chapter 12 middle childhood: cognitive development

CHAPTER 12

Middle Childhood:

Cognitive Development

Learning Outcomes

LO1 Describe the developments in Piaget’s concrete-operational stage, focusing on examples of decentration, such as conservation and seriation.

LO2 Discuss the theories of moral development of Piaget and Kohlberg.

LO3 Discuss information processing in middle childhood, focusing on developments in selective attention and memory.

LO4 Discuss theories, measurement, and determinants of intelligence, and the relationship of intelligence to achievement and creativity.

LO5 Discuss language development in middle childhood, emphasizing vocabulary, grammar, reading, and bilingualism.

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TRUTH OR FICTION?

• T-F Don’t try the “Yes, but” defense with a 5-year-old. If you did it, you’re guilty, even if it was an accident.

• T-F Memorizing the alphabet requires that children keep 26 chunks of information in mind at once.

• T-F An IQ is a score on a test.• T-F Two children can answer exactly the same items on an

intelligence test correctly, yet one can be above average in intelligence and the other below average.

• T-F Highly intelligent children are creative.• T-F Adopted children are more similar in intelligence to their

adoptive parents than to their biological parents.• T-F Bilingual children do not encounter more academic

problems than children who speak only one language.

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LO1 Piaget: The Concrete-Operational Stage


Piaget: The Concrete-Operational Stage

• Concrete-Operational Stage: (Third Stage)– From 7-12 years of age– Children show beginnings of logic and focus is on

tangible (concrete) objects– Thought is now reversible and flexible– Children are less ego-centric– Also now engage in decentration (the ability to focus on

multiple parts of a problem at once)

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• Conservation– The concept that objects can have several properties or

dimensions simultaneously– Children at this stage now show understanding of the

laws of conservation.• Recall the experiment of placing equal amounts of water in

different shape containers; pre-operational children are unable to judge the value that the amount of water remains the same even though one container looks taller than the other

• Now the child will readily grasp there is the same amount of water.


• Transitivity

– Understanding of this concept is tested by demonstrating the ability to place objects in a series, or order, according to some property or trait they possess.

– This is known as Seriation.– Pre-operational children cannot put in order more than

one property at a time.– Concrete-operational children, age 7-8 yrs, can work with

more than one dimension at a time.

Figure 12.2 – A Grid for Demonstrating the Development of Seriation


• Class Inclusion– The ability to differentiate subclasses of objects– The Pre-Operational child may not be able to

discriminate between “dogs” and “animals.”– The Concrete-Operational child is now able to

understand that “dog” is part of a larger class “animal.”


• Applications of Piaget’s Theory to Education– Piaget believed learning involves active discovery.

1. Teachers should use interesting and stimulating materials rather than simply try to impose knowledge.

2. Instruction should be geared to the child’s level of development.

3. Learning to see others’ perspective is key to cognition and morality.

4. Teachers should promote group discussions and interactions among students.

LO2 Moral Development: The Child as Judge


Moral Development: The Child as Judge

• Moral reasoning is related to a child’s overall cognitive development.

• Both Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg believed moral reasoning follows similar cognitive-developmental patterns world wide.

• The individual cultural settings exert influence on moral development but there is still an orderly unfolding of cognitive processes.


• Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development– Stage 1: Moral Realism (Objective Morality)

• About age 5 children:• Judge correct behavior as conforming to authority or

following the rules• Perceive rules as embedded in structure of things• Rules reflect reality: moral realism• Rules are seen as absolute with no consideration for

meeting social needs of people• The concept of immanent justice (automatic retributions)

disallows children at this stage to separate intentional from accidental thus does not allow exclusion from punishment for accidental injuries.

• At this stage, the amount of damage is more relevant than the intentions of the wrongdoer.


• Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development, con’t.– Stage 2: Autonomous Morality

• Age 9-11• Moral judgments become more self-governed.• Children see rules as agreements subject to change

when circumstances warrant.• They can now focus on multiple dimensions; so can see

rules and motives as separate considerations• They also now have greater capacity to empathize.• Decentration and empathy allow weighing of intentions

versus amount of damage as consideration in judgments• Accidents are less likely to be viewed as crimes.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

• Kohlberg emphasized importance of viewing morals from someone else’s perspective.

• He argued that developmental stages of moral reasoning follow the same sequence in all children.

• Stating children progress at different rates and not all reach the highest stage

• For early and middle childhood, he placed the reasons for judgments into two levels of development with 2 stages in each level (4 stages in all).


• The Preconventional Level:– Children base moral judgments on the consequences of

their actions.– Stage 1 & 2 moral judgments most used by 7-10 year

olds; after age 10 they decline– Stage 1:

• Oriented toward obedience and punishment• One is good merely to avoid being punished.

– Stage 2:• Good behavior satisfies own needs and maybe others.


• The Conventional Level:– Right and wrong are determined by conformity to family,

religious, and societal standards.– Stages 3 & 4 emerge during middle childhood after age

7– About 20% of 10 yr-olds conform to these stages– Stage 3:

• Moral behavior is considered “normal” or what everyone does.

• It is good to meet the expectations of others.

– Stage 4:• Moral judgments based on rules that maintain social

order.• Showing respect for authority and duty is highly valued.

Table 12.1 Kohlberg’s Levels and Stages of Moral Development

LO3 Information Processing


Information Processing

• Key elements in children’s information processing:– Development of selective attention– Development of capacity for memory and

understanding of the memory process– Development of problem-solving abilities


• Development of Selective Attention– The ability to focus attention and screen out distractions– Concrete-Operational children can now attend to

multiple aspects of a problem at the same time.– This allows conservation of number and volume.

Figure 12.3 Development of the Ability to Ignore Distractions

Information Processing• Developments in the Storage and Retrieval of

Information– Memory:

• The process of storing and retrieving information– Recall Memory:

• Children’s memory is a good overall indicator of cognitive ability.

• 4th graders have better recall than 2nd graders.– Metacognition and Metamemory:

• Metacognition:– Awareness and control of one’s own cognitive abilities

• Metamemory: – An aspect of metacognition referring specifically to

awareness of the functioning of memory– Older children store and retrieve information more effectively

and show more knowledge of strategies used to facilitate memory.

– Selective rehearsal (repeating important information as way of remembering it) is used after about age 6-7.

Information Processing• Developments in the Storage and Retrieval of

Information, con’t.– 3 Major Structures of Memory:

• Sensory Memory: (sensory register)– Input from the sensory organs: lasts for only a fraction of a

second after which the “trace” of the stimulus decays• Short Term Memory: (working memory)

– When focus is placed on a sensory input, it is retained in STM for about 30 seconds.

– Auditory stimuli last longer than visual; it helps to encode visual input as sounds and employ rehearsing as means of memory aid

– The capacity of short-term memory is best described as “bits” or chunks of information that can be kept in memory at one time.

– Typical 5-6 year olds can retain 2 chunks of information at a time but this capacity increases with maturity; an adult can retain about 7 chunks give or take 2

– Rote learning: is simple associative learning based on repetition


• 3 Major Structures of Memory, con’t.• Long Term Memory:

– If something in STM is attended to, it can be dedicated to long term memory, a vast storehouse of a lifetime of information.

– There is no known limit on the quantity of information humans can retain.

– If someone is unable to retrieve information, it is most likely due to lack of knowing where to find it (similar to misfiling in a file cabinet).

– Older children are most likely to use rote rehearsal when trying to remember something.

– But a more effective way to promote memory retrieval is by using elaborative strategy, the method of relating new material to already known material.


• 3 Major Structures of Memory, cont.• Long Term Memory, cont.

– Organization in Long-Term Memory– Preschoolers tend to organize memories by grouping

objects according to general functional categories.– In middle childhood, the organization becomes more

narrowed and specific.– When items are correctly categorized, children are

more likely to recall them accurately.– Knowledge in a particular area increases the capacity

to store and retrieve related information.

© Milos Luzanin/iStockphoto.com / © Jaimie D. Travis/iStockphoto.com

Figure 12.4 – The Structure of Memory

Children’s Eyewitness Testimony

• When a child is an eyewitness to an event, they are typically asked questions to prompt information.

• Caution must be used to avoid “leading questions” or questions that suggest an answer.

• By the age of 10-11, children are no more susceptible than adults but younger children are more likely to be misled.

• Repeated questioning may lead a child to fabricate events that never happened.

LO4 Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement


Intellectual Development, Creativity, and Achievement

• At an early age, we form impressions of our intelligence by comparison to others.

• We associate intelligence with academic success, career advancement, and good social skills.

• Intelligence is an intangible quality making measurement difficult.

• Intelligence: underlying competence or learning ability

• Achievement: the performance of acquired competencies

• Many of the competencies underlying intelligence are seen during middle childhood, when most children are first exposed to formal schooling.


• Topics to be Covered:– Theories of Intelligence– Measurements of Intelligence– Patterns of Intelligence– Differences in Intellectual Development– Creativity and Intellectual Development– Determinants of Intellectual Development


• Theories of Intelligence– Factor Theories:

• Spearman:– Intelligent behaviors have a common underlying factor g,

which stands for general intelligence: representing broad reasoning and problem-solving abilities.

– He also noted people seem more capable in some areas than in others, suggesting that specific capacities or s factors account for certain individual abilities.

• Thurstone:– Intelligence consists of several specific, independent factors

or primary mental abilities. » Visual-spatial, perceptual speed, numerical, semantics,

rapid word acquisition, reasoning


• Theories of Intelligence, con’t.– Sternberg’s “Triarchic” Theory of Intelligence:

• Analytical Intelligence:– Academic ability; problem-solving; acquiring new

knowledge• Creative Intelligence:

– Ability to cope with new situations and to profit from experience

– Ability to perceive similarities and differences, fostering adaptation

• Practical Intelligence:– “Street smarts”: enables people to adapt to the

demands of their environment, both physical and social

Figure 12.5 – Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence


• Theories of Intelligence, con’t.– Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences:– Verbal: language skills– Logical/mathematical: math and reasoning skills– Spatial: visual orientation– Bodily/kinesthetic: athleticism– Musical: composing and playing– Interpersonal: relating to others– Intrapersonal: self-insight

• Individuals may show great “intelligence” in one area without notable ability in others.

• Critics agree people may have special “talents” but question whether they are “intelligences.”

Figure 12.6 – Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences


• Measurement of Intellectual Development– Thousands of intelligence tests are administered by

psychologists and educators every day.– There are a variety of test instruments, the two most

widely used are:• The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS)• The Wechsler Scales

– The concept of intelligence per se is difficult to define.– Tests are frequently revised and used to make vital

educational decisions about children.– A score on an intelligence test may well determine the

placement of a child in special classes for mentally retarded or gifted children.


• Measurement of Intellectual Development– The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS)

• Originated in 1905 by Binet and Simon for use in the French school system

• Adapted for use with American children in 1916 by Terman at Stanford University, thus the name currently in use: Stanford-Binet

• It measures IQ by using the formula:– IQ = MA/CA X 100– IQ=Intell. Quotient - MA=Mental Age -

CA=Chronological Age– Therefore, if two children answer all the questions the

same but one is younger than the other, their IQ scores will be different, with the younger child having a higher IQ score.

Table 12.2 – Items Similar to Those on the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale


• Measurement of Intellectual Development, con’t.– Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC):

school age children– Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of

Intelligence (WPPSI): preschool children– Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)– Test questions are grouped into subsets:

• Verbal tasks: test knowledge of verbal concepts• Performance tasks: test spatial-relations concepts

Table 12.3 – Kinds of Items Found on Wechsler’s Intelligence Scales

Figure 12.7 – Performance Items on an Intelligence Test

Figure 12.8 – Variations in IQ Scores


• Measurement of Intellectual Development, con’t.– The Testing Controversy:

• There may be racial and cultural biases inherent in intelligence testing instruments.

• Cultural Bias:– African American and Latino/a American children’s

performances may be compromised by SES disadvantages and/or lack of motivation and self-confidence.

• Culture-Free (Culture-Fair)– Cattell’s Culture-Fair Intelligence Test evaluates without

reliance on expressive language abilities but tests for comprehension of rules governing geometric designs.

– However, middle class children still outperform lower-class children.

– Culture-free tests do not predict academic success as well as other intelligence tests, and scholastic aptitude remains the central concern of educators.

Figure 12.9 – Sample Items from Cattell’s Culture-Fair Intelligence Test


• Patterns of Intellectual Development– Many factors influence changes in IQ scores, including

changes in the home, SES circumstances, and education.

– Intellectual growth occurs in at least two major spurts:• First at about age 6

– Coinciding with entry into school which may help to crystallize intellectual functioning

– And shifting from preoperational to concrete-operational thought

• Second at about age 10-11– By middle childhood, children seem to show more

stable patterns in gains but there are still spurts.– Intelligence tests gain greater predictive power.– But individual differences still exist.

Figure 12.10 – Five Patterns of Change in IQ Scores for Children in the Fels Longitudinal Study

Source: McCall et al. (1973).


• Differences in Intellectual Development– The average IQ score in the U.S. is 100.– Half the children in the U.S. score from 90 -110.– 95% attain scores between 70 -130.– Below 70 = “mentally retarded”

• Significant limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior

• 80% are mildly retarded: adjust to society as a whole• Moderately retarded: such as Down Syndrome children

function with supervision• Profoundly retarded: totally dependent• Causes:

– Biological: genetic disorders, brain damage, etc– Cultural-familial retardation: biologically normal but due to

impoverished environment lack intellectual and social functioning abilities


• Differences in Intellectual Development, con’t.– Above 130 = “gifted”: having outstanding abilities– Socioeconomic and Ethnic Differences in IQ:

• Research shows differences in IQ scores between socioeconomic and ethnic groups.

• Lower-class American children have scores 10-15 points lower than middle-class or upper-class.

• African American, Latino/a American and Native American children score below the norms for European American.

• Children of Asian descent frequently outscore European Americans in math and science.

• Asian students and families tend to attribute academic success to hard work.

• Americans more likely attribute it to natural ability, indicating Asian children may be working harder to attain their goals.


• Creativity and Intellectual Development– Creativity: the ability to do things that are novel and

useful• Characteristics include:

– Solving problems with no preexisting solutions– Taking chances– Refusing to accept limitations– Appreciation of art and music– Challenging social

norms– Use of critical thinking

skills

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• Creativity and Intellectual Development, cont.– The relationship between creativity and intelligence

depends on how one defines intelligence.– Sternberg’s model includes creativity as one of the three

parts of intelligence along with analytical thinking and practical intelligence.

– Some others argue that creativity and innovation require high levels of intelligence; but tests measuring intelligence and creativity show only moderate correlations.

– Tests of creativity determine how flexible, fluent, and original a person’s thinking is.


• Creativity and Intellectual Development, con’t.– Convergent thinking:

• Most commonly used to arrive at correct answers on IQ tests.

• Thought is limited to present facts; thinking is narrowed to arrive at correct answer; process of elimination is used as in multiple choice questions

– Divergent thinking:• Child associates freely to the elements of the problem.• Used when trying to generate ideas


• Determinants of Intellectual Development– Overall, studies suggest the heritability of intelligence

is between 40% and 60%.– Making genetic factors the explanation for about half the

differences in IQ scores among individuals– Studies of environmental influences show enriched

environments help children attain higher IQ and achievement test scores.

– Many psychologists believe heredity and environment interact influence intelligence.

Figure 12.11 – Findings of Studies of the Relationship Between IQ Scores and Heredity

Source: Bouchard, et al. (1990).

LO5 Language Development and Literacy


Language Development

• Vocabulary and Grammar– By age 6, children have a vocabulary of about 10,000

words.– By age 7-9, they realize words can have multiple

meanings (enabling semantic sophistication required to understand humor and jokes).

– By middle childhood, children understand passive sentences, can use connectives, and form indirect object/direct object constructions.


• Reading Skills and Literacy– Millions of people around the world are illiterate, limiting

their access contemporary knowledge.– Illiteracy is found in the U.S. also, most severe among

recent immigrants.– Reading involves perceptual, cognitive, and linguistic

processes, relying on integration of visual and auditory information.

– Children must accurately perceive sounds and make basic visual discriminations.

– Exposure to written language comes from TV, environmental information, and parents reading to their children.

– Children who are exposed to reading from an early age are better prepared for learning to read.


• Methods of Teaching Reading– Children read by integrating visual and auditory

information.– Most children and adults use a combination of the two

methods.– Some words can only be read by recognition, providing

children with basic sight-vocabulary.– Word-recognition method:

• Associates visual stimuli with sound combinations to produce the spoken words

• Acquired by rote learning or extensive repetition– Phonetic method:

• Child learns to associate written letters and letter combinations with the sounds they indicate in order to “sound out” words.

• Provides skills to use in decoding new words


• Bilingualism: Linguistic Perspectives on the World– In 2000, approximately 47 million Americans spoke a

language other than English at home.– Bilingual (using two languages with equal skill) children

do not encounter more academic problems than those speaking one language.

– A century ago it was widely believed that having two linguistic systems crowded a limited mental capacity.

– Most bilingual speakers do “mix” languages somewhat but can generally separate them at an early age.

– Today in America about half the children speaking Spanish at home are proficient in English.

– Most linguists today consider bilingualism to be an advantage because knowledge of more than one language contributes to the complexity of cognitive process making them more cognitively flexible.

Table 12.5 – Languages Most Often Spoken at Home According to English Ability for U.S. Residents 5 Years of Age and Above

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chapter 12 middle childhood: cognitive development

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