middle childhood: cognitive development

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

ThinkingMoral Reasoning

Memory & MnemonicsInformation-Processing Skills

IntelligenceLanguage

School Achievement1

PIAGETIAN APPROACHTHE CONCRETE OPERATIONAL CHILD

When children use mental operations, such as reasoning to solve actual problems,

children enter the stage of concrete operations.

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COGNITIVE ADVANCESABILITIES EXAMPLE

1. Spatial Thinking Directions 2. Causality (Cause & Effect)

Balance Scale

3. Categorization (shape, color, number, length, weight, etc.)

Class Inclusion Seriation Transitive Inference

Flowers & RosesOrder, Arrangements

A>B>C, then A>C3

All of these are flowers.

Which is more in number?ROSES? or FLOWERS?

CLASS INCLUSION

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Arrange according to length.From longest to shortest

SERIATION

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A > B > C, then A > CTRANSITIVE INFERENCE

then

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4. Inductive & DeductiveReasoning

Particular & General Premises

5. ConservationPrinciple of IdentityPrinciple of ReversibilityDecentering

Clay

6. Number & Mathematics Counting in the head7

Decentering &Reversibility

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So, during middle childhood, cognitive advances continue and the development of concrete operational

skills becomes more established. • Children at this stage can

understand such concepts as relationships between time and speed…

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At the beginning of the concrete operational stage, kids reason that the 2 cars on these

routes are traveling the same speed even though they arrive at the same time. Later, they realize

the correct relationship between speed & distance.

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4. Inductive & DeductiveReasoning

Particular & General Premises

5. ConservationPrinciple of IdentityPrinciple of ReversibilityDecentering

Clay

6. Number & Mathematics Counting in the head12

Examples:

1.) 5 + 5 =

2.) You went to a fruit store with P15.00.You bought 2 apples for P4.00 each.You received a change.How much did you receive?

ANSWER:

10 – 2(4) = 213

• Despite the obvious advances that occur during the concrete operational stage, children still experience a big limitation in

their thinking: They are still tied to concrete physical reality!

(no understanding of abstract/hypothetical/logic)

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Moral DevelopmentQUESTION: WHO’s NAUGHTIER?WHO’s NAUGHTIER?

DANIEL HARRY

INK BLOTINK BLOTON THE TABLEON THE TABLE

IMMATURE IMMATURE MORAL MORAL

JUDGEMENTS:JUDGEMENTS:

DEGREE OF OFFENSE:

MOREMORE

DEGREE OF OFFENSE:

LESSLESS

MATURE MORAL MATURE MORAL JUDGEMENTS:JUDGEMENTS:

INTENT:

UNINTENTIONAUNINTENTIONALL

INTENT:

INTENTIONALINTENTIONAL

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3 STAGES OF MORAL REASONING

1st Stage (approximately ages 2 – 7)

*RIGID OBEDIENCE TO AUTHORITY*

-egocentric-rules cannot be bent or changed-behavior is wither right or wrong-any offense deserves

punishment,regardless of intent

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2nd Stage (ages 7 or 8 to 10 or 11)

*INCREASING FLEXIBILITY*

-wider range of viewpoints-discard the idea: absolute

right&wrong-sense of justice based on fairness

orequal treatment for all

-more subtle moral judgements17


3rd Stage (around age 11 0r 12)

*EQUITY*

-taking specific circumstancesinto account

end of Piagetian approach 18

• Encoding Recorded in memory (Keyboard)

• Storage Saved in memory (on hard drive)

• Retrieved Brought into awareness

(on screen)

INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH

(Planning, Attention, and Memory)

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(Planning, Attention, and Memory)Children in middle childhood make steady progress in the abilities to regulate and sustain attention,

process and retain information, & plan and monitor their behavior.

EXECUTIVE FUNCTION which is the conscious control of thoughts,

emotions, and actions to accomplish goals or solve problems.

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(Planning, Attention, and Memory)The development of the Executive

Function accompanies the development of the brain, in

particular, the prefrontal cortex (planning, judgment, and decision

making).Unneeded synapses are pruned away

and pathways become myelinated, processing speed.

Home environment also contributes to the development of the executive

skills.21

MNEMONICS:Strategies For Remembering

4 COMMON MEMORY STRATEGIESSTRATEGY DEFINITION EXAMPLE

ExternalMemoryAids

Prompting by something outside the person

Making a list of something you have to do today

Rehearsal Conscious repetition

Memorizing notes by saying it over and over again

Organization Grouping by categories

Recalling animals in the zoo first in mammals, reptiles, amphibians, fish, then birds

Elaboration Associating items to be remembered with something else (phrase, scene, or story)

Colors of the rainbow: (ROY G. BIV)Music: (E,G,B,D,F)Every Good Boy Does Fine

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PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH:

Assessment of Intelligence

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IQ Tests

• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III)

A test for children (6-16) that provides separate measures of verbal and performance (nonverbal) skills as well as a total score.

• Otis-Lennon School Ability Test (OLSAT8)

A test for kindergarten through 12th grade.

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The IQ Controversy

ACTIVITY: DEBATEGroup or Representative

• Group yourselves into 2

• 1 Group for “FOR IQ TESTS”• 1 Group for “AGAINST IQ TESTS”

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The IQ Controversy

ACTIVITY: DEBATE

“IQ TESTS ACCURATELY ASSESS CHILDREN’S INTELLIGENCE”

You are given 5 minutes to think it over before the debate will start.

3 minutes to speak your argument.

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The IQ Controversy

START

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INFLUENCES ON INTELLIGENCE

1. Influences of Brain Development2. Influence of Schooling3. Influences of Race/Ethnicity and

SES4. Influence of Culture

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Is There More Than One Intelligence?

Theory of Multiple Intelligencesby

HOWARD GARDNER

And

Triarchic Theory of Intelligenceby

Robert Sternberg

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INTELLIGENCE DEFINITION FIELDSVerbal/Linguistic(Word Smart)

Ability to use & understand words and nuances of meaning

Writing, editing, translating

Logical-Mathematical(Number Smart)

Ability to manipulate numbers and solve logical problems

Science, business, medicine

Visual/Spatial(Picture Smart)

Ability to find one’s way around in an environment & judge relationships between objects in space

Architecture, carpentry, city planning

Interpersonal(People Smart)

Ability to understand and communicate with others

Teaching, acting, politics

Musical(Music Smart)

Ability to perceive & create patterns of pitch and rhythm

Musical composition, conducting

Naturalist(Nature Smart)

Ability to distinguish species and their characteristics

Hunting, fishing, farming, gardening, cooking

Bodily-Kinesthetic(Body Smart)

Ability to move with precision Dancing, athletics, surgery

Intrapersonal(Myself Smart)

Ability to understand the self Counseling, psychiatry, spiritual leadership

Howard Gardner

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Interpretation:

What intelligences are above the line?What intelligences are below the line?

Are any intelligences above the line more dominant than others?Are they all much the same?

Read the descriptions for all intelligence types. Do you agree?

Intelligences above the line indicate preferred intelligences, whereas intelligences below the line are the ones that you don't show anypreference towards and would be considered 'uncharacteristic for you'.

It's not unusual to have 3 intelligences with a similar strength.In this case, it just shows that you are 'well balanced’ from an intelligence point of view and exhibit characteristics of several intelligence types.

TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE(Robert Sternberg)

COMPONENTIAL ELEMENTAnalytic

It determines how efficiently people process information; it tells people how to solve problems, monitor solutions, and evaluate the results

EXPERIENTIAL ELEMENTInsightful or Creative

It determines people how to approach novel or familiar tasks; it allows people to compare new information with what they already know and to come up with new ways of putting facts together–to think originally

CONTEXTUAL ELEMENTPractical

It determines how people deal with their environment; it is the ability to size up a situation and decide what to do: adapt to it, change it, or get out of it

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Language Development During Middle Childhood

• Vocabulary continues to increase during the school years.

• School-age children's mastery of grammar improves.

• Children's understanding of syntax, the rules that indicate how words and phrases can be combined to form sentences, grows during childhood.

• Certain phonemes, units of sound, remain troublesome (j, v, h, zh).

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• School-age children may have difficulty decoding sentences when the meaning depends on intonation, or tone of voice.

• Children become more competent in their use of pragmatics, the rules governing the use of language to communicate in a social context.

• Language helps children control their behavior. • One of the most significant developments in middle

childhood is the increase in METALINGUISTIC AWARENESS, an understanding of one's own use of language.


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BILINGUALISM is the use of more than one language.

• Being bilingual may have cognitive advantages.

• greater cognitive flexibility • greater metalinguistic awareness • may improve scores on IQ tests


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• The effectiveness of language immersion programs where subjects are taught in a foreign language show mixed results.

– All subjects in a school taught in a foreign language!

~Benefits include increased self esteem~Negative results common when minority groups

immersed in English only programs~Positive results when children (especially

majority group children) are learning languages not spoken by the dominant culture


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• School marks the time when society formally attempts to transfer its body of knowledge, beliefs, values, and accumulated wisdom to new generations.

• In the U. S., a primary school education is both a universal right and a legal requirement.

• More than 160 million of the world's children do not have access to education.

• Close to a billion people (2/3 of them women) are illiterate throughout their lives.

The Child In School

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Schooling in Middle Childhood

• In developing countries, females receive less formal education than males.

• In developed countries, women still receive less education than men on average, particularly in science & technology topics.

~Why? -Widespread cultural & parental biases favoring males over females

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When are kids ready for school?

• Recent research suggests that age is not a critical indicator of when children should start school.

• Some research suggests that delaying children’s entrance into school based on age may actually be harmful!

~Developmental readiness is a better measure (family support, etc.)

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Reading: Learning Meaning

Development of reading skill generally occurs in several broad, frequently overlapping stages.

• Stage 0– lasts from birth to the start of first grade– children learn the essential prerequisites for

reading, including identification of the letters in the alphabet, writing their names, and reading a few words.

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(stages of reading development)

• Stage 1 – first and second grade– is the first real reading, but it is

largely phonological decoding skill where children can sound out words by sounding out and blending letters

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(development of reading skill)

• Stage 2, typically around second and third grades, children learn to read aloud with fluency.

• Stage 3 extends from fourth to eighth grades where reading becomes a means to an end and an enjoyable way to learn.

• Stage 4 is where the child understands reading in terms of reflecting multiple points of view.

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There is an ongoing debate among educators regarding the most effective way to teach reading.

• Code-based approaches to reading emphasize phonics and how letters and sounds are combined to make words.

• Whole-language approaches to reading are based on the notion that children should learn to read as they learn to talk, by exposure to complete writing and being immersed in literature.

• The National Research Council, in a landmark decision in 1998, argued that the optimum approach was to use a combination of elements from both approaches.

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Success in School• Culture: achievement motivation is an

acquired culturally based drive• Gender: accounts for some differences,

but this is often due to environmental factors rather than brain physiology

• Parents: parents of successful children:– Have realistic beliefs about their

children– Have high expectations– Are authoritative parents– Talk to, listen to, and read to their

children

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Developmental Disorders

1- Mental Retardation2- Depression3- Attention Deficit

Disorder4- Learning Disabilities

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1- Mental Retardation

(Causes)• Genetic anomalies• Prenatal exposure to diseases

and drugs• Anoxia at birth• Extreme malnutrition during

birth or during infancy• Family can have a debilitating

or a facilitating effect on the child’s intellectual development

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The Diagnostic and Statistical Manuel (DSM-IV)

• Criteria that a child should meet to be diagnosed as mentally retarded:

1- Significantly subaverage functioning based on IQ test scores

2- Significantly impaired adaptive behaviors in areas such as self-care, self-direction, and general functioning

3- Onset before age 18

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4 Levels of Mental Retardation

1- Mild Retardation (IQ of 55 to 70)Can reach 3rd and 6th grade Can hold jobs and function independentlyPsychological retardation

2- Moderate (IQ of 40 to 55)Slow to develop language and motor skills

Generally cannot progress beyond 2nd gradeCapable of training in social skills but need supervisionPsychological Retardation

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3- Severe (IQ of 25 to 40)Generally don’t profit from trainingAre unlikely to support themselvesNeed 24-hour care

4- Profound (IQ below 25)Are not vegetativeUsually suffer from neurological and physiological disabilities (biological retardation)

4 Levels of Mental Retardation

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2- Depression

Childhood Depressionexaggerated fear, clinginess,

avoidance of everyday activitiesDepression in Older ChildrenSulking, school problems, acts of

delinquencyAdult DepressionProfound sadness and

hopelessness, negative outlook on life, suicidal thoughts

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DepressionProzac

• Prescribing Prozac for children has become very popular.

• No antidepressant has been approved by governmental regulators for use with children.

• Because it is approved for adults, it is perfectly legal for physicians to write prescriptions for children.

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What’s Wrong with Antidepressants for Children?

• There is little evidence that antidepressant drugs have long term effectiveness.

• We don’t know the consequences of the use of antidepressants on the developing brains of children.

• The drugs in orange or mint-flavored syrups might lead to overdoses or perhaps encourage the use of illegal drugs.

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3- Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

• Patients with ADD/ADHD suffer from an underactivation of the brain.

• Their IQ is usually above average.

• A gap between potential and performance occurs.

• They often show an excess of Theta brainwaves (focused behavior) or insufficient Beta brainwaves (unfocused behavior)

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ADD/ADHD Medication

• ADD/ADHD is the result of low levels of dopamine

• Ritalin is a stimulant that increases dopamine levels. Sensing that the levels of dopamine are abnormally high, the brain may reduce its own production of dopamine. Thus, when Ritalin is discontinued, the ADD?ADHD patient may be more ADD/ADHD than before taking the drug.

• The brain compensating mechanism would kick in to get rid of the extra dopamine.

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Diagnostic Criteria for Attention-Deficit

Hyperactivity Disorder• Symptoms must persist

for at least six months• Symptoms must have

begun before age seven• Symptoms present in at

least two situations• Disorder impairs

functioning

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Diagnostic Criteria for Attention-Deficit

Hyperactivity Disorder• Symptoms not explained by

another disorder such as:• Anxiety• Schizophrenia• Mania• Dissociative Disorder• Personality Disorder• Developmental Disorder

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4- Learning Disabilities

• 1- Reading Disorder (Dyslexia)

• 2- Disorder of Written Expression (Dysgraphia)

• 3- Mathematics Disorder (Dyscalculia)

Gifted Children

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• Creativity• Convergent Thinking• Divergent Thinking• Enrichment Programs• Acceleration Programs

middle childhood: cognitive development

Education