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CHAPTER 3 - PROLOGUE: DOMESTI C POL I T I CS AND FOREI GN I NFLUENCE I NI RAN BEFORE 1951

Thi s chapt ~r ~st abl i sh~s a basi s f or ~xam ni ng t h~ i mpact ofcl i ency on I r an' s domest i c pol i t i cs by di scussi ng t he t rends anddynam cs of I r ani an pol i t i cs i n t he pr~vi ous er a. Two mai n i nt er -pr et at i ve t hemes ar e st r essed. The mai n t heme i s t hat t he f i r sthal f of t he t went i et h cent ur y saw t h~ gr adual ~mer gence of anaut hent i c democr at i c movement 1n I r an. Thi s movement had i t shi stor i cal and i nt el l ect ual or i gi ns i n t he const i t ut i onal andr epubl i can movem~nt s of 1906- 1925. I t s soci al basQ was ~xpandedsubst ant i al l y w t h t he moder ni zat i on pr ogr ams of t he 1920s anq19305. The I r ani an democr at i c movement r eached i t s peak i n t he1941- 1953 per i od, whi ch was char act er i zed by w despr ead popul arpol i t i cal act i vi t y, a vocal and l ar gel Y uncensor ed pr ess, r el a-t i vel y f ree ~ ect i ons, a br oad spect r um of pol i t i cal par t i es, andan act i ve par l i ament w t h suf f i ci ent st r engt h t o chal l enge t hepower of t he r oyal cour t . Thi s per i od st ands out i n shar pcont rast t o t he pr evi ous er a 1n whi ch I r an was r ul ed by a moder n-i zi ng despot and t he subsequent er a of aut hor i t ar i an di ct at or shi punder a cl i ent st at e.

The second t heme st ressed i n t hi s chapt er i s t hat whi l e f or ei gninvo Lvemen+ i n I r an' s i nt er nal af f ai r s had been ext ensi ve i n t heni net eent h and ear l y t went i et r cent ur i es, i t decl i ned mar kedl yaf ter 1925. I n cont r ast t o t he pr evi ous per i od i n whi ch I r an was

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PAGE 60di vi dQd i nt o sphQrQs of i nf l uQnc~, i t s m l i t ar y was cont rol l ~d byf or~ gn pow~r s, and i t s economy was bur dened w t h f or~ gn l oansand concessi ons, I r an af t er 1925 became much morQ i ndQPendent ,despi te Al l i ed m l i t ar y occupat i on dur i ng Wor l d War I I . I r an' sgr~at ~r i ndependQnce dur i ng t hi s per i od, par t i cul ar l y af t er 1946,hel ped t o nur tur e t he i nci pi ent democr at i c mov~ment . Conver sel y,t he reest abl i shment of a f or ei gn presenc~ i n I r an w t h t hecr eat i on of a cl i ent st at e i n 1953 had an extremel y dest ruct i v~ef f ect on I ran' s democr at i c movement .

1) THE GREAT POWERS I N I RAN, 1800- 1941

Al t hough I r an was never f ormal l y col oni zed, a number of Eur ope-an countr i es became deepl y i nvol ved i n i t s af f ai r s i n t he ni n~-t~ent h and ~ar l y t w~nt i ~t h c~nt ur i ~s. Th~ t wo mai n f or~ gn act or si n I r an bef or e Wor l d War I I wer e Gr eat Br i t ai n and Russi a. AsBr i t ai n ext ended i t s f ormal cont r ol over I ndi a and as Russi aexpanded i nt o t he Caucasus and Tur kest an ( on I r an' s nor t hwesternand nor t heast er n bor der s) i n t he ear l y and md-ni net eQnt h cent u-r i es, t he i nt er est and r i val r y of t hese count r i es i n I r an becamek~en. I r an and Br i t ai n concl uded s~veral t reat i es between 1801and 1814, ai med pr i mar i l y at bl ocki ng Russi an ~xpansi oni sm I ranf ought and l ost war s w t h Russi a ov~r t h~ di sput ed r egi on of Geor -gi a i n 1804- 1813 and 1826- 1828. Thi s di sput e was ended i n 1828w t h a t r eat y est abl i shi ng t he pr esent Russo- I r ani an bor der westof t he Caspi an Sea, f ol l owed i n 1881 by a t r eat y est abl i shi ng t h~eas t ern border . I r an al so f ought a war w th Br i tai n i n 1856- 1857over t he r egi on of Her at i n west er n Af ghani st an, whi ch wasf ol l owed by a t r eat y Af ghan i ndependence. lr ec09ni zi nr

The econom c penet r at i on of I r an by f orei gn power s began i n t he

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PAGE 61second hal f of t he ni net eent h cent ur y, as Nasr aI -Di n Shah( 1848- 1896) and Mozaf f ar aI - Di n Shah ( 1896- 1907) sol d concessi onst o f or ei gn agent s t o f i nance a st andi ng army, l uxur y i mpor t s, andr oyal j our neys t o Eur ope. The f i rst maj or concessi on was f or aBr i t i sh t el egr aph l i ne t o I ndi a, si gned i n 1863 and compl et ed i nt he f ol l ow ng year . I n 1872 a f ar - reachi ng concessi on was gr ant edt o J ul i us Reut er ( a nat ur al i zed Br i t i sh subj ect ) , cover i ng al ltranspor tat i on and m ni ng ( ot her t han pr eci ous st ones and met al s)i n I r an. The Reut er concessi on was cancel l ed i n 1873 due t o pr es-sur es f rom Russi a, Reut er ' s i nabi l i t y t o secur e a Br i t i sh l oan,and opposi t i on i n I r an f r om weal t hy mer chant s adver sel y af f ect edby t he concessi on. A concessi on was gr ant ed i n 1888 t o Br i t ai n f orcommer ci al navi gat i on of t he Kar un Ri ver i n sout hwest er n I r an,f ol l owed by an 1889 agr eement w t h Russi a t hat i t woul d be gi venal l f ut ur e r ai l r oad concessi ons. Banki ng concessi ons wer e gr ant edt o Reut er of Br i t ai n and t o Russi a i n 1888 and 1891. I n 1900Russi a was gi ven cont rol of al l cust oms r ecei pt s i n exchange f or amaj or 10an. 2

The r api d gr owt h of f or ei gn i nvol vement i n I r an' s economy begant o pr ovoke br oad popul ar opposi t i on i n t he l at e ni net eent hcent ur y. An 1890 Br i t i s h concessi on f or domest i c sal es and expor t sof t obacco l ed t o a massi ve nat i onw de boycot t , or gani zed byi nf l uent i al cl er gymen and mer chant s. Thi s boycot t i s gener al l yr egar ded as t he f i r st maj or nat i onal i st movement i n moder n I r an. 3The Russi an banki ng concessi on and t he l oan gr ant ed i n exchangef or cust oms r ecei pt s ment i oned above gave Russi a gr eat i nf l uenceover t he weal t hy cl asses i n I r an and amount ed t o a vi r tual sur ren-der of t he count r y' s f i nances. These act i ons al so pr ovoKed popul aropposi t i on, par t i cul ar l Y among I el ement s of t he m ddl e cl ass, andwer e an ear l y i mpet us t o t he f onst i t ut i onal movement . I n 1901 a

: : : c : ; : : : : ~ : S a l : r : : : e : h : O n : : ~ ~ t : : m : : : r : : r t : f o : r ; : : : ~: ~ S : : ~ c : : ~si on, whi ch was r enegot i at ed I n 1933, became t he basi s f or al l

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PAGE 62subsequent act i vi t i es by t he Angl o- I r ani an Oi l Company ( Al Oe) andwas t he subj ect of f requent cont rover sy i n I r an dur i ng t he nexthal f centur y. 4

I n t he ni net eent h cent ur y Br i t ai n and Russi a wer e t he mai nf or ei gn act or s i n I r an. These count r i es compet ed vi gor ousl y, f i r stover st r at egi c i ssues and l at er over commer ci al concessi ons.- However , w t h t he pol ar i zat i on of t he maj or Eur opean power s i nt ohost i l e camps bef ore Wor l d War I and w th t he ent r ance of Germanyi nt o t he M ddl e East ( symbol i zed most pr om nent l y by t heBer l i n- Baghdad r ai l way, begun i n 1902) , a r appr oachement gr adual l ydevel oped between t hem Thi s was codi f i ed i n t he 1907Angl o-Russ i an convent i on est abl i shi ng spher es of i nf l uence i nI r an. Under t hi s agr eement , Russi a gai ned cont rol over r oughl y t henor t her n hal f of I r an, i ncl udi ng the most commerc i al l y- at t ract i vear eas ot her t han t he oi l - r i ch sout hwest . Br i t ai n gai ned cont r olover t he sout heast er n r egi on bor der i ng on what i s now Paki st an,w t h t he cent r al and sout hwest ern sect or s r emai ni ng neut ral .Russi an pr edom nance under t hi s agr eement r ef l ect ed i t s pol i t i caland econom c hegemony i n I r an at t hi s t i me, due mai nl y t o i t spr oxi m t y t o t he most popul ous and dynamc ar eas i n t he nor thwestand i t s dom nance of I r an' s t r ade and f i nances. The 1907Angl o- Russi an agr eement was t o r emai n f or decades a sour ce ofbi t ter ani mosi t y on t he par t of I r ani ans t oward Br i t ai n andRussi a.

Af t er 1907 Russi an and Br i t i sh agent s wer e act i ve t hr oughoutI ran. I n 1909 4000 Russi an t roops ent er ed t he count ry. Despi t ei t s neut r al i t y, I r an was occupi ed by var i ous f or ei gn power s dur i ngWor l d War I and was t he scene of w despr ead host i l i t i es. Russi anf or co, conf r ont od Tur koy i n t ht wost . Go. man agont s i nt r i guod i nTehran and st i r r ed up t r i bal r ebel l i ons i n t he sout hwest . Fol l ow-i ng t he Russi an Revol ut i on, t hoi e par t s of nor t her n I r an occupi edby Russi an t r oops, as wel l as! Turkest an and t he Caucasus, wer e

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PAGE 63

pl ung9d i nt o a st at e of near - anar chy. Russi an f or c9s di si nt egr at edand Br i t i sh t roops advanced nor t h f r om Baghdad t hr ough I r~n t ocount er a German- Tur ki sh dr i ve t hrough t he Caucasus t owar d Baku.I ndependent st at es wer e pr ocl ai med i n nor t her n I r an, t he Caucasus,and i n Tur kest an. Br i t i sh t r oops r emai ned i n I r an unt i l 1921,ai di ng ant i - Bol shevi k f or ces t hroughout Cent r al As i a. s

Af t er t he war , Br i t ai n sought t o r eest abl i sh i t s i nf l uence i nI r an by concl udi ng a t reat y i n 1919 i n whi ch i t under took t o r eor -gani ze I r an' s army and t r easur y. Thi s treat y was ext r emel y unpopu-l ar i n I r an, and was r epudi aj ed i n 1921. Fol l ow ng

t he Caucasus i n 1920, Sovi et f or cest he Br i t i sh

evacuat i on f r om est abl i s hedcont r ol l n t hi s ar ea and subsequent l y ent er ed nor t her n I ran i npur sui t of Whi te Russ i an f or ces. Sovi et t r oops r 9mai ned i n t hepr ovi nce of Gi l an unt i l Sept ember 1921, pr oppi ng up t he i ndepend-ent Sovi et Republ i c whi ch had been est abl i s hed t her e. A 1921Sovi et - I r ani an t r eat y r epudi ated al l Czar i st c l ai ms on I r an andpaved t he way f or t he r emoval of Sovi et f or ces. Sovi et pol i cyt owar d I ran i n t he i nt erwar per i od was gener al l y r est rai ned, w t hReza Shah portrayed i n t he Sovi et pr ess as a "nat i onalre forms t . " '

W t h t he Br i t i sh t r eat y of 1919 and Br i t i sh and Sovi eti nt r i gues i n Azer bai j an and Gi l an i mmedi at el y af t er Wor l d War I ,i t i s appar ent t hat t hese t wo count r i es wer e seeki ng t o r eest ab-l i sh t he dom nant posi t i ons t hey had hel d i n I r an bef or e t he war .However , af ter t he r i se t o power i n t he ear l y 1920s of Reza Khan(who was cr owned Shah i n 1925) , t he i nf l uence of t hese and ot herWest er n power s i n I r an decl i ned si gni f i cant l y.

Th~ f i r st act s of t he gover nment est abl i shed i n 1921 by RezaKhan wer e t o concl ude t he t r eat y r enounci ng Sovi et cl ai ms on I r anand r epudi at e t he 1919 Br i t i sh t reat y. As m ni st er of war RezaKhan qui ckl y r emoved al l f or ei gn of f i cer s f rom t he m l i t ar y and

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PAGE 64t ook ot her st eps t o i mpr ov~ i t s l oyal t y, mor al e, andef f ect i veness. Ar t hur M l l spaugh. an Amer i can f i nanci al advi sor ,was hi r ed t o r eor gani ze and st rengt hen t he economy, but was even-t ual l y underm ned and f or ced out by Reza Shah. Tr ad~ w t h t heSovi et Uni on and l at er w t h Ger many was i ncr eased t o weaken t heBr i t i sh dom nat i on ov~r I r an' s economy. The Tr ans- I r ani an Rai l r oadwas bui l t w t h l ocal capi t al r ai sed by a t ax on t ea and sugar andw t h advi sor s and equi pment dr awn f r om a var i et y of f or ei gn coun-t r i es. Measur es such as i mpor t subst i t ut i on and f or ei gn exchangecont r ol s wer e t aken t o br oaden and pr ot ect t he domest i c economy.I r ani ans w t h f or ei gn t i es wer e f requent l y hDr assed by R~za Shahand t he syst em of capi t ul at i ons f or f or ei gn m~r chant s was r emoved.A Var i et y of l ess dr amat i c measur es wer e al so t aken. such as anat tempt t o pur ge Ar abi c wor ds f r om I r an' s Far si l anguage. 7 By t hel at e 1930s I r an had been t r ansf ormed f r om a backwar d count r y whosegover nment and economy wer e dom nat ed by f or ei gn agent s t o amoder ni zi ng count r y w t h a st r ong cent r al gover nment and consi der -abl e i ndependence f r om for ei gn act or s.

2) THE POLI TI CS OF I RAN, 1900- 1941

The Qaj ar dynast y, whi ch had r ul ed I r an si nce t he end of t heei ght eent h cent ur y, became ser i ousl y weakened by t he begi nni ng oft he t went i et h cent ur y. Gr ow ng f or ei gn debt and t he concessi onsgr ant ed by Nasr aI - Di n Shah and Mozaf f ar aI - Di n Shah made t her oyal cour t i ncr easi ngl y suscept i bl e t o f or ei gn i nf l uence. For ei gnl eader shi p i n t he m l i t ar y made it l ess ef f ect i ve as an i nst r umentof r oyal dom nat i on. The nat i onw de r esponse t o t he 1890 t obaccoconcessi on demonst r at ed t o bot h t he monar chy and t hose who opposedi t t he nascent st r engt h of popul ar movement s. I n 1896 Nasr aI - Di nShah was assassi nat ed by a f ol l ower of J amal aI - Di n aI - Af ghani , an

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PAGE 65i t i ner ent cl er i c and act i vi s t who had i nspi r ed t he t obacco boycot tand who pr omot ed I sl am as a basi s f or st ruggl es agai nst West er ni mper i al i sm t hr oughout t he M ddl e East and sout her n Asi a. Nasral - Di n' s successor , Mozaf f ar aI - Di n Shah, cont i nued t he pol i cy ofgrant i ng concessi ons. Most not abl e was t he 1900 Russi an concessi onf or cust oms r eVenues, whi ch l ed t o w despr ead pr ot est and r i ot i ng.I n 1906 a ser i es of publ i c agi tat i ons was st aged i n Tehr an. Thesel ed t o t he grant i ng of a const i t ut i on and t he est abl i shment of apar l i ament ( t he Maj l es) i n J ul y of t hat year .

THE SOCI AL STRUCTURE OF I RAN UNDER THE QAJ ARS

The t r adi t i onal st r uct ur e of I rani an soci et y had begun t ounder go a ser i es of pr of ound changes by t he end of t he ni net eent hcent ur y, associ at ed l ar gel y w t h West er n pol i t i cal , econom c, andcul t ur al penet r at i on. I n t he ear l y Qaj ar per i od f our mai n cl assesexi st ed i n I r an, i n addi t i on t o t he r oyal cour t : a t r adi t i onaldom nant cl ass of t r i bal khans and l ar ge l andowner s ( i ncl udi ng af ew t op cl er i cs) ; a br oad, het er ogenous m ddl e cl ass of pettyl andowners, m ddl e- l evel bur eaucr at s, bazaar t r ader s, andr ank- end- f i l e cl ergy; a l ower cl ass of ar t i sans and wage earner sl n t he bazaar and t he ur ban l umpenpr ol et ar i at ; and a l ar ge,i mpover i shed r ur al mass of poor peasant s and i t i ner ant t r i balgroups. These cl ass di vi si ons wer e embedded i n a mosai c ofr egi onal , t r i bal , et hni c, and r el i gi ous di vi s i ons whi ch ef f ec-t i vel y pr event ed any ki nd of l ar ge- scal e cl ass or nat i onal i stconsci ousness f r om emer gi ng. s

Fol l ow ng t he f i r st war w t h Russi a i n 1804- 1813, modestef f or t s wer e begun t o est abl i sh a st andi ng army t o r epl ace t hei nef f ect i ve t r i bal cont i ngent s. Thi s i nvol v~d t he conscr i pt i on of

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PAGE 66som~ 6000 t r oops, t he est abl i shment of smal l i ndust r i Qs t o manu-f acture arms and uni f orms, t he hi r i ng of Eur opean advi sor s, t heest abl i shment of a sQcul ar secondar y school , t he f undi ng of l i m t -ed opportuni t i es f or educat i on i n Eur ope, and i ncr eases i n t axesand t ar i f f s t o f i nance t he ent i r e ef f or t . These measur es f ost er eda degr ee of cont act w t h West er n i deas and t he begi nni ng of anat i onal i st consci ousness among t he smal l st r at a of educat edbur eaucr at s and pr of essi onal s . Thi s br i ef per i od of moder ni 2at i onended i n 1851 under pr essur e f r om Br i t ai n and Russi a and f r omdomest i c el ement s whi ch were adver sel y af f ect ed by t he t axes andt ar i f f s .

West er n econom c penet rat i on i n t he second hal f of t he ni ne-t eent h cent ur y gr adual l y pr oduced a much st r onger and br oadernat i onal i st consci ousness, cl ear l y vi si bl e i n t he r eact i ons t o t he1872 Reut er concessi on, t he 1890 Br i t i sh t obacco concessi on, andt he 1900 Russi an l oan. Thi s consci ousness emer ged pr i mar i l y amongt hree segment s of t he m ddl e cl ass. Fi r st , t rader st ar t i s ans, andmer chant s f r om t he bazaar r eact ed vehement l y t o t he hi gher t axesand compet i t i on f r om f orei gn goods ( par t i cul ar l y t ext i l es) andf or ei gn mer chant s, who wer e pr ot ect ed by a ser i es ofcapi t ul at i ons. Second. el ement s of t he cl er gy became i ncr eas i ngl yhost i l e t owar d f or ei gn penet r at i on. f or r easons r angi ng f r om t hei rdesi r e t o pr ot ect I sl am c t r adi t i ons t o t hei r need t o r ei nf orcet hei r mai n base of suppor t i n t he bazaar . Fi nal l y, a smal l ,di ver se st r at a of West er n- or i ent ed i nt el l ect ual s whi ch began t oemer ge i n t hi s per i od became i ncr easi ngl y i ncensed at t he sur r en-der by t he Qaj ar r ul er s of I r an' s pol i t i cal and econom c i ndepend-ence. The or i ent at i on of t hese i nt el l ect ual s t owar d Westernnat i onal i st and democr at i c i deas was t o pr ovi de t he mai n i deol og-i cal f oundat i on f or t he const i tut i onal movement of 1906 and t her epubl i can movement of t he ear l y 19205. 9

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PAGE 67THE CONSTI TUTI ONAL REVOLUTI ON AND I TS AFTERMATH, 1906- 1925

The const i t ut i onal movement was a di r ect out gr owt h of t heprotests whi ch had begun on a l ar ge scal e w th t he t obaccoboycot t . I t s i mmedi at e ant ecedent was an econom c cr i si s i n 1905whi ch r esul ~ed Tr om a bad har vest and t he di sr upt i on of t r ade w ~hRussi a caused by t he Russo- J apanese War and t he 1905 Russi an Revo-l ut i on. Tehr an mer chant s pet i t i oned t he cour t i n t he summer of1905 t o r ec~ f y some of t he damage done t o t hem by t he vari ousTorei gn concessi ons and t o di sm ss t he Bel gi an admni st r at or oft he Russi an cust oms concessi on. Af t er t he mer chant s' demands werei gnor ed a gener al st r i ke er upt ed i n December 1905 r ei t er at i ngt hese demands and cal l i ng f or t he est abl i shment of a "House ofJ us t i ce. " Maj or demonst r at i ons wer e or gani zed by mer chan~s andel ement s of t he cl er gy af t er a ser i es OT vi ol ent conf ront at i ons i nt he summer of 1906, and t he Br i t i sh l egat i on was occupi ed by acr owd est i mat ed at 14, 000. Af t er r ecei vi ng t hr eat s of ar . medupr i si ngs and t he def ect i on of t he Cossack Br i gade, Mozaf f araI - Di n Shah r el ent ed, perm t t i ng t he est abl i shment of a par l i amentand t he draf t i ng oT a const i tut i on.

The const i t ut i onal movement was st rongl y opposed by MuhammadAl i Shah (who succeeded hi s f at her i n ear l y 1907) , and by Br i t ai nand Russi a. The f i r st Maj l es bl ocked a new Angl o- Russi an l oan,condemned t he 1907 convent i on est abl i s hi ng spher es of i nf l uence i nI ran, and sought t o i mpose a number of r ef or ms on ~he r oyal cour t .The shah and hi s support er s r esponded by or gani zi ngant i - const i t u~ onal demonst r at i ons whi ch dr ew mai nl y f r om t heurban l umpenpr ol et ar i at . I n J une 1908 t he shah' s Russi an- of f i cer edCossacks bombarded t he par l i ament bui l di ng, cl osi ng t he f i r s tMaj l es. A number of const i tut i onal l eader s were subsequent l yt or t ur ed or mur der ed, and a pr o- const i t ut i onal r evol t i n Tabr i zwas cr ushed by t he 1909 Russi an i nvasi on, f ol l ow ng a pr ot ract ed

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PAGE 68

si ~g~. Th~ Maj l es was r est or ed i n 1909 wh~n a f or ce of const i t u-t i onal i st s f rom Rasht ( t he capi t al of Gi l an) and Bakt j ar i t r i bes-men i nvad~d T~hr an and oust ed t he shah. However , f urt h~r Russi anand Br i t i sh pr essures, i ncl udi ng t he depl oyment of mor e t r oops anda ser i es of ul t i mat Ums demandi ng t he di sm ssal of t hepro- const i t ut i onal Am~r i can f i nanci al advi sor Mor gan Shust er , l edt o a coup i n November 1911 by t he pr o- shah cabi net whi ch cl osedt h~ Maj l es and ended t he ear l y nat i onal i st p~r i od. 10

Betw~~n 1911 and 1914, I r an was nom nal l y gover ned by a cabi netdom nated by Bakt i ar i t r i bal l eader s. However , Russi an and Br i t i shi nf l uence i n t he cabi net and t he pr esence of over 12, 000 Russi anand Br i t i sh t r oops l ~f t act ual cont r ol i n t he hands of t hesepower s. W t h t he col l apse of t he cent r al gover nment t r i balupr i si ngs and separ at i st r evol t s emer ged i n sev~r al out l yi ngar eas. These i ncr eased w t h t h~ out br eak of Wor l d War I , as Germanagent s i nt r i gued among t he t r i bes and among r emnant s of t heconst i t ut i onal movement i n Tehr an and as Sovi et agent s andsympat hi zer s l at er ai ded separ at i st movement s i n t he nor thwest .Ahmad Shah was cr owned i n J ul y 1914, f ol l owed shor t l y by el ect i onsf or t he t hi r d Maj l es, whi ch wer e mani pul at ed by t he Russi ans andBr i t i sh. Anar chy r ei gned i n much of t he count r y dur i ng Wor l d WarI , par t i cul ar l y af t er t he col l apse of t he Czar i st f or ces. Rebelgover nment s wer e est abl i shed i n Gi 1an and Azer bai j an and f am newas r gpor t ed i n many ar eas.

W t h t he col l apse of Czar i st Russi a, Br i t ai n sought t o ext endi t s i nf l uence i n I r an af t er Wor l d War I by advanci ng t he t r eat y of1919. Thi s t r eat y was al most uni ver sal l y opposed i n I ran andprovoked st rong ant i - Br i t i sh sent i ment s. El ect i ons f or t he f our thMaj l es wer e r i gged by Pr i me M ni s t er VOSUq al - Dol ~h i n an at t emptt o achi eve r at i f i cat i on of t he t r eat y, r ai si ng f ur ther publ i cout cr ys. By l at e 1920, opposi t i on t o t he t r eat y and t o t he Vosuqgover nment whi ch f avor ed i t and had f ai l ed t o end t he Gi l an r evol t

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was str ong. ll Sever al gr oups appar ent l y cont ~mpl at ed coups at t hi st i me, par t i cul ar l y i n t he m l i t ar y, whi ch opposed t he i nt roduct i onof Br i t i sh advi sor s and bl amed i t s Whi t e Russi an l ead~r shi p f ort he f ai l ur es i n Gi l an. I n Febr uar y 1921 a coal i t i on of Cossackof f i cer s under Reza Khan and l i ber al nat i onal i st s under Sayyed Zi aaI - Di n sei zed power , i nst al l i ng Sayyed Zi a as pr i me m ni s t er . RezaKhan qui ckl y f or ced out Sayyed Zi a, was hi msel f named pr i m~ mni s-t er i n 1923, and cr owned hi msel f Shah i n 1925. Hi s accessi on t ot he t hr one was opposed by a handf ul of Maj l es deput i es l ed byMohammed Mossadeq, 12 who was l at er t o become t he chi ef symbol ofI r ani an nat i onal i sm

THE REGI ME OF REZA SHAH PAHl EVI , 1925- 1941

Reza Shah came t o power because of t he weakness of t he Qaj arst at e. The Qaj ar s had mor tgaged much of t hei r sover ei gnt y t o t heRussi ans and Br i t i sh by cont r act i ng l oans and concessi ons t of i nance t hei r ext ravagant l i f est yl es. Thi s had empt i ed t he t reas-ur y, r equi r i ng t ax and t ar i f f i ncr eases and maki ng l ar ge- scal er ef orms and moder ni zat i on i mpossi bl e. Par t i cul ar l Y cr uci al t ot hei r f al l was t he i nabi l i t y of t he Qaj ar s t o f i nance a st r ong,l oyal ar my whi ch m ght have pr event ed t he f or ei gn occupat i on andgrow ng anar chy whi ch f ol l owed t he const i t ut i onal per i od and whi chwoul d cer t ai nl y have made t he 1921 coup mor e di f f i cul t . For ~ gnconcessi ons and t he weakness of t he Qaj ar s al so al i enat ed t hem ddl e cl ass el ement s whose emer gi ng consci ousness and gr ow ngpol i t i cal power became evi dent dur i ng t he t obacco boycot t and t heconst i t ut i onal per i od. Al t hough Reza Shah' s r i se t o power wasbased pr i mar i l y on hi s cont r ol over t he m l i t ar y, i t occur r edi ni t i dl l y w t h t he act i ve suppor t and l at er w t h t he acqui escenceof t hi s m ddl e cl ass.

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Dur i ng t he ear l y year s of hi s r ul e, Reza Shah was a nat i onal i s-t i c, moder ni zi ng monar ch who bor e a gr eat er r esembl ance t o hi sTur ki sh cont emporar y Kemal At at ur k t han t o hi s Qaj ar predecessors .The act i ons t aken by Reza Shah t o r educe f or ei gn i nf l uence i n I r anhave been descr i bed above. Reza Shah al so under t ook a l ar ge- scal epr ogr am of moder ni zat i on. Thi s ef f or t t r ansf ormed I r an f r om abackwar d, l ar gel y f eudal count r y heavi l y dependent on t he out si dewor l d f or mar ket s, manuf act ur ed goods, and adm ni st rat i ve exper -t i se t o a sem - i ndust r i al i zed count ry dom nat ed by a st rong st at eand cons i der abl y l ess dependent on t he out si de wor l d.

Reza Shah' s f i r st moder ni zat i on ef f or t s f ocused on t he m l i t ar yand t he ci vi l ser vi ce, whi ch ser ved as hi s pr i mar y bases of pol i -t i cal suppor t dur i ng hi s consol i dat i on of power and i n hi s year sas I r an' s uncont est ed r ul er . Af t er t he 1921 coup Reza Khan act edqui ckl y t o uni t e t he di ver se m l i t ar y uni t s under a reorgani zed,al l - I r ani an of f i cer cor ps. Nat i onw de compul sor y conscr i pt i on wasestabl i shed i n 1925, w t h mandat or y l i t er acy t rai ni ng and subse-quent r eser ve dut y f or al l r ecrui t s. The ci vi l servi ce was t hor -oughl y r eor gani zed l n 1922, when r egul at i ons gover ni ng hi r i ng,pr omot i on, and pr of essi onal conduct wer e est abl i shed. Bet ween 1923and 1943 t he number of ci vi l i an gover nment empl oyees i ncr easedf r om 25, 000 t o 100, 000, and t he ar my gr ew t o near l y 400, 000. 13

The gr owt h of t he of f i cer cor ps and ci vi l ser vi ce gr oups wascl osel y t i ed t o t he est abl i shment of a secul ar ~ducat ; onal syst emi n I ran. The number of st udent s enr ol l ed i n secul ar pr i mar y andsecondary school s i ncr eased by an ast oni shi ng 1300 per cent bet ween1925 and 1929. The Uni ver si t y of Tehr an was est abl i shed i n 1934,and by 1941 36 t eacher ' s col l eges and 32 vocat i onal school s hadbeen est abl i shed. Begi nni ng i n 1928 100 st at e schol ar shi ps f orover seas st udy wer e awar ded annual l y, and over 1500 st udent s hadr et ur ned f r om overseas by 1938. School s f or t he m l i t ar y and ci vi lser vi ce and a l ar ge adul t educat i on pr ogr am were al so est abl i shed.

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PAGE 71I n addi t i on t o f ost er i ng a West er n- or i ent ed, non- ar i s t ocr at i cci vi l ser vi ce and of f i cer cor ps, t he est abl i shment of a secul areducat i onal syst em hel ped underm ne I s l am c val ues and t he r ol e oft he cl er gy i n I r ani an soci et y. Thi s t rend was f ur ther augment edby t he secul ar r ef or ms of t he ci vi l code and j udi ci al syst em whi chwer e car r i ed out between 1923 and 1936. 14

Econom c devel opment was al so ext ensi ve i n t hi s per i od. Pr i ma-r y emphasi s was pl aced on t he expansi on of i ndust ry and i nf r as-t r uct ur e at t he expense of agr i cul t ur e. Lar ge- scal ei ndust r i al i zat i on occur red i n t he m d- and- 1ate- 1930s. I ndust r i alempl oyment i ncr eased by 250 per cent f r om 1934 t o 1933, and t heshar e of i ndust r y i n I r an' s GNP gr ew f r om near l y 0 t o ar ound 5per cent bet ween 1926 and 1947. The mai n i ndust r i es est abl i shedwer e t ext i l es, mat ches, cement , and t obacco and f ood pr ocessi ngpl ant s. These used domest i c r aw mat er i al s al most excl usi vel y, andconst i t ut ed an i ni t i al st age of i mpor t subst i tut i on.

The st at e pl ayed an ext ensi ve r ol e i n i ndust r i al i zat i on underReza Shah. A nat i onal bank was est abl i shed i n 1927. By t he l at e1930s 20 per cent of t he nat i onal budget was al l ocat ed t o i ndust r i -al i zat i on, exceedi ng def ense expendi t ur es 1n 1939- 1941.St at e- oper at ed f or ei gn and domest i c t r ade monopol i es wer e est ab-l i s hed. By t he end of Reza Shah' s r egi me r oughl y 50 per cent ofi ndust r i al pr oduct i on and empl oyment ( excl udi ng t he oi l i ndust r y)wer e i n st at e- owned i ndust r i es. Gr eat advances i n t ranspor tat i onand communi cat i ons wer e al so made under st at e sponsor shi p. TheTr ans- I r ani an Rai l r oad, whi ch connect ed t he Per si an Gul f and t hemai n nor t her n ci t i es, was const r uct ed under Reza Shah. Notsurpr i s i ngl y, many oT t hese i ndust r i es, par t i cul ar l y t hose oper -at ed by t he st at e, wer e i nef f i ci ent and unpr of i tabl e. I t i sevi dent t hat much of t he i ndust ri al i zat i on and devel opment ofi nf r ast ruct ur e ( par t i cul ar l y t he r ai l r oad) under t aken i n t hi sper i od ser ved t he st ~t e goal s of achi evi ng gr eat er econom c i nde-

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PAGE 72p~ndence and a st r onger m l i t ar y appar at us r at her t han t her at i onal cr i t er i a of ~conom c pl anni ng. I S

THE SOCI AL AND POLI TI CAL STRUCTURE OF I RAN UNDER REZA SH AH

Reza Shah' s moder ni zat i on ef f or t s had pr of ound consequences f ort he soci al st r uct ur e of I ran, whi ch had evol ved onl y modest l ysi nce t he ear l y ni net eent h cent ur y. The most i mpor tant new cl asst o emer ge under Reza Shah was an educat ed m ddl e cl ass or i nt el l i -gent si a, composed mai nl y of t he pr of essi onal s and m ddl e- l evelbur eaucr at s who had benef i t ted f rom Reza Shah' s educat i onalr ef orms. Thi s cl ass mai nl y gr ew out of t he t r adi t i onal m ddl ecl ass descr i bed above, many of i t s member s havi ng come f r om bazaaror pet ty l andowni ng f am l i es. I t had ver y het er ogenous pol i t i call oyal t i es, pr ovi di ng bot h t he m ddl e- l evel empl oyees of t he st at eappar at us and much of t he l eader shi p of t he var i ous pol i t i calmovement s whi ch emer ged af t er t he f al l of R~za Shah i n 1941.Cl osel y r el at ed t o t he educat ed m ddl e cl ass ( and i n f act over l ap-pi ng consi der abl y w t h i t ) wer e t he l ower l evel s of t he of f i cercor ps, whi ch had been gr eat l y expanded al ong w t h t he civilser vi ce and t he r est of t he m l i t ar y by Reza Shah. The emer genceof t he educat ed m ddl e cl ass cor r esponded w t h a decl i ne i n t heposi t i on of t he cl er gy, whi ch was ser i ousl y weakened by RezaShah' s secul ar i zi ng r ef orms. 16

Because of t he dom nant r ol e pl ayed by t he st at e i n i ndust r i al -i zat i on under Reza Shah, t he I r ani an bour geoi si e r emai ned compar -at i vel y smal l and subsur vi ent t o t he st at e i n t hi s per i od.Fur t hermor e, si nce f or ei gn i nvestment i n I r an was conf i ned t o t heoi l i ndust r y unt i l t h~ m d- 1950s, ver y l i t t l e of t he I r ani an bour -g~oi s i e coul d at t hat t i me be descr i bed a~ dependent on f or ei gn

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PAGE 73capi t al . The mai n i ndust r i es open t o t he pr i vat e sect or under RezaShah wer e mat ches, some t ext i l es, cer t ai n f ood pr ocessi ng i ndus-t r i es, and ser vi ce i ndust r i es such as t r anspor t at i on andconst r uct i on. Most of t he i ndust r i al i s t s who di d emer ge i n t hi sper i od came f r om ei t her t he bazaar or f r om Reza Shah' s cl oseci r cl e of t op m l i t ar y of f i cer s and st at e of f i ci al s . 17

The gr eat expansi on of t he economy under Reza Shah enl ar ged t het radi t i onal pet t y bour geoi si e l ocat ed 1n t he bazaar , whi ch hadt i es w t h bot h t he i ndust r i al bour geoi s i e and t he educat ed m ddl ecl ass. I t al so cr eat ed a l ar ge i ndust r i al wor ki ng cl ass, whi chgrew f r om about 1500 at t he t ur n of t he cent ur y t o 50, 000 i n 1941,w t h anot her 40, 000 i n t he oi l i ndust r y. Thi s moder n wor ki ng cl asswas dr awn mai nl y f r om t he poor er peasant s and t he ur ban l umpenpr o-l et ar i at . Si nce l abor uni ons wer e out l awed bef or e t he mai n per i odof i ndust r i al expansi on i n t he 19305. t he wor ki ng cl ass r emai nedl ar gel y unor gani zed under Reza Shah. However , sever al st r i kes wer est aged under communi st l eader shi p bet ween 1929 and. 1931, and t hei ndust r i al wor ki ng cl ass gave st r ong suppor t t o t he communi stTudeh par t y i n t he 1940s and 1950s. 16

Reza Shah' s r egi me was a m xed bl essi ng f or t he l anded ar i st o-cracy. Landowner s benef i t t ed f r om t he sal e of cr own l ands and f r oma ser i es of l aws passed i n t he 1920s and ear l y 19305 whi ch f i r m yest abl i shed t he i nst i t ut i on of pr i vat e l andownershi p. Fur thermore,t he gr ant i ng of uni ver sal mal e suf f r age under t he f our th Maj l esenabl ed l andowner s t o dom nat e t hat body, not onl y under Reza Shah( when itwas compl et el y subor di nat ed) . but 1n t he subsequent er aas wel l . However . as much as 15 per cent of t he ar abl e l and i nI r an ( i ncl udi ng al most t he ent i r e pr ovi nce of Mazandar an) wasacqui r ed pr i vat el y by Reza Shah, much of i t t hr ough conf i scat i onf r om weal t hy l andowner s. Ver y l i t t l e at t ent i on was devot ed t o t hemoder ni zat i on of agr i cul t ur e i n Reza Shah' s devel opment pr ogr amMuch of t he l andowni ng t r i bal ar i st ocr acy was sever el y weakened by

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PAGE 74t he paci f i cat i on and f or ced set t l ement of t he t r i bes. 19

Needl ess t o say, Reza Shah' s act i ons br ought ver y l i t t l e changet o t he l i ves of t he poor peasant s. The I r ani an peasant ry r emai nedon t he br i nk of sur vi val t hr oughout t hi s per i od. Ot her t han t hosewho mgr at ed t o t he ur ban ar eas, I r ani an peasant s pl ayed nosi gni f i cant r ol e i n I r ani an pol i t i cs. ~o

Despi t e hi s ef f or ts t o r educe f or ei gn i nf l uence and moder ni zeI r an, Reza Shah was a t yr ant and a di ct at or who r ul ed ar bi t r ar i l yand used t he cr own t o amass a gr eat f or t une. Af t er i ni t i al l ysuppor t i ng t he movement t o est abl i sh a r epubl i c, Reza Khan changedhi s m nd i n 1924 on t he gr ounds t hat I ran was not yet r eady t or ul e i t sel f . Pol i t i cal par t i es wer e out l awed i n 1927, af t er maki nga br i ef appear ance. El ect i ons wer e r out i nel y mani pul at ed, and t heMaj l es ser ved essent i al l Y t o l egi t i m ze l e~ s l at i on handed down byReza Shah. Press censorshi p was sever e, and l abor uni ons wer eout l awed i n 1931. The t r i bes wer e r ut hl essl y suppr essed by t hearmy, di sarmed, and f or ced t o set t l e i nt o vi l l ages. Those i nt el -l ect ual s , m l i t ar y of f i cer s, or cl er i cs who opposed Reza Shah orbecame t oo power f ul wer e i mpr i soned, t or t ur ed, or mur der ed. ~

Reza Shah' s di ct at or i al met hods ser ved t o t empor ar i l y neut r al -i ze t he democr at i c movement whi ch had t r i umphed dur i ng t he const i -t ut i onal per i od. Thi s movement r emai ned ver y much al i ve, however ,and was par adoxi cal l y st r engt hened by t he moder ni zat i on ef f or t s ofReza Shah, whi ch gr eat l y expanded i t s soci al base i n t he mddl eand wor ki ng cl asses. I r an' s democr at i c movement r eemer ged w t hgr eat vi gor upon t he dem se of Reza Shah t o pr esent t he most ser i -ous and pr ot ract ed chal l enge t o t he aut ocr at i c ambi t i ons of hi ssuccessor .

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PAGE 753) WORLD WAR I I AND THE POSTWAR PERI OD, 1941- 1951

Reza Shah' s di ct at or i al r egi me came t o an abr upt end i n 1941when Br i t ai n and t he Sovi et Uni on j oi nt l y i nvaded I r an. The i mme-di at e mot i ve f or t he i nvasi on was t o secur e t he Trans- I rani anRai l way, t hr ough whi ch some 30 per cent of t he suppl i es sent t o t heSovi et Uni on f r om t he West between 1942 and 1944 wer e eventual l yshi pped. The r api d gr owt h i n I r an' s t r ade w t h Germany andi ncreasi ng German i nvol vement i n I r an' s heavy i ndust r i es andt r anspor t at i on syst em had gi ven Germany a pr omnent posi t i on i nI r an by 1941. St r ong pr o-German sent i ment s and ext ensi ve Germanf i f t h col umn act i vi t i es i n I r an wer e seen as a t hr eat t o Al l i edpl ans t o use t he Per si an Cor r i dor as a suppl y r out e Tor t he v; ~aleast er n f r ont . Br i t i sh and Sovi et demands pr i or t o t he i nvasi ont hat Raza Shah el i m nat e German agent s and sympat hi zer s wer ei gnor ed. Af t er t he i nvasi on, Reza Shah was exi l ed t o Maur i t i us andsubsequent l y t o Sout h Af r i ca wher e he di ed i n 1944, l eavi ng t het hr one t o hi s 21 year ol d son Mohammed Reza. 22

I RANI AN POLI TI CS DURI NG WORLD WAR I I AND I TS AFTERMATH

The f al l of Reza Shah i ni t i at ed a twel ve year per i od of f er ventpol i t i cal act i vi t y i n I r an. Censor shi p was l i f t ed, and a gener alamnest y f or pol i t i cal pr i soner s was decl ar ed. Pol i t i cal par t i eswer e r ei nt r oduced, w t h as many as 42 appear i ng by ear l y 1944. Theoccupat i on of I r an by bot h Sovi et and Br i t i sh and Amer i can f or ceshel ped t o pr omot e a l ar ge measur e of i deol ogi cal di ver si t y i nI r ani an pol i t i cs, unl i ke ear l i er f or ei gn i nvol vement whi ch hadgener al l y cont r i but ed t o nat i onal di si nt egr at i on. 23

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PAGE 76

The br oad spect r um of soci al gr oups and pol i t i cal par t i es whi chwer e act i ve i n t hi s per i od and t he degree t o whi ch t hese gr oupswer e mobi l i zed cont r ast ed shar pl y w t h t he pr evi ous and subsequenter as. Of t he par t i es whi ch emer ged dur i ng t he war , t he communi stTudeh par ty qui ckl y est abl i shed i t sel f as t he most act i ve and mostpopul ar . I t was Tormed i n l at e Sept ember 1941 by t he sur vi vor s ofa gr oup of 53 I r ani an communi st s who had been j ai l ed i n 1937 andrecent l y amnest i ed. I t por t r ayed i t sel f unt i l m d- 1944 as a demo-cr at i c, ant i - f asci st , and l ef t i st but non- Mar xi st or gani zat i on. I tpar t i ci pat ed i n el ect i ons, suppor ted t he const i t ut i on, st rongl yopposed t he Axi s power s and t he r emai ni ng vest i ges of Reza Shah' sr egi me, and f ound i t sel f f r equent l y at odds w th t he Sovi et Uni onand w t h vet er an I r ani an communi st s.

The Tudeh par t y sought t o at t r act a br oad spect rum of pr ogr es-si ve el ement s i n t hi s per i od, r angi ng f r om bour geoi s nat i onal i st st o peasant s and t he new i ndust r i al wor ki ng cl ass. The l at t erqui ckl y emer ged as i t s pr i mar y base OT suppor t , whi l e i t s l eader -shi p was dr awn mai nl y f rom t he educat ed m ddl e cl ass. I t al sor ecei ved st r ong suppor t f r om st udent s and f r om r egi onal and et hni cpopul at i ons seeki ng gr eat er aut onomy f rom t he cent ral governmenti n Tehr an, such as t he Kur ds and Azer bai j ani s. The Tudeh par ty wasver y popul ar and r emai ned hi ghl y vi s i bl e i n t hi s per i od, st agi ngl ar ge demonst rat i ons and publ i shi ng a var i et y of newspaper s. I tel ect ed 8 of t he 126 r epr esent at i ves i n t he Tour teent h Maj l esel ecti ons of l at e 1943 and ear l y 1944 ( more t han any ot her par ty )and r ecei ved 13 per cent of t he vot e nat i onw de. A New Yor k Ti mesr epor ter l at er est i mat ed t hat i t coul d have r ecei ved 40 per cent oft he vot e f or t he f i f t eent h Maj l es el ect i ons i n 1946, had t hey notbeen r i gged by t he gover nment . 24

Many of t he ot her par t i es est abl i shed i n t he year s i mmedi atel yaf t er t he f al l of Reza Shah had l i t t l e popul ar suppor t and qui ckl ydi sappear ed f r om t he pol i t i cal scene. By t he t i me of t he f our -

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PAGE 77t eent h Maj l es el ect i ons f i ve mai n par t i es had emer ged, i n addi t i ont o t he Tudeh. They wer e t he conser vat i ve, r oyal i st Nat i onal Uni onpar t y, suppor t ed mai nl y by weal t hy l andowner s; t he conser vat i ve,pr o- Br i t i sh Fat her l and par t y, whi ch was headed by Sayyed Zi a ( whor et ur ned f r om exi l e i n 1943) and r epr esent ed t he t r i bal ar i st ocr a-cy, t he conser vat i ve cl er gy, and el ement s of t he bazaar ; t hecent r i s t J ust i ce par ty, composed mai nl y of ant i - communi s t i nt el -l ect ual s; t he pr ogr essi ve, nat i onal i st I r an par t y, whi ch backedMossadeq' s r eent ry i nt o pol i t i cs i n t hi s per i od and was suppor tedby moder at e and l ef t - w ng i nt el l ect ual s and bazaar el ement s; andt he r adi cal Com ades' par t y, whi ch spl i t f rom t he Tudeh i n l at e1942 and consi s t ed mai nl y of r adi cal but ant i - St al i ni s t i nt el l ec-t ual s . Toget her w t h t he Tudeh par ty, whi ch had by f ar t he l ar gestpopul ar base, t hese par t i es essent i al l y def i ned t he pol i t i calspect r um of t he t i me.

El ect i ons f or t he t hi r t eent h Maj l es ( whi ch sat f r om November1941 unt i l November 1943) had l ar gel y been compl et ed bef or e t heAl l i ed i nvasi on, and consequent l y t he emer gence of t hese par t i eshad l i t t l e ef f ect on i t s composi t i on. However , t hey pl ayed ani mpor t ant r ol e i n t he el ect i ons f or t he f our t eent h Mej l es ( Mar ch1944 t hr ough Mar ch 1946) . Al t hough onl y a smal l number of i t sdeput i es act ual l y bel onged t o t hese par t i es, t he f our t eent h Maj l esqui ckl y spl i t i nt o a number of f r act i ons or caucuses whi chespoused pl at f or ms si m l ar t o t hose hel d by t he par t i es. The mai npoi nt of cl eavage among t hem was bet ween t he pr o- and ant i - shahf ract i ons. The r oyal i st Nat i onal Uni on caucus hel d l ess t han 25per cent of t he seat s, gi vi ng t he Maj l es a deci dedl y ant i - shahchar act er.

Conf l i ct between t he young shah and t he f our t eent h Maj l es b~ganw t h hi s at t empt s t o i nf l uence t he el ect i ons and t o subsequent l ypr event i t f rom conveni ng. Once t he Maj l es was convened, t hsant i - shah f or ces gai ned cont r ol over t he most i mpor t ant comm t t ees

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and began t o est dbl i sh a cabi net and i nst i t ut e a ser i es of pr oce-dur dl r ef or ms whi ch sol i di f i ed t hei r posi t i on. The mdj or conf r on-t at i on bet ween t he shah and hi s Maj l es opposi t i on occur red when i tat t empted t o asser t cont r ol over t he m l i t ar y by r est r i ct i ng i t sbudget and f or ci ng i t t o enact maj or r ef or ms. Thi s posed a ser i oust hr eat t o t he shah, f or whom t he m l i t ar y was an essent i al base ofpower . The ef f or t bv t he Maj l es t o r ei n l n t he m l i t ar y wast hwar t ed by a ser i es of pr ot r act ed and vi ol ent st r i kes bV t ext i l ewor ker s i n I sf ahan, appar ent l y l ed by t he Tudeh par t y. l ocalt r i bal l eader s f ear ed Sovi et i nt er vent i on on behal f of t he st r i k-i ng wor ker s and j oi ned f or ces ~ t h t he m l i tar y and t he shah.Cal l s t o st rengt hen t he armed f or ces and a st r ong ant i - Tudehreact i on emer ged l n t he Maj l es, endi ng t he dr i ve t o r ei n i n t hem l i t ar y and weakeni ng t he ant i - shah coal i t i on. z5

Si nce ear l y 1943 t he gover nment had been qui et l y negot i at i ngf or new oi l concessi ons i n t he nor t h and sout heast w t h Br i t i shand Amer i can oi l compani es. The gover nment had i ni t i al l y i nvi t edSt andar d of New J er sey t o subm t a bi d, appar ent l y i n an at t emptt o i ncr ease Amer i can i nf l uence t o count er Br i t ai n and t he Sovi etUni on. Thi s pr ompt ed t he Sovi et s t o demand t he nor t her n conces-si ons f or t hemsel ves, mar ki ng t he begi nni ng of a per i od of gr ow ngant agoni sm bet ween t he Sovi et s and t he I r ani an, Br i t i sh, and Amer -i can gover nment s, and bet ween Sovi et suppor ter s and opponent s i nI ran. 26

The Tudeh par ty qui ckl y backed t he Sovi et demands, an act i onwhi ch openl y i dent i f i ed i t as pr o- Sovi et and si gnal ed i t s i ncr eas-l ng r adi cal i zat i on. The pr ogr essi ve and nat i onal i st el ement s i nt he Maj l es br oke t hei r ant i - shah al l i ance w t h t he Tudeh par ty andj oi ned w t h conser vat i ve el ement s i n out l aw ng al l f ur t her oi lconcessi ons, a move whi ch was l ed by Mossadeq. Host i l i t v betweent he Sovi et Uni on and I r an and t he r adi cal i zat i on of t he Tudehpar t y i ncr eased f ur ther af t er Apr i l 1945, when a gover nment whi ch

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PAGE 80st at es on i t s bor der s. However , Nazi document s capt ur ed by t heAl l i es r eveal ed a November 1940 agr eement between t he Axi s power sand t he Sovi et Uni on whi ch acknow edged Sovi et t er r i t or i al aspi -r at i ons i n t he ar ea t o i t s sout h, i ncl udi ng I r an. The exi st ence ofsuch an agr eement was appar ent l y suspect ed by some I r ani ans at t het i me, and was cer tai nl y known t o U. S . pol i cymaker s i n t he ear l ydays of t he Col d War . 29 Whi l e one may quest i on t he ext ent t o whi chSovi et of f i ci al s st i l l hel d such i nt ent i ons i n t he post war per i od( par t i cul ar l y af t er t he deat h of St al i n i n Mar ch 1953) , i t i scl ear t hat t he cont ai nment of Sovi et expansi oni sm r emai ned acar di nal pr i nci pl e of U. S . pol i cy t owar d I r an i n t he 1940s and19505.

THE POSTWAR STRUGGLE FOR POWER I N I RAN

Wth t he depar t ur e of Sovi et t r oops and t he col l apse of t heAzer bai j an and Kur di s h r epubl i cs, ext er nal f or ces agai n assumedt he secondar y r ol e i n I r ani an domest i c pol i t i cs whi ch t hey hadcome t o occupy under Reza Shah. However , i n t he open pol i t i calenvi r onment whi ch pr evai l ed af t er 1941, t he w t hdr awal of f or ei gnact or s l ef t I r an t ur bul ent and i n a st at e of f l ux.

The i mmedi at e consequences of t he Sovi et w t hdr awal wer e acol l apse of t he Tudeh Par ty' s br oad base of suppor t and a sur ge i nt he popul ar i t y of Qavan' s Democr at i c par ty, whi ch br i ef l y gai nedcont r ol of t he f i f t eent h Maj l es. An ext ensi ve gover nment cr ackdownon t he Tudeh par t y and i t s af f i l i at es began i n Oct ober 1946 andcont i nued dur i ng t he r eoccupat i on of Azer bai j an and Kur di s tan. I nt he i nvasi on of t hese pr ovi nces by gover nment f or ces some 500r ebel s wer e ki l l ed, over 10, 000 f l ed t o t he Sovi et Uni on, andhundr eds of t op l eader s wer e execut ed or i mpr i soned. Thi s was a

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( t he Senat e) , hal f of whose member s wer e appoi nt ed by t he shah.

Af t er seven year s as head of st at e and i n t he absence of auni f i ed opposi t i on such as t hat headed by Qavam or t heTudeh/ Sovi et col l abor at i on of 1944- 1946, t he shah appar ent l y f el ti n 1948 t hat he coul d at t empt t o r eest abl i s h t he dom nant posi t i onhel d by t he cour t under Reza Shah. The si ze and qual i t y of t hem l i t ar y had been gr ow ng st eadi l y, due i n par t t o U. S. ai d ( seechapt er 4, bel ow) . Thi s not onl y i ncr eased i t s abi l i t y t osuppr ess mass- based gr oups such as t he var i ous aut onomy movem~nt s,t he Tudeh par t y, and t he t r i bes, but al so i ncr eased i t s l oyal t y t ot he shah. The shah al so began t o i nt r i gue among t he maj or pol i -t i cal f i gur es of t he t i me, ai di ng t hose who wer e l oyal t o hi m andundermni ng t hose who opposed hi m or r emai ned i ndependent ( such asQavam who was f or ced i nt o exi l e when hi s government col l apsed) .

I n at tempt i ng t o r eest abl i sh t he monar chy, t he shah al so soughtt o st r engt hen I r an' s t i es w t h t he Uni t ed St at es and weaken i t st i es w t h Br i t ai n. Thi s l ed t o conf l i ct w t h t he pr o- Br i t i sh f r ac-t i on i n t he Maj l es, whi ch br ought down t he Haki m gover nment af t eronl y si x mont hs i n of f i ce. The r oyal i s ts t hen f or med a gover nmenti n col l abor at i on w t h Qavam s Democr at s. Thi s gover nment , whi chbegan secr et negot i at i ons t o r evi se t he Br i t i sh oi l concessi on,col l apsed af ter f our mont hs because of obst r uct i oni sm by t hepr o- Br i t i sh f r act i on. ai ded by t he popul i st cl er i c Ayat ol l ah Kash-anI . The Maj l es was unabl e t o agr ee on a new gover nment , andst r ongl y opposed as unconst i t ut i onal t he shah' s ef f or t s t o appoi ntone. The i mpasse was ended, however , i n Febr uar y 1949 when anat tempt was made on t he shah' s l i f e. Sei z i ng t hi s oppor tuni t y, t heshah decl ar ed mar t i al l aw, i nst al l ed hi s candi dat e as pr i me m ni s-t er , convened a const i t uent assembl y whi ch cr eat ed t he upper houseof par l i ament ment i oned above, and i nst i t ut ed a w de- r angi ngcr ackdown on hi s opposi t i on, i ncl udi ng a ban on al l Tudeh par t yact i vi t i es . 31

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THE EMERGENCE OF THE NATI ONAL FRONT

The shah' s cr ackdown and hi s subsequent at t empt t o r i g t hesi xt eenth Maj l es el ect i ons ( hel d bet ween J ul y 1949 ~nd Febr uar y1950) provoked a l ar ge demonst r at i on i n t he r oyal pal ace groundsi n Tehr an. The demonst rat or s el ect ed a comm t t ee of t went y pr om -nent act i vi s t s t o negot i at e t hei r demands w t h t he shah, headed byMohammed Mossadeq. The comm t t ee obt ai ned a pr om se f rom t hecour t t hat f r ee el ect i ons f or t he si xt eent h Maj l es woul d beperm t t ed. I t t hen r et i r ed t o Mossadeq' s home, wher e i t agr eed t of orm a nat i onal or gani zat i on t o cont i nue pr essi ng f or var i ousr ef orms. Thi s or gani zat i on became known as t he Nat i onal Fr ont .

The Nat i onal Fr ont el ect ed ei ght r epr esent at i ves t o t hesi xt eenth Maj l es ( whi ch sat f r om Febr uar y 1950 unt i l May 1951) ,i ncl udi ng Mossadeq and sever al ot her member s of t he or i gi nalcomm t t ee of t went y. Al t hough t he si xt eent h Maj l es was over whel mi ngl y pr o- shah, t he Nat i onal Fr ont deput i es i mmedi at el Y cal l ed f orcut s i n t he m l i t ar y budget , denounced t he const i t ut i ent assembl y,and voi ced ot her demands ai med at r educi ng t he power of t he shahand i mpr ovi ng t he posi t i on of t he m ddl e cl asses. I n J une 1950 t hepr o- s hah gover nment subm t t ed pr oposal s t o a Maj l es comm t t eecal l i ng f or r evi si ons i n t he 1933 oi l agr eement w th t he Al Oe. I nor der t o ai d passage of t he pr oposal s, t he shah at t he same t i menom nat ed Al i Razmar a t o be t he new pr i me m ni st er . Razmar a was at op general who f avor ed r enegot i at i on of t he t reat y but had ot her -w se been i ndependent and f r equent l y cr i t i cal of t he shah. Razmarawas qui ckl y el ect ed, despi t e opposi t i on f r om t he Nat i onal Fr ont .He t hen sponsor ed measur es i n t he Maj l es embodyi ng t he newpr oposal s, al ong w t h a number of r ef orms such as hi gher t axes f ort he r i ch, dn dnt i - cor r upt i on comm ssi on, pr oposal s f or pr ovi nci aland l ocal assembl i es, a r el axat i on of ant i - Tudeh measur es, and al and r ef or m bi l l .

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Razmar a was assassi nat ed i n Mar ch 1951 by a member of t heFedayan- i I s l am a Musl i m ext rem st gr oup whi ch was cl osel y asso-ci at ed w t h Kashani at t he t i me. Razmar a' s assassi nat i on wascl ear l y t i ed t o hi s suppor t f or t he oi l agr eement s, and appar ent l yi nvol ved Kashani and sever al ot her Nat i onal Fr ont l eader s. By t het i me of Razmar a' s assassi nat i on, opposi t i on t o t he oi l agr eement swas near l y uni ver sal and t he Nat i onal Fr ont had begun t o l ead amovement f or nat i onal i zat i on of t he AI OC. Recogni z i ng t he st rengt hof t hi s movement , t he Maj l es r ej ect ed t he shah' s nom nee t or epl ace Razmar a and el ect ed t he moder at e Hossei n Al a as t he newpr i me m ni st er .

Al a br ought a t op Nat i onal Fr ont l eader i nt o hi s cabi net andpermtt ed a bi l l cal l i ng f or nat i onal i zat i on t o be adopt ed by t heMaj l es. Thi s bi l l , whi ch was sponsor ed by Mossadeq, was l at erappr oved by t he Senat e ( hal f of whose member s wer e appoi nt ed byt he shah) and si gned i nt o l aw by t he shah, i ndi cat i ng t he st rengt hof t he nat i onal i zat i on movement . I n l at e Mar ch a ser i es ofTudeh- sponsor ed st r i kes cal l i ng f or nat i onal i zat i on and pr ot est i ngwor ki ng condi t i ons swept t he oi l f i el ds and t he maj or i ndust r i alci t i es. On Apr i l 29 t he shah was f or ced t o appoi nt Mossadeq pri mem ni s t er . Thi s i ni t i at ed a per i od of conf r ont at i on i n whi ch Mossa-deq and t he Nat i onal Fr ont wer e pi t t ed agai nst Br i t ai n, t he shah,and event ual l y t he Uni t ed St at es. 32

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F OOTNOTES TO CHAPTER 3

1) Rouhol l ah K . R~ma~ani , The For ei gn Pol i c v of I r an: A Deve l o pi ngNat i on i n Wor l d ATf al r s , 1500- 1941 ( Char l ot t es vi l l e: Uni ver s i t y ofVi r gi ni a Pr es s , 19( 6) , chs . 2, 3.2) I ~i d. , ch. 4; Ann K. S. l ambt on, " The I mpac t of t he Wes t onPer s l a, " I nt er nat i ona l Af f ai r s , Vol. 33, Ho. 1, J a nuar y 1957, pp.12- 25; Pet er Aver y, Mode r n I r an ( L ondon: Er ne s t Benn, 1965) , ch.6. T~e mos t c ompr ~h~ns i ve t r eat ment of t he f or ei gn econom c pene-t r ?~l ~n? f I r an. l n t hi s per i od i s F i r uz Kaz emzadeh, Rus s i a andBr l ~al n I n Per s l a, 1864- 1914 ( N~w Hav en: Ya l e Uni ver s i t y Pr es s ,1968) . See al s o Char l es I s s awi ( ed . ) , The Econom c Hi st or y ofI r an, 1800- 1914 ( Chi cago: Uni ver s i t y of Chi cago Pr es s , 1971) , ch.3 and el sewher e.3) Ri char d W Cot t am Nat i o nal i sm i n I r an, Upda t ed t h rouqh 1978( P i t t s bur gh : Uni ver s i t y of P i t t s b ur gh Pr es s , 1979), pp . 13- 14. Ont he t obacco boy cot t s ee Ni kki R. Kedd i e, Re l i qi on and Rebel l i on i nI r an: The Tobacco Pr ot es t of 1891- 92 ( l ondon: F r ank Cas s , 19( 6) .4) Ramaz an; , For ei qn Pol i c y of I r an, pp. 70- 73; Fer ei dunFes ha r ak i , Devel opment of t he I r ani an Oi l I ndus t r y ( New Yo r k :Pr aeger , 1976 ) , ch. 1; L . P . El we l l - Sut t on , P e r s i an Oi l : A St udyi n P ower Pol i t i cs ( l ondon: l awr ence and W s har t , 1955) , chs . 2 7.5) Ramaz ani , F or ei qn Pol i GV of I r an, chs . 5- 7; Geor ge l Qncz ows ki ,Rus s i a and t he Wes t i n I r an, 1918- 1948 ( I t haca: Cor nQl l Uni v er s i t yPr Qss , 1949 ) , ch. 2.6) I bi d. , p. 139. s~~ al s o pp. 86- 91 and ch. 5 f or a gooddi s cus s i on of Sovi et pol i c y t owar d I r an i n t hi s per i od.7) Donal d N. W l ber , Ri z a Shah Pahl Qvi ~ The Res ur r ec t i on andRecon s t r uc t i on of I r an ( Hi cks vi l l e, NY: Expos i t i on Pr es s , 1975) ,chs . 9-11; Ral 1 l az ani , F or e i qn Pol i c y of I r an, chs . 8- 12;L enczows ki , Rus s i a and t he Wes t i n I r an , ch. 12; L . P .El wel l - Sut t on, Modar n I r an ( L ondon : Geor ge Rout l edge, 1941) , PP.73- 76.8) Er v and Abr aham an, I r an Be t ween Two Revol ut i ons ( Pr i ncet on~Pr i ncet on Uni ver s i t y Pr es s , 1982) , pp. 9- 37. For a det ai l ed anal y-sis of t he t r ad i t i onal s oc i al s t r uc t ur e of I r an s ee Ahmad As hr af ,I r an: I mpe r i a l i sm Cl as s , and Moder ni z at i on f r om Above ( Ph. D.di s ser t a t i on, New School f o r S o c l a l R e s Q a r c h , N ~w Y o r k , 1971) , ch.5.10) Abr aham an, I r an Bet ween Two Revol ut i o ns ! pp. 6? - ? 2; , ~ver ~,Moder n I r an, chs . 9- 11; Ni kki R. Keddi e, " r OPUl ar Par t l C l pa~l on I nt he Fer s i an Revol ut i on of 1905- 1911, " i n Kedd i e, I r an: Rel i gi on,Pol i t i c s , and SOGi et v ( L ondon: Frank Cas s , 1980) , pp. 66- 78;Er vand Abr aham an, ~i hQ Cr owd in I r ani ~~_~~~i ~i c5: 1905-1953. "Pa~t and Present 41. December 1968, pp 11) Aver y , Moder n I r an, ch. 13.12) For det ai l s on t he coup, s ee i bi d'L ch. 14; , W l ber ' , Ri z a ShahPahl evi , ch. 3; l P El wel l - Sut t on, " Rez a Shah ~he Gr ea~: Founde rof t he Pahl evi D; na~t y , " i n Geor ge LQncz ows k i ( ed. ) , I r an Under

~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

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PAGE 86t he Pahl evi s ( St anf or d:17- 21. Hoover I nst i t ut i on Pr ess, 1978) , pp.13) Am n Banani , The Moder ni zat i on of I r an, 1921- 1941 ( St anf or d:St anf or d Uni ver s i t y Pr ess, 1961) , pp. 52- 61; Ashr af , I r an: I mperi -al i sm Cl ass, and Moder ni zat i on f r om Above, p. 300.14) I bi d. , chs. 5- 6; Roger M Savor y, "Soci al Devel opment i n I r anDur i ng t he Pahl evi Er a, " i n Lenczowski , I r an Under t he Pahl evi s,pp. 90- 99; J ul i an Bhar i er , Econom c Devel opment i n I r an, 1900- 1970(London: Oxf or d Uni ver si t y Pr ess, 1971) , p. 3&.15) J ames Al ban Bi l l , The Pol i t i cs of I r an: Gr oups, Cl asses, andModer ni zat i on ( Col umbus, Ohi o: Mer r i l l , 1972) , ch. 2; Bhar i er ,Econom c Devel opment i n I r an, pP. 66, 172- 181; Banani , Moder ni za-t i on of I r an, ch. 7; Raj Nar ai n Gupt a, I ran: An Econom c St udy( New Del hi : I ndi an I nst i t ut e of Econom c Af f ai r s, 1947) , ch. 4;Homa Kat ouzi an, Th~ Pol i t i cal Economy of Moder n I r an ( New Yor k:New Yor k Uni ver si t y Pr ess, 1981) , pp. 115- 116, 132- 135.16) Shahrough Akhavi , Rel i gi on and Pol i t i cs i n Cont empor ar y I r an(Al bany: St at e Uni ver si t y of New Yor k Pr ess, 1980) , ch. 2; Ashr af ,I r an: I mper i al i sm Cl ass, and Moderni zat i on f r om Above, pp.304- 320.17) I bi d. , pp. 252- 283; Ashr af , "Hi st or i cal Obst acl es t o t heDevel opment of a Bour geoi si e i n I r an, " i n M A. Cook ( ed. ) ,Studi es i n t he Econom c Hi st or y of t he M ddl e East ( London: Oxf or dUni ver s i t y Pr ess, 1970) , pp. 328- 331; Bhar i er , Econom c Devel op-ment i n I ran, p. 180.18) Ashr af , I r an: I mper i al i sm Cl ass, and Moder ni zat i on f r omAbove, pp. 332~- ~374~6~. - - ~~~~~~~~~~- - ~~~~~~~~~~~~=19) I bi d. , pp.119- 129. 153-159; Banani , Moder ni zat i on of I r an, pp.20) Far had Kazem and Er vand Abr ahaman, "The Nonrevol ut i onaryPeasant r y of Moder n I r an, " I r ani an St udi es 11, 1978, pp. 259- 304.21) W l ber , Ri za Shah Pahl evi , ch. 6, p. 122; El wel l - Sut ton,Moder n I r an, pp. 76- 81; Cot t am Nat i onal i sm i n I r an, p. 21.22) Lenczowski , Russi a and t he West i n I ran, pp. 151- 174; T. Vai lMotter, Uni t ed St at es Army i n Wor l d War I I , The M ddl e East Thea-t er , The Per si an Cor r i dor and Ai d t o Russi a ( Washi ngt on: Of f i ce oft he Chi ef of M l i t ar y Hi s t or y, Depar tment of t he Army, 1952) , pP.481- 483.23) El wel l - Sut t on, Per si an Oi l , p. 106; Abrahaman,Two Revol ut i ons, p. 187. I ran Bet ween24) Ci t ed i n i bi d. , p. 300. On t he Tudeh par t y see al soAbr aham an, "The St r engt hs and Weaknesses of t he Labor Movement i nI r an, 1941- 1953, " i n M chael E. Boni ne and Ni kki Keddi e, Cont i nui -t y and Change i n Moder n I r an ( Al bany: St at e Uni ver si t y of New Yor kPr ess, 1981) , pp. 181- 202; Sephehr Zabi h, The Communi st Movementi n I r an ( Ber kel ey: Uni ver si t y of Cal i f or ni a Pr ess, 1966) ; U. S.Depar tment of St at e, Of f i ce of I nt el l i gence Resear ch, The Tudehand Associ at ed Par t i es i n I ran, OI R No. 3523. 5, Apr i l 1, 1946.25) Abr aham an, I r an Bet ween Two Revol ut i ons, pp. 185- 210. Seeal so L. P. El wel l Sut ton, "Pol i t i cal Par t i es i n I r an, 1941- 1948, "M ddl e East J our nal , Vol . 3, No. 1, J anuar y 1949, pp. 45- 62.26) Nasr ol l ah Sai f pour Fat em , Oi l Di pl omacy: Powderkeq i n I r an( NeW Yor k: Whi t t i er , 1954) , pp. 229- 260.

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27) For det ai l s on Sovi et and Tudeh par t y act i ons i n t hi s per i odsee Lenczowski , Russi a and t he West i n I ran, chs. 8, 11; Zabi h,The Communi s t MovGment i n I r an, ch. 3; Ar chi e Roosevel t , J r . , "TheKur di sh Republ i c of Mahabad, " M ddl e East J our nal , Vol . 1, No. 3,J ul y 1947, pp. 247- 269; Rober t Rossow, J r . , "The Bat t l e of Azer ba-i j an, 1946" M ddl e East J our nal , Vol . 10, No. 1, Wnt er 1956. pp.17- 32.28) For an excel l ent st udy det ai l i ng t he r ol e of I r an i n t he ear l yCol d War per i od see Br uce Robel l et Kuni hol m The Or i gi ns of t he~C~o~ ~d~~W~a~r_~ ~n~t~h~e=- ~N~e~a~r~~E~a~s~t~Pr i ncet on: Pr i ncet on Uni ver si t y Pr ess,19(0) .29) Aver y. Moder n I r an, pP. 332- 333. The t ext of t hi s agr eement ; 5cont ai ned i n J . C. Hur ew t z, Dllomacy i n t he Near and M ddl eEast: A Document ar y Recor d: 1914- 1956, Vol ume I I ( New Yor k: oct agon Books. 1972) , pp. 228- 230.30) Zabi h, The Communi st Movem~nt i n I r an, pp.Abr ahaman. I r an Between Two Revol ut i ons. pp. 305- 318. 123- 141;31) I bi d. , pp , 240- 250.32) Abr aham an, I r an Bet ween Two Revol ut i ons, pp. 261- 280; Aver y,Moder n I r an, ch. 25.