chapter nine physical and cognitive development in middle childhood

CHAPTER NINE

PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education Canada 9-2

I. PHYSICAL CHANGES

Although they are more difficult to observe directly, the physical changes of middle childhood are just as impressive as those of early childhood


A. Growth and Motor Development Growth patterns—5 cm to 8 cm in height and about 2.7 kg

are added each yearLarge muscle coordination continues to improve, so that

children increase in strength and speed Increasingly good fine motor coordination makes writing

possible, as well as the playing of most musical instruments, drawing, cutting, and many other skills

Girls in this age range are ahead of boys in their overall rate of growth

Girls have slightly more body fat and slightly less muscle tissue than boys

Sex differences in skeletal and muscular maturation cause girls to be better coordinated, but slower and somewhat weaker than boys


B. The Brain and Nervous System 2 spurts in brain growth (6-8 yrs and 10-12 yrs.)

– Sensory and motor areas are affected first– May be linked to the striking improvement in fine

motor skills and eye-hand coordinationMyelinization continues

– Reticular formation (controls attention)• Selective attention becomes possible

– Association areas• Increases information processing speed

(continued)


The Brain and Nervous System (continued)

Right hemisphere lateralization contributes to increased spatial perception– Right-left orientation improves– Visual experience is important for this development– Spatial cognition improves

• Boys score better than girls on spatial orientation tests• Boys’ early play preferences may enhance this ability


C. Health Promotion and WellnessSleep disturbance gains importance

– By grade 9, 1/3 are tired in the morning Immunization is still an important factor in health

– Hepatitis B vaccination needed if missed in infancy Unintentional injury-related deaths are the most

common cause of death in Canadian children– The injury-related mortality rate increases with age and

is higher for males than for females– About half of the fatal injuries were due to motor vehicle

crashes– The most injuries (falls most common) occur between

ages 8 and 13, and 2/3 of those injured are male

(continued)


Health Promotion and Wellness(continued)

Healthy Bodies and WeightsBody Mass Index (BMI) measures the proportion

of body fat– Overweight: BMI > 85th percentile for sex and age – Obese: BMI > 95th percentile for sex and age– ½ of overweight children become overweight adults– ½ of overweight children have other risk factors for

later heart disease

(continued)



Obesity results from many factors:– Genetic predisposition– Epigenetic modifications set early in life– Environment that promotes overeating and low

activity level– Lower socioeconomic status is higher risk– Lower socioeconomic status may result in lower

participation in organized sportsWeight loss diets can be risky in this age group

– Most 6-8 year olds know about weight loss diets and products

(continued)



Physical Activity (PA) level peaks at age 10 – 13Daily PA recommendation is 30 minutes compulsory

physical activity– Even 18 min. / day has a lasting effect on activity level

in later lifeActual PA in schools - average 60 minutes / weekLack of exercise contributes to

– Delayed vocabulary, lower levels of prosocial behaviour, lower self-esteem

Parental encouragement for activity and school-based nutrition and exercise programs are needed


II. COGNITIVE CHANGES

Along with impressive gains in physical development, children acquire some of the important hallmarks of mature thinking between ages 6 and 12


A. Language By age 5 or 6, children master the basic grammar and

pronunciation of their native languageDuring middle childhood, children learn to maintain the

topic of conversation, create unambiguous sentences, and to speak politely or persuasively

Children continue to add new vocabulary at the rate of 5,000 to 10,000 words per year

By age 8 or 9, the child shifts to a new level of understanding of the structure of language, figuring out relationships between whole categories of words, such as between adjectives and adverbs or between adjectives and nouns


Anglin’s Vocabulary Estimates


B. Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage In this stage children use schemes that enable

them to think logically about objects and events in the real world

Decentration: thinking that takes multiple variables into account

Reversibility: the understanding that both physical actions and mental operations can be reversed. Understanding hierarchies depends on this

Increased skill in Inductive logic allows the child to go from a specific experience to a general principle

Deductive logic is still not strong


C. Direct Tests of Piaget’s View It takes children years to apply their new cognitive

skills to all kinds of problems: This skill is called Horizontal Decalage (meaning ‘a shift’)

Piaget’s general principles are usually validSiegler suggests there are no stages, only

sequences– Problem solving rules emerge from experience and

trial and error rather than being specifically linked to age


Siegler’s Balance Scale Experiments


D. Advances in Information-Processing Skills Memory function continues to improveProcessing efficiency

– the ability to make efficient use of short-term memory capacity increases steadily with age

Automaticity– the ability to recall information from long-term

memory without using short-term memory capacity, is achieved through practice

(continued)


Advances in Information-Processing Skills (continued)

Executive processes– information-processing skills that involve devising

and carrying out strategies for remembering and solving problems are based on knowing how the mind works

Expertise– The more knowledge a person has about a topic,

the more efficiently their information-processing system work will work, despite age

– Advanced skill in one area does not improve general levels of memory or reasoning


III. SCHOOLING

Children all over the world begin school at age 6 or 7

An examination of the influence of this near-universal experience is important to understanding middle childhood


A. Literacy Literacy, the ability to read and write, is the focus

of education in the 6- to 12-year-old periodPhonological awareness is an important skillAutomaticity with respect to identifying sound-

symbol connections—need plenty of opportunities to practice translating written language into spoken words

(continued)


Literacy (continued)

Learning about meaningful word parts helps children to better understand what they read

Comprehension strategies are needed– Sound-symbol connection assists writing and

spelling– Grammar and writing techniques must be taught

Poor readers may need specific help with sound-letter combinations (phonics)

Early elementary school years are the best time to identify and help poor readers


B. Schooling and Cognitive Development

Children who do not attend school proceed through Piaget’s concrete operational stage at a much slower rate

The rate of progression through concrete operations predicts how well children will reason in adolescence and adulthood

Attending school helps children learn to think


C. Measuring and Predicting Achievement Achievement test: a test designed to assess

specific information learned in schoolAssessment: formal and informal methods of

gathering information that can be used for programming to improve student learning (there are no grades or marks associated with assessment)

Evaluation: the process of assigning a grade or mark to a student’s performance, representing the student’s highest, most consistent level of achievement over time

(continued)


Measuring and Predicting Achievement (continued)

Achievement test vs. student assessmentAchievement tests may not measure what a child

learns in school– Child may have learned the skill at home– Primarily used to decide ‘pass or fail’– No longer commonly used in Canada

Student assessment uses a variety of formal and informal tools– Information can be used to improve student

learning at a developmentally appropriate level



Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences describes 8 types of intelligence:

Linguistic: the ability to use language effectively

Logical/mathematical: a facility with numbers and logical problem-solving

Musical: the ability to appreciate and produce music

Spatial: the ability to appreciate spatial relationships

(continued)



Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences (continued):

Bodily/kinesthetic: the ability to move in a coordinated way combined with a sense of one’s body in space

Naturalist: the ability to make fine discriminations among flora and fauna of the natural world or patterns and designs of human artifacts

Interpersonal: sensitivity to the behaviour, moods, and needs of others

Intrapersonal: the ability to understand oneself(continued)



Robert Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence proposes 3 components of intelligence:

Contextual intelligence: has to do with knowing the right behaviour for a specific situation

Experiential intelligence: involves learning to give specific responses without thinking about them

Componential intelligence: is a person’s ability to come up with effective strategies

Sternberg argues that IQ tests measure how familiar a child is with ‘school’ culture

(continued)



Daniel Goleman’s theory of emotional intelligence has 3 components:

Awareness of our own emotionsThe ability to express our emotions appropriatelyThe capacity to channel our emotions into the

pursuit of worthwhile goals


D. School Quality, Parent Involvement, and Homeschooling In effective schools pupils show

– High scores on standardized tests– Good school attendance– Low rates of disruptive behaviour and delinquency– A high rate of post-secondary school attendance– High self-esteem

Effective schools resemble authoritative parenting

(continued)


School Quality, Parent Involvement, and Homeschooling (continued)

When parents are involved, children are more strongly motivated, feel more competent, and adapt better to school

Concerns about school philosophy, safety, and quality have led some parents in Canada to educate their children at home


IV. INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP DIFFERENCES Various disabilities and attention problems are

correlated with achievement in some way, as are language proficiency, sex, and culture

Canadian educators are now moving away from the use of labels for learning problems and instead place emphasis on a child’s academic strengths and style of processing information in order to increase the likelihood of school success


A. Learning Disabilities10 to 15% of the Canadian population may

experience learning problems that are a continuation of learning disabilities from early childhood

Learning disability: a disorder in which a child has difficulty in attaining a specific academic skill, despite possessing average to above-average intelligence and is not primarily due to physical or sensory handicaps (see Canadian Definition: Figure 9.5)

Some neuropsychologists (Fiedorowicz et al) are investigating a neurological basis for learning disabilities


The Real World/Schooling: Canadian Special Education Practices

Exceptional child: a child who has special learning needs; the term refers to students with disabilities as well as gifted students

Program accommodations: the adjustment of teaching methods in order to help the child who has special needs achieve the outcomes of the standard curriculum

Modified program: changes in the curriculum so that the modified outcomes differ from those of the standard curriculum

Individual Education Plan (IEP): a written document containing learning and behavioural objectives and evaluations for the exceptional student


B. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Causes:– Root cause is unknown– Right hemisphere of brain may be different in those

with ADHD– Infants born early are at higher risk– ADHD children may require more sensory

stimulation, which their extra movement supplies– Unlikely to be caused by diet, environmental toxins

or brain damage

(continued)


Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (continued)

Each individual case of ADHD is likely related to a complex interaction of factors: genetics, temperament, parenting styles, peer relations, the type and quality of school a child attends, stressors in the child’s life such as poverty, family instability, and parental mental illness

Sleep disorders, found in those with ADHD, are also linked with several other disorders including anxiety and depression

Sleep disturbances may be responsible for behaviours that may be mistaken for ADHD

(continued)



Characteristics of ADHD– Compared to their peers, children with ADHD

exhibit• Higher activity level• Lower ability to sustain attention• Lower ability to control impulse

– Hyperactive/impulsive type: a high activity level is the main problem

– Inattentive type: sustained attention is the major difficulty

(continued)



Treating and Managing ADHD– Parents may lose confidence in their abilities, becoming

permissive or overly threatening• May be helped by parental training programs to regain a

sense of control– Stimulant medications, like methylphenidate (Ritalin) may

reduce children’s activity levels, control impulses and improve social behaviour

• Apparent response may actually be due to changes in expectations of parents and teachers

• No evidence for benefit beyond 4 weeks– ADHD can improve with training


C. Second-Language Learners

No approach to second-language learning has proven more successful than others, although submersion seems less effective than a structured program of language instruction

Schools must provide some transition to English-only instruction for Limited English Proficient (LEP) students. If they do, these students do not have any increased risk of failure


D. Bilingual Education

Children enrolled in early French Immersion programs are taught exclusively in French from kindergarten through Grade 2 within the classroom

In Grade 3, subjects taught in English are incrementally introduced every year until they receive instruction in both languages, approximately equally, in the senior grades

By age 15 French immersion students have higher reading achievement than their non-immersion peers

(continued)


Bilingual Education (continued)

Learning to read, write, and speak a second language:– Instils an appreciation for another culture– Provides an alternative way to think about and

value the world– Encourages children to become more objective

and open-minded Preservation of heritage languages (such as

Aboriginal languages) is fundamental to the preservation of the multicultural nature of Canada


E. Sex Differences in Achievement Comparisons of total IQ test scores for boys and

girls do not reveal consistent differencesCanadian studies show that on standardized

tests, girls do slightly better than boys on verbal tasks and at math

Environmental explanations have proven to be more useful than biological theories in discussions of the sex differences, especially in relation to language skills

chapter nine physical and cognitive development in middle childhood

Documents