h Amer i ca andSub- Saharan Af r i ca. l Fur t hermor e, t hi s ar gument does not consi dert he i mpor t ance of econom c f act or s such as t hese t o U. S. nat i onalsecur i t y. Thi s amount s t o a f ai l ur e t o di st i ngui sh bet ween t hegoal s of t he st at e and t he pr i vat e sect or i n t he f ormul at i on ofU. S. f or ei gn pol i cy. 17 I t shoul d be added t hat many ot her expl ana-t i ons of U . S . f or ei gn pol i cy, such as the desi r e t o pr omot e democ-r acy, st r engt hen U. S. al l i es, or ext end spher es of i nf l uence, al socannot expl ai n t hese r egi onal var i at i ons.

I t i s cl ear f r om t abl e 1t hdt t he Uni t ed St at es has engaged i ncl i ency r el at i onshi ps mai nl y i n ar eas al ong t he bor der s of t heSovi et Uni on and Chi na wher e a ser i ous t hr eat of expansi on andpenet r at i on by t hese count r i ~s has been per cei ved. The t woexcept i ons t o t hi s pat ter n have been t he U. S. r el at i onshi ps w t hcount r i es i n t h~ Medi t er ranean M ddl e East and i n Cent ral Amer i caand t h~ Car i bbean. I n t he l at t er r egi ons t he desi r e t o combatSovi et i nf l uence i n Guat emal a i n 1954 and t hr oughout t he ar eaaf t er t he Cuban r evol ut i on wer e cer tai nl y maj or d e t e r mi n a n t s of

M ddl e Eas t , Sovi et i nvol vementi n Egypt under Nasser and i n I r aq af t er 1958 wer e cl ear l y of some

r concer n t o U. S. pol i cymaker s. However , t he massi ve U. S. suppor tf or I sr ael cannot be expl ai ned sol el y on t hi s basi s , par t i cul ar l y

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PAGE 24si nce i t i ncr eased r api dl y i n t he l at e 19605 and 1970s when Sovi eti nf l uence i n t he r egi on was decl i ni ng. Whi l e U. S. suppor t f orI sr ael r emai ns somethi ng of an eni gma, cul t ur al si m l ar i t i es,sympat hy f or sur vi vor s of t he Hol ocaust , and pr o- I sr ael i i nf l u-ences i n t he Amer i can pol i t i cal pr ocess ar e cer t ai nl y i mpor tantexpl anat or y f actors. 18

Except i n t he case of I sr ael , i t t hus appear s t hat U. S. cl i encyr el at i onshi ps i n t he post war per i od have been mot i vat ed pr i mar i l yby a desi r e t o l i m t or cont ai n advances by t he Sovi et Uni on andChi na. Thi s i s consi st ent w t h t he st rong U. S. r el at i onshi ps w t hcount r i es i n East and Sout heast Asi a, i n t he Nor t her n Ti er andPer si an Gul f r egi ons of t he M ddl e East , and i n t he Car i bbean andCent r al Amer i ca. I t i s al so consi st ent w th t he weaker U. S.r el at i onshi ps w t h count r i es i n Sout h Amer i ca, Sub- Sahar an Af r i ca,and Sout h Asi a, wher e Sovi et and Chi nese advances i n t he 1950s and19605 wer e consi der abl y weaker . The desi re t o pr ot ect var i ouseconom c i nterest s has cl ear l y been an i mpor t ant goal i n t hePer si an Gul f ar ea, 1n Cent r al Amer i ca, and i n the Car i bbean.However , ot her i nt er est s consi der ed vi t al by U. S. pol i cymaker ssuch as pr ot ect i on f or key al l i es and cer t ai n i deol ogi cal goal shave undoubt edl y pl ayed an i mpor t ant r ol e i n t he est abl i shment ofcl i ency r el at i onshi ps as wel l .

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P AGE 25F OOT NOT ES T O CHAPTER 1

1) Thi s def i ni t i on i s s i m l ar t o t ha t gi ven by Kl aus Knor r , T hePm" er of Na t i ons ( New Y or k: Ba s i c Book s , 19 75) , pp. 2 4- 2 6 . M "O i =eel a bor at e di s c us s i ons of t he c onc ept of c l i enc y i n a di f f er entc ont ext a r e gi ven by J ohn Dunc a n P owel l , " P eas a nt Soc i et y andCl i ent el i s t P ol i t i c s , " Amer i c a n P ol i t i ca l Sc i enc e Rev i ew, Vol . 64,No. 2. J une 1970. PP. 411- 425; Rene L emar c hand and Kei t h L egg," P ol i t i ca l Cl i ent e l i s m a nd Dev el opment : A P r el i m n a r y Ana l y s i s . "Co mpa r a t i ve P ol i t i c s , Vo l . 4, No. 2. J a nuar y 19 72, pp. 1 49 - 1 7 8;and J a mes C. Sc ot t , " Pa t r on- Cl i ent P ol i t i cs and Pol i t i c a l Cha ngei n Sout hea s t As i a , " Amer i c a n P ol i t i c a l Sc i enc e Rev i ew, Vol . 66,No . 1, Ma r c h 19 72, pp. 9 1 - 1 1 3.2) F or us ef ul di s c us s i o ns a bout t he pol i t i ca l us es of f or ei gn a i d.s ee Ha ns J . Mor gent hau, " P r ef a c e t o a Pol i t i c a l T heor y of F or ei gnAi d. " i n Rober t A. Gol dwi n ( ed. ) . Why F or ei en Ai d? ( Chi ca go: RandMc Na l l y , 19 ( 3) , pp. 70- 89 ; J a c ob J . Ka pl a n, T he Ch a l l enae ofF or ei c m Ai d ( New Y or k : Pr a eger , 19 ( 7) ; and J oa n M. Nel s on. Ai d ,I n f l uence, a nd F o r e i gn P ol i c ~ ( NeL " Y or k: Mac Mi l l a n, 19 ( 8) . F or anexc el l ent empi r i c a l s t udy t hat f i nds f or ei gn po l i c y goa l s t o haveout wei ghed huma ni t a r i a n c ons i d er a t i ons i n U. S. a i d- gi vi ng, s ee R.D. Mc Ki nl ay and R. L i t t l e, " A F or ei gn P ol i c y Model of Bi l a t er a lAi d Al l oc a t i on. " Wor l d P ol i t i c s , Vol . 30, No. 1, Oc t ober 1977. pp.58- 86 .3) St udi e s whi c h f oc us a l mos t exc l us i v el y on ma j or weapons s ys t emsa r e Ant hony Samps on, The Ar ms Ba? a a r ( Hew Y or k: Vi k i n g, 1977) a ndUr i Ra r a n a n, Robe r t L . P f a l t z gr a f f , J r . , a nd Geo f f r e y Ke mp ( eds . ) ,Ar ms Tr ans f er s t o t he T hi r d Wor l d: T he Mi l i t a r y Bui l dup i n L es sI ndu s t r i a l Count r i es ( Boul der : Wes t v i ew P r es 5, 1978) . A us ef ulexc ept i on i s Mi c ha el T . Kl a r e, Suppl y i ng Repr es s i on ( NeW Y or k :F i e l d F ounda t i on. 19 7 7) .4) F or an exc el l ent s t udy f oc us i ng pa r t i c ul ar l y on a c t i ons s uc h a st hes e s ee J a n Kni p pe r s Bl ac k , Uni t ed St at es P enet r a t i on of Br az i l( Uni Ver s i t y of P enns y l v a ni a P r es s , 19 77) . Th i s br oa d c onc ept ofi nt er vent i on i s s i m l ar t o t ha t us ed by Andr ew M. Sc ot t , " Noni n -t e r vent i on a nd Co ndi t i ona l I nt er vent i on. " J our na l of T nt er na t i ona lAf f a i r s l Vol . 22, No. 2, 19 6 8, pp. 208- 216 , a nd by ot her c ont r i bu-t or s t o t h i s s pec i a l i s s ue on i n t er vent i on.5) F or a r evea l i ng di s c us s i on of t he r ol e of c over t a c t i ons andr e l a t ed oper a t i ons i n U. S. f or ei gn po l i c y , s ee t he t r a ns c r i pt ofa 196 8 meet i ng of t op U. S. i nt el l i genc e of f i c i a l s c ha i r ed by Ri c h-a r d M. Bi s s el l , J r . , r epr i nt ed a s " T he Bi s s el l P hi l os ophy, " i nVi c t o r Mar c het t i a nd J ohn D. Ma r k s . T he CI A and t he Cul t of I nt el -l i oenc e ( New Y or k : Del l , 19 74) . pp. 357 - 3 76 .6 ) F or . a go od r e vi ew of t h i s l i t er at ur e s ee Rona l d H. Chi l c ot e . " ACr i t i c a l Synt hes i s of t he Dependenc y L i t er a t ur e, " L a t i n Amer i c a nPer s pec t i ves , Vol . 1 , No. 1, Spr i ng 1974, pp. 4- 29 . The t er mr depe nde nc e' i s us ed i n a s omewha t di f f er ent s ens e by J ames A.Capor a s o. " Depe nd enc e, Depende ncy, a nd Power i n t he Gl oba l Sys t em:A St r u c t u r a l a nd Beha v i or a l An a l ys i s , " I nt er na t i ona l Or ga ni z at i on:Vol . 32, No. 1 . W nt er 19 78, pp. 13- 44.7) Andr e Gunder F r ank, Ca pi t a l i s m a nd Under dev el opment i n L a t i nAmer i c a ( New Y o r k : Mo nt h l y Re v i ew P r es s I 19 6 7) ; F er na ndo Henr i queCa r d050 a nd Enz o F a l et t o , Depend enc y a nd Devel opment i n L a t i nAmer i c a ( Be r k el ey: Uni ver s i t y of Ca l i f or ni a P r es s , 19 79 ) ; Gui l l er -mo A. Or Donnel l , Moder ni z at i on a nd Bur ea uc r a t i c - Aut hor i t a r i ani sm:

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P AGE 26St udi es i n Sout h Amer i can Pol i t i cs ( Ber kel ey: I ns t i t ut e of I nt er -nat i o na l St udi es , 1973) .8) Zb i g n i e w K. Br z ez i ns k1. - ! - T . ! . . h ! . ! ; e=- =- S~o- " v~i , - " e=- t ~- : - - , ; B! - , l ~o~c . . . ! :t c l i v ~; : - a ~n" , d~C~o . ! . . 1 n, -, , - , , ; t( Cambr i dge: Har var d Uni v er s i t y P r es s . 1967) . pp. 125, 139. andel s ewher e. The c onc ept of t he s at el l i t e us ed her e i s t aken pr i ma-r i l y f r om t hi s s our c e.9) F or a pr ov oc a~l ve s t udy dea l i ng wi t h t hi s i s s ue s ee Hamz aAl avi , " T he St at e i n Pos t - Col oni al Soc i et i es - Pa k i s t an and Bangl a-des h, " Hew L ef t Rev i e w 74, J ul y - A ugus t 1972, pp . 59- 81.10) A good r evi ew of Ma r xi st c onc ept s of i mper i al i s m i s Mi chaelBar r et t Br own. " A Cr i t i que of Ma r xi st Theor i es of I mper i a l i s m " i nRoger Owen and Bob Sut c l i f f e ( eds . ) , St udi es i n t he Theor y ofI mper i al i s m ( L ondon: L ongman, 1972) , pp . 35- 70. The c l as s i cno n Mar x i st ec onom c t heor y i s J . A. Hobs on, I mper i a l i s m A S t u dy( London: Al l en and Unwi n , 1938) .11) Hans Mor gent hau. Pol i t i c s Amona Na t i ons ( NeW Yor k : Knopf ,1961) . c h. 5; Benj a m n J . Cohen. The Ques t i on of I mper i al i sm ( NewY or k: Bas i c Book s , 1973) .12) T he ac t i ons of Gr eat Br i t a i n and Rus s i a i n I r an i n t he l a t en i n et eent h and ear l y t went i et h c ent ur i es s er v e as a c l as s i c exampl e of i mper i al i s m See c hapt er 3 f or a di sc us s i on of t he ( p r i ma -r i l y ec onom c ) mot i ves a nd c ons equenc es of t hes e a c t i ons .13) ThQSQ PQr c Qnt a gQs w~r Q c al c ul at ed f r om t h~ s our CQS USQd f orcol umns 2 and 3 of t abl e 1.14) T he 12 c or r el at i ons r a nged f r om -.21 t o .16, and none wer es i gni f i c ant at bet t er t han . 10.15) Har r y Ma gdof f , The Age of I mper i a l i s mRev iel.J Pre s S , 1969), " ' ! c - + r " " ) s=-..!;;1'-".~2~.' - - - '=.!!!- " '- " " ' - - ! - : ! .=. . . . ! -='1 . l ! ( New Yor k : Mo nt h l y16) F or a c r i t i que of t heor i es of i mper i a l i s m al ong t hes e l i nes .s ee J ames R. Kur t h . " T es t i ng Theor i es of Ec onom c I mper i al i s m " i nS t e v en J . Ros en and Kur t h ( eds . ) . Tes t i ng Theor i es of Ec onom cI mper i al i sm ( L exi ngt on. ~l as s . : D. C. Hea t h. '197t;,), pp. 12-14.17) F or an exc el l ent t heor et i ca l di s c us s i on r el a t i ng i nt er nat i ona lec onom c i ss ues a nd na t i ona l s Qc ur i t y SQQ Cl ar k A. Mur doc k . " Ec o-nom c F ac t or s as Obj ec t s of Sec ur i t y: Ec onom c s . Sc a r c i t y . andVul ner abi l i t y , " i n Kl aus Knor r and F r ank N. Tr ager ( eds . ) , Ec onomi c I ss ues and Nat i ona l Sec ur i t y ( L awr enc e, Ka ns a s : Al l en Pr es s ,1977) . pp . 67- 98. and ot her c ont r i but i ons t o t h i s vol ume. On t hedi st i nc t i on bet ween s t at e and pr i v at e goa l s i n U. S. f or ei gnpol i c y. s ee St ephen D. Kr as ner , Def endi no t he Nat i ona l I nt er es t( Pr i nc et on: Pr i nc et on Uni v er s i t y Pr es s , 1978) , c h s . 1, 3.18) F or a pr ovoc at i ve s t udy of pr o- I s r ael i i nf l uenc es on U. S .pol i c y, s ee Al f r ed M. L i l i ent ha l . The Zi oni s t Connec t i on ( NewYor k: Dodd. Mead. 1978) .