midterm review chapter 1 introduction to biology

Midterm Review

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Biology

THE STEPS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

1. MAKE AN OBSERVATION

2. FORM A HYPOTHESIS

a) A PREDICTION(EDUCATED GUESS?)

3. TEST THE HYPOTHESIS WITH AN EXPERIMENT

a) EXPERIMENTS SHOULD HAVE ONLY 2 VARIABLE

b) INDEPENDENT VARIABLE –the thing that YOU change

c) DEPENDENT VARIABLE- the thing that changes in response

d) A CONTROL IS SOMETHING HELD CONSISTENT FOR ALL

4. COLLECT AND ANALYZE DATA

a) WE USE MATHEMATICAL-QUANTITATIVE DATA

I. GRAPHS, TABLES AND MEASURES LIKE AVERAGES, MEDIANS..

5. FORM A CONCLUSION

a) DOES THE DATA SUPPPORT YOUR HYPOTHESIS

6. SHARE YOUR DATA*

a) EXPERIMENTAL DATA SHOULD BE REPLICABLE

3 LEVELS OF SCIENTIFIC CERTAINTY

1. A HYPOTHESIS IS THE LOWEST LEVEL1. A PREDICTION TO EXPLAIN YOUR OBSERVATION (EDUCATED GUESS?)

2. A THEORY IS A CONSENSUS WITHIN THE SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY

1. A GENERAL EXPLANATION FOR A BROAD RANGE OF DATA

2. USES DATA FROM A VARIETY OF SOURCES FOR SUPPORT

3. EXAMPLE –THE EXTINCTION OF DINOSAURS

3. A LAW HAS NO SIGNIFICANT DATA TO OPPOSE IT1. DOES THE DATA SUPPPORT YOUR HYPOTHESIS

2. EXAMPLE – E = mc2

THE BRACHES OF BIOLOGY –BIOLOGY IS THE THE STUDY OF ORGANISMS

FOR EACH BRANCH OF BIOLOGY WE STUDY HOW ORGANISMS..

1. ECOLOGY – INTERRACT WITH THE ENVIRONMENT

2. CELL BIOLOGY- CELLS AND THEIR STRUCTURES

3. GENETICS – HOW TRAITS ARE INHERITED OR HEREDITY

4. BIOCHEMISTRY- CHEMISTRYOF LIFE OR METABOLIC PROCESSES

5. EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY –HOW LIFE EVOLVES

6. MICROBIOLOGY – MICROSCOPIC ORGANISMS

7. BOTANY - PLANTS

8. ZOOLOGY – ANIMALS

9. PHYSIOLOGY – HUMAN BODY

THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFEAN ORGANISM:

IS A LIVING THING CAPABLE OF CARRYING ON ALL THE PROCESS OF LIFE

ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING TRAITS…

1. CELLULAR ORGANIZATION

2. HOMEOSTASIS

3. HEREDITY

4. RESPONSIVENESS

5. REPRODUCTION

6. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

7. METABOLISM

THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE:ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING

TRAITS…

1. CELLULAR ORGANIZATIONa) ORGANISMS ARE EITHER UNICELLULAR OF

MULTICELLULARI. UNICELLULAR -1 CELLED

II. MULTICELLULAR – MORE THAN 1 CELL

b) THEY ARE PROKARYOTIC OR EUKARYOTICI. PROKARYOTIC –LACK A NUCLEUS OR

ORGANELLES

II. EUKARYOTIC – HAVE NULCEUS AND ORGANELLES

THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE:ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING

TRAITS…

1.HOMEOSTASIS

1. THE ABILITY TO MAINTAIN A STABLE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

2. EXAMPLE –THERMOREGULATION, BLOOD PRESSURE, BLOOD GLUCOSE

THE 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE–ALL ORGANISMS SHARE THE FOLLOWING

TRAITS…1. HEREDITY

1. ORGANISMS PASS THEIR TRAITS TO THEIR OFFSPRING1. THEY USE THE MOLECULE DNA ORGANIZED IN

CHROMOSOMES

2. THESE INHERITED TRAITS CHANGE OVER TIME – EVOLVE1. SPECIES TRAITS ARE ENCODED IN DNA WHICH CHANGES


TRAITS…

1. RESPONSIVENESS

1. ORGANISMS RESPOND TO THE ENVIRONMENT

1. INDIVIDUALS RESPOND WITH BEHAVIORS

2. SPECIES RESPOND BY EVOLVING


TRAITS…

1. REPRODUCTION

a. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1) THE EXCHANGE AND COMBINATION OF DNA

2) SEX CELLS (GAMETES)COMBINE TO FORM NEW INDIVIDUALS

3) HIGH LEVEL OF VARIATIONS

b. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1) THE REPLICATION OF PARENTS TO FORM DAUGHTER CELL

2) OFFSPRING IDENTICAL TO PARENTS

3) EXAMPLE –BINARY FISSION


TRAITS…

1. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

a) ORGANISM GROW BY MITOSIS

b) ORGANISMS DEVELOP THROUGH CELLULAR

DIFFERENTIATION


TRAITS…

1. METABOLISM

1. THE SUM OF ALL CHEMICAL REACTIONS

2. IN LIVING SYSTEMS THE CARBON CYCLE IS THE

FUNDAMENTAL PROCESS

a) PHOTOSYNTHESIS

I. CO2 + H2O --- C6H12O6 + O2

b) CELL RESPIRATION

I. C6H12O6 + O2 --- CO2 + H2O

Midterm Review

CHAPTER 18 CLASSIFICATION

THE CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS

1. TAXONOMY -THE SCIENCE OF CLASSIFYING ORGANISMS

a) CARL LINNAEUS-THE FATHER OF MODERN TAXONOMY

b) BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE –SCIENTIFIC NAMEI. A 2 NAME SYSTEM

II. Genus species or Genus species

III. SCIENTIFIC NAMES ARE GIVEN IN LATIN

c) CLADISTICS IS THE ORGANIZATION OF ORGANISMS ON THE BASIS OF SHARED TRAITS

I. WE CAN USE A CLADOGRAM TO LINK RELATED ORGANISMS


1.TAXONOMY -THE 3 DOMAIN SYSTEM

a) ORGANISMS ARE IDENTIFIED BY CHARACTERISTICSI. ARCHAEBACTERIA- ANCIENT BACTERIA-

EXTREMOPHILES

II. BACTERIA- STREPTOCOCCUS, STAPHYLOCOCCOUS

III. EUKARYA- PROTISTA, FUNGI, PLANTAE, ANIMALIA


1.7 LEVELS OF THE MODERN TAXONOMYa) DOMAIN

b) KINGDOM

c) PHYLUM

d) CLASS

e) ORDER

f) FAMILY

g) GENUS

h) SPECIES


1.THE HUMAN CLASSIFICATIONa) DOMAIN – EUKARYA

b) KINGDOM - ANIMALIA

c) PHYLUM - CHORDATA

d) CLASS - MAMMALIA

e) ORDER - PRIMATE

f) FAMILY - HOMINIDAE

g) GENUS - HOMO

h) SPECIES - SAPIENS

Midterm Review

CHAPTER 3 CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

1. MATTER-IS COMPOSED OF ATOMS

a) ATOMS ARE COMPOSED OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLESI. PROTON

a) FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS

b) POSITVE CHARGE +1

c) MASS IS 1 ATOMIC MASS UNIT (AMU)

II. NEUTRONa) FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS

b) NEUTRAL CHARGE

c) MASS IS 1.01 ATOMIC MASS UNIT (AMU)

III. ELECTRONa) FOUND IN THE ORBITAL ENERGY SHELLS

b) NEGATIVE CHARGE -1

c) MASS IS 0.01 ATOMIC MASS UNIT (AMU)


1. AN ELEMENT IS A TYPE OF ATOM

a) AN ELEMENT IS SUBSTANCE MADE UP OF THE SAME TYPE OF ATOMSI. ELEMENTS OF THE SAME SUBSTANCE HAVE THE

SAME NUMBER OF PROTONS GIVEN BY THE ATOMIC NUMBERa) CARBON 6

b) OXYGEN 8

c) HYDROGEN 1

II. SOME ATOMES OF THE SAME SUBSTANCE MAY HAVE DIFFERENT NUMBERS OF NEUTRONa) CARBON12 -6 PROTONS 6 NEUTRON

b) CARBON14 -6 PROTONS 8 NEUTRON

c) THEY ARE CALLED ISOTOPES OF CARBON


1. THE PERIODIC TABLE ORGANIZES ALL ATOMS ITS CONTAINS THE FOLLOWING FOR EACH ELEMENT

a) CHEMICAL SYMBOL I. AN ABBREVIATION OF AN ATOMS NAME

a) C-CARBON, H-HYDROGEN

b) SOME ARE UNUSUAL Na- Sodium, K-Potassium

b) ATOMIC NUMBERI. AN ATOMS PROTON NUMBER

a) CARBON HAS 6 PROTONS –ATOMIC NUMBER 6

b) HYDROGEN HAS 1 PROTON – ATOMIC NUMBER 1

c) ATOMIC MASSI. THE COMBINATION OF THE MASS OF PROTONS AND NEUTRONS

a) CARBON – 6 PROTONS + 6 NEUTRON = ATOMIC MASS 12

b) SOME ARE UNUSUAL Na- Sodium, K-Potassium

THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE1. CHEMICAL BONDS – ATOMS COMBINE

THERE ARE 3 IMPORTANT BONDS

a) COVALENT BONDI. BASED ON THE SHARING OF ELECTRONS

a) FORM MOLECULES

b) DRIVEN BY THE OCTET RULE- WHICH STATES “MOST ATOMS REQUIRE 8 ELECTRONS IN THE OUTERMOST ORBITAL SHELL-(VALENCE SHELL)

c) EXAMPLES INCLUDE CO2 , C6H12O6, O2

b) IONIC BONDSI. BASED ON THE DONATION OR ACCEPTANCE OF ELECTRONS

a) FORM IONIC COMPOUNDS

b) ATTRACTIONS BETWEEN CHARGED ATOMS CALLED IONS

c) DRIVEN BY THE ELECTRONEGATIVITY OF AN ELEMENT

d) EXAMPLES INCLUDE NaCl, NaOH, HCl

c) HYDROGEN BONDSI. BASED ON ATTRACTIONS BETWEEN H+ ATOMS AND OXYGEN

a) IMPORTANT IN WATER, DNA , & PROTEIN STRUCTURE

THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFEWATER - LIFE IS DEPENDENT UPON THE CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER

a) WATER IS A POLAR MOLECULEI. IT IS A MOLECULE WITH IONIC CHARACTER

a) OXYGEN IN WATER CARRIES A PARTIAL (-) CHARGE

b) HYDROGENS IN WATER CARRIES A PARTIAL (+) CHARGE

c) ADJACENT MOLECULES ARE ATTRACTED TO ONE ANOTHER

b) LIQUID WATER IS LESS DENSE THAN SOLID WATERI. ICE FLOATS

a) FLOATING ICE PREVENTS LAKES AND OCEANS FROM FREEZING COMPLETELY AND ALLOWS ORGANISMS TO LIVE IN COLD CONDITIONS

b) ATTRACTIONS BETWEEN CHARGED ATOMS CALLED IONS

c) DRIVEN BY THE ELECTRONEGATIVITY OF AN ELEMENT

d) EXAMPLES INCLUDE NaCl, NaOH, HCl

c) WATER IS STICKYI. IT IS BOTH ADHESIVE AND COHESIVE

a) COHESION WATER STICKS TO ITS SELF

b) ADHESIONWATER STICKS TO OTHER POLAR MOLECULES

d) WATER IS THE UNIVERSAL SOLVENTI. IT DISSOLVES POLAR MOLECULES


WATER –THE UNIVERSAL SOLVENT

a) A SOLUTION CONTAINS BOTH A SOLVENT AND SOLUTEI. A SOLUTE IS THE SOLID DISSOLVED IN

SOLUTION

II. THE SOLVENT IS THE LIQUID COMPONENT OF A SOLUTIONa) POLAR SOLVENTS DISSOLVE POLAR COMPOUNDS

a) EXAMPLE WATER AND SUGAR

b) NON-POLAR SOLVENTS DISSOLVE NON-POLAR COMPOUNDS

a) EXAMPLE GASOLINE AND OIL

c) SOLUTIONS WHERE WATER IS THE SOLVENT ARE CALLED AQUAEOUS


WATER –THE UNIVERSAL SOLVENTa) ACIDS AND BASES ARE AQUAEOUS SOLUTIONS

b) THE pH scale measures H+ ion concentrationI. ACIDS –LOW pH

a) H+ DONORS

b) EXAMPLES INCLUDE LEMON JUICE, HCl

II. BASES - HIGH pH a) H+ ACCEPTORS

b) EXAMPLES INCLUDE, NaOH, OVEN CLEANER, LYE, AMMONIA


BUFFERS – IONIC COMPOUNDS IN LIVING SYSTEMS

a) NEUTRALIZE ACIDS AND BASES

b) AN IMPORTANT EXAMPLE OF HOMEOSTASIS

c) THEY CAN ACT AS H+ DONORS OR ACCEPTORS

d) YOU HAVE BUFFERS IN YOUR BLOOD THAT ALLOW YOU TO MAINTAIN CONSTANT pH

e) ANTACIDS ARE EXAMPLES

THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFEBIOCHEMISTRY- THERE ARE 4 MAJOR CLASSES OF BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE MOLECULES

a) CARBOHYDRATES (SUGARS OR SACCHARIDES)I. OFTEN POLYMERS OF GLUCOSE

II. THE MAJOR AND 1ST SOURCE OF ENERGY IN LIVING THINGS

b) LIPIDS (FATS)I. ARE THE MOST DENSE ENERGY STORAGE MOLECULES

II. FORM ALL CELL MEMBRANES

c) PROTEINSI. POLYMERS OF AMINO ACIDS JOINED BY PEPTIDE BONDS

II. ALL ENZYMES ARE PROTEIN

d) NUCLEIC ACIDSI. FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS AS DNA OR RNA

II. POLYMERS OF NUCLEOTIDES

THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFECARBOHYDRATES

I. COMMONLY CALLED SUGARS OR SACCHARIDES (-OSEs)

II. CAN BE FOUND AS MONO, DI, OR POLYSACCHARIDESa) MONOSACCHARIDE- GLUCOSE

b) DISACCHARIDE- SUCROSE, LACTOSE

c) POLYSACCHARIDE- STARCH, CELLULOSE, GLYCOGEN

III. THE 1ST SOURCE OF ENERGY IN LIVING THINGS

IV. FORM STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS IN ORGANISM LIKE THE CELL WALLa) WOOD IS CELLULOSE

b) A BUGS SHELL IS MADE OF CHITIN


LIPIDSI. POLYMERS OF FATTY ACIDS

II. ARE USED FOR LONG TERM ENERGY STORAGEa) EXAMPLES CHOLESTEROL

III. FORM ALL CELL MEMBRANESa) PHOSPHOLIPID

b) PREVENTS THE MOVEMENT OF H2O IN OR OUT OF THE CELL

IV. ACT AS HORMONESa) TESTOSTERONE & ESTROGEN


PROTEINSa) POLYMERS OF AMINO ACIDS

JOINED BY PEPTIDE BONDS

b) ALL ENZYMES ARE PROTEIN

c) PROTEINS HAVE IMPORTANT ROLES AS

I. ENZYMES (-ASEs)I. EXAMPLE AMYLASE,

HYDROLASE, ATPase

II. HORMONES- like INSULIN, SEROTONIN

III. STRUCTUAL ELEMENTS- KERATIN, COLLAGEN


NUCLEIC ACIDSI. CARRY HEREDITARY

INFORMATION IN THE FORM OF GENES

II. FOUND IN THE NUCLEUSa) FORMS AN ALPHA DOUBLE HELIX

III. POLYMERS OF NUCLEOTIDESa) CONTAIN A SUGAR –RIBOSE OR

DEOXYRIBOSE

b) NITROGENOUS BASE

c) PHOSPHATE GROUP


MATTER AND ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS

1. CHEMICAL REACTIONS ARE SYMBOLIZED IN EQUATIONSREACTANTS------PRODUCTS

A + B -------------- C + D

2. CHEMICAL REACTIONS STORE AND RELEASE ENERGYa) ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS–NEED ENERGY TO PROCEED

b) EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS – GIVE OFF ENERGY AS THEY PROCEED

3. ACTIVATION ENERGY IS REQUIRED FOR A CHEMICAL REACTION TO PROCEED

4. ENZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS THAT LOWER ACTIVATION ENERGY

a) THIS SPEED CHEMICAL REACTIONS

b) THIS ALLOWS THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS NECESSARY FOR LIFE


ENZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS ACTIVATION ENERGY IS REQUIRED FOR A CHEMICAL REACTION TO PROCEED

ENZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS THAT LOWER ACTIVATION ENERGY

a) THIS SPEEDS CHEMICAL REACTIONSb) THIS ALLOWS THE CHEMICAL REACTIONS NECESSARY FOR

LIFE

THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFEENZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS

1. ENZYMES ARE PROTEINS WITH A SPECIFIC 3DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURE

2. ENZYMES LOWER ACTIV ATION ENRGY BY BINDING SUBSTRATES AT THEIR ACTIVE SITES

3. ENZYMES CATALYZE REACTIONS WITHOUT BEING CHANGED OR USED UP

4. ENZYME ACTIVITY CAN BE INFLUENCED BY THE ENVRONMENT


1. ENZYME ACTIVITY CAN BE INFLUENCED BY THE ENVIRONMENT

a) CHANGES IN pH

b) CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE

c) CHANGES IN ENZYME OR

SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION

ENZYMES ARE BIOLOGICAL CATALYSTS

Midterm Review

CHAPTER 7 CELLULAR ORGANIZATION

CHAPTER 7 CELLULAR STRUCTURE

THE DISCOVERY OF CELLS

1. (1665) ROBERT HOOK: “CELLS”

2. (1695) ANTON VON LEEUWENHOEK: “ANIMACULES”

3. SCHLIEDEN: PLANTS ARE MADE OF CELLS

4. SCHWANN: ANIMALS ARE MADE OF CELLS

5. VIRCHOW: ALL CELLS COME FROM PREXISTING CELLS

CHAPTER 7 CELLULAR STRUCTURE

THE CELL THEORY1. ALL LIVING THINGS ARE MADE OF ONE OR MORE CELLS”

2. CELLS ARE THE BASIC UNIT OF STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

3. ALL CELLS COME FROM PREXISTING CELLS

CELL BIOLOGISTS USE MICROSCOPES

1. THIS IS A COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE

1. COMPOUND DUE TO MULTIPLE LENSES

2. LIGHT MUST PASS THROUGH THE OBJECT BEING OBSERVED

3. THE EYEPIECE OR OCULAR LENS IS ON TOP

4. THE OBJECTIVE LENSES ARE DOWN NEAR THE OBJECT

CELL BIOLOGISTS USE MICROSCOPES

OTHER TYPES OF MICROSCOPES

1. ELECTRON MICROSCOPEa) GIVES EXTREMELY HIGH

MAGNIFICATION AND RESOLUTION

2. SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPE

a) GIVES EXTREMELY HIGH MAGNIFICATION AND 3D IMAGES

1. MAGNIFICATIONa) IS THE ABILITY OF A MICROSCOPE TO

MAGNIFY OR ENLARGE AN OBJECT

2. RESOLUTIONa) IS A MEASURE OF HOW CLEARLY

DETAILS CAN BE SEEN

CELL SIZE AND SHAPE

1. A HIGH SURFACE TO VOLUME RATIO

2. THE GREATER THE SURFACE AREA, MORE STUFF GETS IN AND OUT OF CELL

3. GREATER THE VOLUME, LESS STUFF GETS IN OR OUT; CELL STARVES OR IS POISONED

4. CELL SIZE VARIES WITH FUNCTION

WHAT DETERMINES A CELLS SIZE

Spinal Neuron-Over 3 feet long

Sperm Cell- 25 Micrometers

CELL STRUCTURE

3 Major Parts of Cell1. PLASMA MEMBRANE:

a) CONTROLS PASSAGE OF MATERIALS IN OR OUT OF CELL

2. NUCLEAR REGION:

a) CONTROLS CELLS ACTIVITIES;

b) CONTAINS DNA & RNA

3. CYTOPLASM :

a) ORGANELLES AND CYTOSOL

INTERNAL ORGANIZATION & TYPES OF CELLS

PROKARYOTIC CELLS: CELLS WITHOUT A NUCLEUS OR OTHER ORGANELLES

EUKARYOTIC CELLS: CELLS WITH A NUCLEUS AND OUTER CELL MEMBRANE WHICH ALLOWS MOLECULES TO PASS IN AND OUT

EUKARYOTIC CELLS CONTAIN “LITTLE ORGANS” CALLED ORGANELLES

EACH ORGANELLE PERFORMS SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS

CELLULAR ORGANIZATION

Cells are organized into tissuesNerve Tissue is composed of astrocytes and neurons

Tissues are organized into organs The heart is made of muscle and connective tissue

Organs are organized into organ SystemsThe respiratory system includes the lungs, trachea, nasal passages, diaphragm muscle and blood vessels

Organs Systems are organized into an Organism We are composed of our body systems including;

Cardiovascular, rproductive, digestive, nervous…etc.

PLANT & ANIMAL CELL ORGANELLES1. CYTOPLASM

a) ALL THE AREA BETWEEN THE CELL MEMBRANE AND THE NUCLEUS AND CONTAINS ALL OF THE ORGANELLES WITHIN THE CELL

2. RIBOSOMES

a) MAKE PROTEINS FROM AA; FOUND ON ER OR IN CYTOSOL

b) MADE IN THE NUCLEOLUS OF RRNA

3. ROUGH ER

a) MAKES PROTEINS AND TRANSPORTS THEM TO OTHER PARTS OF THE CELL VIA VESICLES (LITTLE PACKAGES)

PLANT & ANIMAL CELL ORGANELLES4. SMOOTH ER

a) TRANSPORTS PROTEINS

b) SYNTHESIZES LIPIDS

5. GOLGI APPARATUS

c) FOUND CLOSE TO ER.

d) TAKES PROTEIN FROM ER AND MODIFIES THEM TO MAKE THEM WORK;

e) SENDS THEM ON THEIR WAY (MAILROOM OF THE CELL)

PLANT & ANIMAL CELL ORGANELLES

6. MITOCHONDRIONa) POWERHOUSE OF THE CELL. TAKES IN FOOD; CONVERTS

IT TO ATP, WHICH IS BROKEN DOWN FOR ENERGY.

b) SOME CELLS HAVE MORE MITOCHONDRIA THAN OTHERSCRISTAE: FOLDS IN THE INNER MEMBRANE OF MITOCHONDRIA TO INCREASE SURFACE AREA

7. NUCLEUS c) CONTROLS AND COORDINATES CELL’S ACTIVITIES.

CONTAINS CHROMATIN (DNA). DNA CONVERTED TO RNA AND STORED IN NUCLEOLUS. RNA SENT OUT TO CELL AS A MESSENGER

d) SURROUNDED BY NUCLEAR ENVELOPE

e) NUCLEAR PORES ALLOW RNA TO LEAVE NUCLEUS

PLANT & ANIMAL CELL ORGANELLES

8. CYTOSKELETON: SCAFFOLDING THAT GIVES CELL SHAPE

a) MICROFILAMENTS: USED FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTION

b) MICROTUBULES: THICKER, MOVE ORGANELLES

c) CILIA AND FLAGELLA

I. HELP SOME CELLS MOVE AROUND

II. LINING OF RESPIRATORY TRACT

9. LYSOSOMES:

d) CONTAIN DIGESTIVE ENZYMES

e) BREAKS DOWN GLUCOSE

f) CAN RUPTURE AND KILL CELL

≈

Midterm Review

CHAPTER 8 CELLULAR TRANSPORT

Structure of Plasma MembraneSELECTIVELY PERMEABLE: ALLOWS SOME MOLECULES IN; KEEPS OTHERS OUT

PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER: POLAR HEADS ON OUTSIDE AND INSIDE OF CELL; NONPOLAR TAILS ON INSIDE OF MEMBRANE

POLAR: HYDROPHILIC: WATER LOVING

NONPOLAR:HYDROPHOBIC: WATER HATING

Molecules on the Plasma Membrane

1. GLYCOPROTEINS: ACT AS RECEPTORS; MOLECULES ATTACH TO CELL; TELL IT WHAT TO DO

2. CHOLESTEROL GIVES MEMBRANE SHAPE; RIGIDITY

3. RECEPTOR PROTEINS BIND HORMONES & OTHER SUBSTANCES COMING IN FROM OUTSIDE THE CELL

4. RECOGNITION PROTEINS PROTEINS ON MEMBRANE THAT ARE USED FOR RECOGNITION BY EXTRA-CELLULAR SUBSTANCES

5. ADHESION PROTEINS HELP CELLS OF A CERTAIN TYPE STICK

TOGETHER TO FORM TISSUES

Protein Receptors coming out of plasma membrane

What gets in and out of the cell membrane?

How do some substances pass through the membrane while others stay out?

Materials moves across the membrane in two ways

1. Passive Transport

2. Active Transport

PASSIVE TRANSPORT

DIFFUSION: MOVEMENT OF MOLECULES FROM HIGH TO LOW CONCENTRATION

OXYGEN, CO2, FAT SOLUBLE MOLECULES, AND WATER PASS THROUGH THE MEMBRANE BY SIMPLE DIFFUSION

PASSIVE TRANSPORT

CARRIER FACILITATED DIFFUSION: DIFFUSION OF LARGE MOLECULES VIA TRANSPORT PROTEINS

AQUAPORES: ALLOW WATER TO DIFFUSE

IONIC PORES: ALLOW IONS LIKE Na+ or Cl- to diffuse

CHANNEL PROTEINS: ALLOW SPECIFIC LARGE MOLECULES TO DIFFUSE LIKE GLUCOSE

ACTIVE TRANSPORTACTIVE TRANSPORT: USING ENERGY TO TRANSPORT LARGE

MOLECULES INTO THE CELL AGAINST THEIR CONCENTRATION GRADIENTS

1. CELL MEMBRANE PUMPS CARRIER PROTEINS PUMP IONS AGAINST THEIR CONCENTRATION GRADIENT

2. ENDOCYTOSIS: ENGULFING OF LARGE PARTICLES OR LIQUIDS BY PLASMA MEMBRANE

PINOCYTOSIS: ENDOCYTOSIS OF LIQUID

PHAGOCYTOSIS: ENDOCYTOSIS OF SOLID

CELLS TAKE IN CHOLESTEROL BY ENDOCYTOSIS FROM BLOODSTREAM

3. EXOCYTOSIS:VESICLE CONTENTS EXPELLED BY CELL

PROTEINS ARE TRANSPORTED BY EXOCYTOSIS

Exocytosis Animation

Endocytosis Animation

OSMOSISOSMOSIS: DIFFUSION OF WATER

ISOTONIC SOLUTION: CELLS ARE AT EQUILIBRIUM; NO NET MOVEMENT OF WATER

HYPERTONIC SOLUTION: CELL IS IN A SOLUTION THAT HAS LOTS OF SALTS OR OTHER IONS IN IT; WATER RUSHES OUT OF THE CELL AND THE CELL SHRINKS

HYPOTONIC SOLUTION: CELL IS IN A SOLUTION THAT HAS LITTLE OR NO SALTS OR OTHER IONS IN IT; WATER RUSHES INTO THE CELL AND THE CELL SWELLS

Tonicity in Red Blood Cells

MIDTERM REVIEW

CHAPTER 9 CELLULAR RESPIRATION & PHOTOSYNTHESIS

PHOTOSYNTHESIS & CELLULAR RESPIRATIONTHE BASIC EQUATIONS

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

+ SUNLIGHT

CO2 + H20 ======> C6H12O6 + O2

OCCURS IN THE CHLOROPLAST OF AUTOTROPHS

CELLULAR RESPIRATION

C6H12O6 + O2 ======> CO2 + H20

+ ATP

OCCURS IN THE MITOCHONDRIA OF ALL CELLS*

PHOTOSYNTHESIS + SUNLIGHT

CO2 + H20 ======> C6H12O6 + O2

OCCURS IN THE CHLOROPLAST OF AUTOTROPHS

HAS BOTH LIGHT AND DARK REACTIONS

The LIGHT Reactions+ SUNLIGHT

CO2 + H20 ======> C6H12O6 + O2

OCCURS IN THE THYLAKOIDS OF CHLOROPLAST

LIGHT REACTIONS- Use light to split H20, make O2, and a Hydrogen Ion gradient which makes ATP and NADPH

Also known as the LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTIONS

The DARK Reactions

CO2 + H20 ======> + ATP + NADPH C6H12O6 + O2

OCCURS IN THE STROMA OF CHLOROPLAST

The Dark Reactions/Calvin Cycle:

Use CO2 , (+ ATP + NADPH) to make C6H12O6 !!!

Also known as the LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTIONS AND OR CALVIN CYCLE!!

CELLULAR RESPIRATION OVERVIEW

C6H12O6 + O2 ======> CO2 + H20 + ATP

OCCURS IN THE MITOCHONDRIA OF ALL CELLS

CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Has a few ReactionsGlycolysis

The Krebs/TCA/Citric Acid Cycle

The Electron Transport Chain

OR Fermentation (if there’s no O2 available)

And 2 Major PathwaysAerobic Reactions – use O2

Anaerobic Reactions – Doesn't use O2

CELLULAR RESPIRATION: Glycolysis

GLYCOLYSIS

C6H12O6 + O2 2ATP + H2O + 2Pyruvate

OCCURS IN THE CYTOPLASM!!! NOT MITOCHONDRIA

ANAEROBIC REACTION -Doesn’t Use O2

In Short: Step 1

Glycolysis (glucose-lysis)

C6H12O62Pyruvate + H2O +2ATP

CELLULAR RESPIRATION: THE KREBS CYCLE (*aka. TCA/Citric Acid Cycle)

2 Pyruvate + O2 2ATP + CO2 +2NADH + 2FADH2

OCCURS IN THE MATRIX of MITOCHONDRIA

AEROBIC REACTION –USES O2

In Short: Step 2 The Krebs/TCA Cycle

2 Pyruvate CO2 + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2FADH2

CELLULAR RESPIRATION: The ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN


2NADH+ 2FADH2 H20 + 32-34 ATP

OCCURS ON THE CRISTAE OF THE MITOCHONDRIA

Uses a Hydrogen Ion gradient to make ATP!

In Short: Step 3


2NADH + 2FADH2 H20 + 32-34ATP

CELLULAR RESPIRATION: If there’s no O2 Organisms use Glycolysis then Fermentation!! ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION- AKA- FERMENTATION

2 TYPES

In Animals

2 Pyruvate + 2ATP + Lactic Acid

In Yeast

2 Pyruvate + 2ATP + Ethanol

In Short: Under Anaerobic Conditons

Step 1: Glycolysis

Step 2: Fermentation

MIDTERM REVIEW

CHAPTER 10-11 CELL DIVISION

WHY DO CELLS DIVIDE?

THEY HAVE GROWN TOO LARGE SO…. THE SURFACE AREA/VOLUME RATIO IS TOO SMALL

TO ALLOW AN ORGANISM TO GROW AND INCREASE ITS SIZE

CELLS HAVE DIED AND NEED TO BE REPLACED

DNA IN THE CELL

INSIDE THE NUCLEUS DNA CONDENSES TO FORM CHROMOSOMES

CHROMOSOMES ARE MADE FROM PROTEINS CALLED HISTONES AND DNA TOGETHER KNOWN AS CHROMATIN

CHROMATIN ALLOWS DNA TO COIL INTO NUCLEOSOMES

EACH CHROMOSOME CONSISTS OF IDENTICAL HALVES CALLED SISTER CHROMATIDS

SISTER CHROMATIDS ARE JOINED TOGETHER AT THE CENTROMERE

NUMBER & TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES

SEX CHROMOSOMES DETERMINE THE GENDER OF AN ORGANISM

XX = FEMALE XY = MALE

DIPLOID CELLS: CELLS WITH 2 COPIES OF EACH CHROMOSOME

THE NORMAL BODY CELLS ARE CALLED SOMATIC CELLS, AND THEY ARE ALL DIPLOID

DIPLOID & HAPLOID CELLS

DIPLOID CELLLS: 2n SOMATIC CELLS

HAPLOID CELLS: 1n GAMETES

CELL DIVISION IN PROKARYOTES

PROKARYOTIC ORGANISMS: a) UNICELLULAR BACTERIA WITH NO NUCLEUS

OR MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES

b) THEIR DNA IS FOUND AS ONE CIRCULAR CHROMOSOME

c) THEIR CELLS REPRODUCE THROUGH BINARY FISSION DNA IS REPLICATED, CELL DOUBLES IN SIZE AND SPLITS

STAGES OF MITOSIS 1. PROPHASE

a) CHROMATIN CONDENSES & NUCLEUS DISAPPEARS

b) SPINDLE FIBERS (MICROTUBULES) FORM & MOVE CHROMOSOMES

c) CENTROSOMES BEGIN TO MIGRATE

2. METAPHASEa) SPINDLES ALIGN CHROMOSOMES IN THE MIDDLE OF THE CELL AKA

METAPHASE PLATE

3. ANAPHASEa) CENTROMERES ARE PULLED APART BY SPINDLE FIBERS AND SISTER

CHROMATIDS SPLIT

b) CHROMATIDS MOVE TOWARD OPPOSITE POLES

4. TELOPHASEa) CHROMOSOMES ARRIVE AT OPPOSITE ENDS OF CELL

b) NUCLEUS REAPPEARS

c) SPINDLE DISAPPEARS

5. CYTOKINESIS a) CELL SPLITS TO FORM 2 NEW DAUGHTER CELLS

STAGES OF MITOSISCYTOKINESIS - PLANT VS. ANIMAL CELLS

IN ANIMAL CELLS: A CLEAVAGE FURROW PINCHES ONE CELL INTO 2 CELLS

MEIOSIS

GETTING FROM DIPLOID TO HAPLOID CELLS: MEIOSIS

WHERE DOES IT OCCUR IN HUMANS?MALES: TESTES

FEMALES: OVARIES

MEIOSIS OVERVIEW

MEIOSIS I

1 DIPLOID * CELL SPLITS INTO 2 HAPLOID CELLS

MEIOSIS II

2HAPLOID DAUGHTER CELLS UNDERGO MITOSIS

FFORMS 4 HAPLOID SEX CELLS

SSAME AS MITOSIS

MEIOSIS IPROPHASE I

HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES PAIR TOGETHER A PROCESS CALLED SYNAPSIS

EACH HOMOLOGOUS PAIR OF CHROMOSOMES IS CALLED A TETRAD

PORTIONS OF CHROMATIDS BREAK OFF AND ATTACH TO ADJACENT HOMOLOGOUS CHROMATIDS THIS PROCESS IS KNOWN AS CROSSING OVER

CROSSING OVER CREATES NEW GENE COMBINATIONS – THE CHROMOSOMES OF YOUR SEX CELLS ARE COMBINATIONS OF BOTH YOUR MOM AND DADS!!!

METAPHASE I

HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES LINE UP IN THE MIDDLE OF THE CELL

ANAPHASE I

HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES MOVE TO OPPOSITE POLES OF THE CELL

RANDOM SEPARATION OF HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES IS CALLED INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

TELOPHASE I

CHROMOSOMES REACH OPPOSITE POLES OF THE CELL

CYTOKINESIS BEGINS

MEIOSIS II 2 HAPLOID CELLS GO THROUGH THE PROCESS OF MITOSIS & CELL DIVISION

THE RESULT OF MEIOSIS II IS 4 HAPLOID CELLS

GAMETE FORMATIONIN MALES MEIOSIS CREATES 4 SPERM CELLS (CALLED SPERMATIDS)

IN FEMALES THE CYTOPLASM IS UNEVENLY DIVIDED SO THAT ONLY 1 BIG CELL THE OVUM IS FORMED, ALONG WITH 3 OTHER CELLS KNOWN AS POLAR BODIES

MEIOSIS VOCABULARYDIPLOID CELLS: CELLS WITH 2 OF EACH TYPE

OF CHROMOSOME

(1 FROM MOM AND 1 FROM DAD)

N= NUMBER OF PAIRS OF CHROMOSOMES

DIPLOID CELLS: 2N

ZYGOTE: FERTILIZED EGG

GAMETES: HAPLOID SEX CELLS

FERTILIZATION: UNION OF EGG AND SPERM

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: PARENTS GENERATE

SPECIALIZED SEX CELLS

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