MOTIVATIONMotivation is some kind of “internal drive” that encourages somebody to pursue a course of action. If we perceive a goal (something we wish to achieve) we will be strongly motivated to do whatever is necessary to reach that goal. Goals can be of different types. For example if we are determined to own a new bike, we may work overtime in order to earn that necessary money. It is important that motive that students bring to class is the biggest single factor affecting their success.There is distinction between short-term goals and long-term goals. Long term goals might have something to do with a wish to get a better job at some future date. Short-term goals might include such things as wanting to finish a unit in a book. In general, strongly motivated students with long –term goals are probably easier to teach than those who have no such goals.There are two main categories of motivation: extrinsic-which is concerned with factors outside of classroom and INTRINSIC motivation-which is concerned with factors inside the classroom.There are two types of extrinsic motivation:1-Integrative: students wish to be integrated into the target culture or at least to know about target culture2-Instrumental; the language is considered an instrument for obtaining a certain goal. This motivation is affected by the attitude of the student’s parents or of the student’s peers. That will also be in a powerful position to affect his or her attitude as will other members of the student’s community.2.Intrinsic motivation can be influenced by:a)Physical conditions-teachers should try to make their classroom as pleasant as possible. Even where conditions are bad, it may be possible to improve the atmosphere with posters, student’s work on the wall’s, etc. b) Method-the method by which students are taught, must have some effect on their motivation. Method has to be interesting and adjusted to the learning level and the student’s age.c) The teacher-if teacher is positive personality student’s will like him and there will be possibility in achieving positive results.d) Success-success plays a vital part in the motivational drive of a student. To give student very high challenge activities may have a negative effect on motivation. Much of the teacher’s work in the classroom concerns setting up the right level of challenge activities.

MOTIVATIONAL DIFFERENCEsNot everyone in the class will have the same motivation, because motivation is a mixture of different factors. But it is possible to make some general statements about motivational factors for different age groups and different levels. These are:a) Children-are curious more than anything else. The teacher is very important figure for them. They need to know that teacher appreciates them and is equal to all of them, They will not sit and listen, they need to be involved in some active. Almost everything for them will depend on teacher’s attitude and behavior.B) Adolescents-they are perhaps the most interesting students to teach, but they can also be problematic more than any other age group. For them teacher is rather potentional enemy, not the leader. They don’t need teacher’s approval so much. The

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teacher’s task in this age is to put language teaching into an interesting context for the students. So getting the level of challenge right is vital at this age.c) Adult beginners-in some way these beginners are the easiest people to teach. Firstly they may come to the classroom with a high degree of extrinsic motivation. Secondly, they will often succeed very quickly. Goals within the class are easy to perceive and relatively easy to achieve. d) Adult, intermediate students-they may have very positive feelings about the way they are treated in the classroom in which they are studying. Intermediate students already know a lot and may not perceive any progress. Our job is to show the students that there is still a lot to learn and then setting realistic goals for them to achieve. A major factor seems to be getting the level of challenge right.e)Adult advanced students-they are often highly motivated. Like some intermediate students they will find progress more difficult to perceive. Much of the time they will be practising what they already know.

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENTThe most important job is perhaps to ‘create the conditions in which learning can take place’. The skills of creating and managing a successful class may be the key to the whole success of a course. An important part of this is to do with your attitude, intentions and personality and your relationships with the learners. We also need certain organizational skills and techniques. Such items are often grouped together under the heading of ‘classroom management’. Common classroom management areas include:GROUPING AND SEATING -Forming groupings(singles,pairs,groups,mingle,plenary) - Arranging and rearranging seating - Deciding where you will stand or sit - Reforming class as a whole group after activitiesACTIVITIES- Sequencing activities- Setting up activities- Giving instructions- Monitoring activities- Timing activities ( and the lesson as a whole)- Bringing activities to an endAUTHORITY- Gathering and holding attention- Deciding who does what ( answer a question,make a decision,etc.)- Establishing or relinquishing authority as appropriate- Getting someone to do somethingCRITICAL MOMENTS- Starting the lesson- Dealing with unexpected problems - Maintaining appropriate discipline - Finishing the lessonTOOLS AND TECHNIQUES- Using the board and other classroom equipment or aids

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- Using gestures to help clarity of instructions and explanations- Speaking clearly at an appropriate volume and speed- Use of silence - Grading complexity of language - Grading quantity of language

CLASSROOM INTERACTIONFive types of students grouping are common in the classroom:- the whole class working together with the teacher- the whole class mixing together as individuals- small groups ( three or eight people)- pairs- individual workIt’s very important to mix work in classroom. Interaction between student and teacher is very useful because in that way students learn to speak yo a native speaker. In this way the student gets the correct picture of language . But,if there isn’t much available time, if the teacher talks most of the time,then the learners will get very little time to speak at all. That’s why work in pairs or in small groups is important. In the group work students use language to communicate with each other and cooperating among themselves. There is greater possibility of discussion,greater chance that at least one member of one group will be able to solve a problem. A major possibility for group work is the idea of flexible groups. Here students start in set groups. There is possibility of having group leaders. They could have two functions: one would be to act as the group organizer-make sure that a task was properly done or collected,and the other could be as a mini-teacher.PAIRS WORK-this work allows the students to use languages and also encourages students co-operation,which is important for the atmosphere at the class and for the motivation. Teacher sometimes worry about noise and indiscipline.INDIVIDUAL WORK-is sometimes a good idea because students can relax from outside pressure. Both reading and writing work can be focus for individual work.

KINDS OF TEACHERThere are three kinds of teacher:a) Explainer-this teacher knows his subject matter very well,but has limited knowledge of teaching methodology.Done with style or enthusiasm,or imagination,this teacher;s lessons can be very entertaining,interesting and informative.Students are listening,but they are mostly not being personally involved or challenged.B)The involver-this teacher also knews the subject matterand he is also familiar with teaching methodology.He is able to use appropriate teaching and organization procedures, and techniques to help his students been about the subject matter.This teacher is trying to involve the students actively and puts a great deal of effort into finding appropriate and interesting activities.C)The enabler-this teacher knows about the subject matter and about methodology ,but also has an a warenessof how individuals and groups are thinking and feeling within his class. His own personality and attitude are an active ecourangement to learnings. He is confident enough to share control with the

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learners. Decisions made in his classroom may often be shared or negotiated. In many cases he sees them as someone whese job is to create a conditions that will enable students to learn for themselves.Sometimes when the students are doing well their own,this teacher could hardly be visible.The effective teacher might positively affect the learning atmosphere in a classroom. The effective teacher: really listen to his students;shows respect;gives clear,positive foodback;has a good sense of humour;is patient;is well organized,paces lessons well; does not complicate things unnessessarily;is honest;is approachable.There are three core teacher characteristics that help to create an effective learning environment. These are:-respect;empathy; authenticity.

MAXIMIZING STUDENT INTERACTION IN CLASSROOM; SOME IDEAS -First of all, we should respect the learners-Encourage a friendly ,relaxed learning environment. If there is trusting ,positive supportive rapport between learners and teacher, then there is a much better chance of useful interaction happening.-we should rather ask questions than giving explanations-really listen to what they sayAllow time for students to listen, think and speakAllow thinking time without talking over itIncrease opportunities for student talking timeAllow students to finish their own sentencesMake use of pairs and small groups to maximize opportunities for students to speak-Teacher doesn’t always need to be at the front of the class-Use gestures and facial expressions to encourage student to speak and listen to each other-Encourage co-operation rather than competition -Allow students to become more responsible for their own progress.Put them in situation where they need to make decisions for themselves-encourage the quiet speaker to speak louder so that the other can hear.

POTENTIAL PROBLEMSThere are some common ways in which teachers unintenianally prevent or hinder learning.a)TTT (teacher talking time)-teacher should give students time to think,to prepare what they have to say and how they are going to say it. If teacher more talks,there is less opportunity for the learners.b) Echo-if teacher become aware of his/her echo and then start to control it, he/she will find that learn is get more talking time and that they start to listen to eachother more. Teacher should not repeat student’s answer brecause one they got used to it they stop listen to each other,they listen only teacher.c)Helpful sentence completion-students need to finish their own sentences.teacher shouldn’t finish student’s sentences.If they can’t they need help,but help to produce their own sentences in their own words and their own ideas.d)Not checking understanding of instructions-when teacher wants to check learner’s understanding he/she shouldn’t ask question: “Do you understand this?” because students will probably answer ”yes”. Better way to check learner’s understanding of

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instruction is to ask one or two of them to repeat it back to you. The best way is to check their understanding on examples through their presentation or idea, or by repetition.e)Fear of genuine feedbackfeedback-advice or criticism about something you have done or made.Teacher shouldn’t be afraid of student’s feedback but instead open to it ,because it’s the only way to find out what they are really thinking.f) Lack of confidence in self,learners-students get bored when activities are either too difficult or too easy.it’s not so hard to recognize when the learner’s can’t do the work. More difficult problem is when work is not challenging enough. Teacher should try to keep the level of challenge high, to be demanding. Teacher should believe they can do more than they are aware thwy are able to do, and help them to do it.g) over-helping /over-organizing-a lot of ‘teacher –help’ is actually’ teacher interference’ and gets in the way of students working on their own. As long as you are around them they will look to you for help. Go away and they are forced to do the work themselves.h) flying with the fastest-teacher should not listen only strongest and fastest students ,it’s important to involve all the students.i) weak rapport-bear in mind the three teacher quallities that help to enable a good working environment.

HOW TO TEACH GRAMMARPRESENTING GRAMMATICAL ITEMSPresentation is the stage at which students are introduced to the form,meating and use of a new piece of language.for example they learn how DID works with past tense if they are being presented with past tense questions for the first time. Presentation is the stage at which students can learn how to put the new syntax,words and sounds together. In this stage they learn the grammar they will later use.Personalization –is the stage at which students use a new piece of grammar to say things which really mean something to them. If the teacher present them present Simple Tense,the personalization stage is where they apply it to themselves by saying what they like, do. It’s often the first time students get a chance to use the new language for themselves .sometimes personalization is the final part of a presentation which is done through the use of text or picture.The characteristics of good presentation are: a)a good presentation should be clear.students should have problems or difficulties with the meaning of a new language.b)a good presentation should be efficient –the aim is to get to the personalization stage as soon as students can manipulate the new languagec)a good presentation should be lively and interesting-students should be involved during a presentation stage. With the help of a good situation and lively teaching ,it can be one of the most memorable parts of a language course.d) a good presen. Should be productive-in other words the teacher should allow students to make many sentences and questions with the new languagee)a good presen. Should be appropriate –however, interesting,funny or demonstrative a situation is,it should be appropriate for the language that is being presented.

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DISCOVERY TECHNIQUESDiscovery techniques are those where students are given examples of language and told to find out how they work-to discover the grammar rules rather than be told them.At the most covert level this means that the students are exposed to the new language with no focus, some time before it is presented.At a more conscious level,students can be asked to look at some sentences ,where they have to find out the meaning and differences between the sentences. In that way they acquire new grammar rules.The advantages of this approach are clear. By involving students in a task of grammar we may sure that they are concentrating on the work. It’s not just the teacher telling the students what the grammar is ,they are actually discovering information for themselves. It is important that these techniques are not suitable for all students on all occasions. Disc.techn. can take a long time and can be confusing. The teacher should decide when to use the activities ,with what grammar and with which students.There are four types of activity where students discover new grammar.a) preview-students are aware of new language.they are exposed to the new language.they don’t concentrate on it at this stage ,but this will help them at a later stage ,when they have to study it. b)matching techniques-the point of matching exercises is to get students to work things out for themselves,they have to make choices about whast goes with what and the activity of making choices helps them to discover correct facts about grammar.C)text-study-another way of getting students to discover a new grammar is to give them a text to study and tell them to concentrate on a way that grammar is use in it. The principle aim is to get students to recognize the new language. The point about this kind of activity is that the teacher asks the students to work something out for themselves.d)problem solving-a very good way of getting students to discover grammatical rules is to present them with examples of incorrect English. The teacher then encourage them to discover what is wrong and why.

PRACTICE TECHNIQUESThere are four different types of oral practice techniques drills,interaction activities,involving the personality and games.1)drills –the aim of a drill is to give students rapid practice in using a structural item. Often,this is with the whole class-rather than with students in pairs and the teacher is able to get students to ask and answer questions quickly and efficienlt. Advantage of this kind of technique is that teacher can correct any mistakes that students make and can encourage them to concentrate on difficulties at the same time. But the problem with drills is that they can make correct sentences with the new item,the teacher should move on to more creative activities like the interaction activities.2)interaction activities-one of the problem about drills is that they are fairly monotonous. Some way must be found of making controlled language practice more meaningful and more enjoyable. One of the ways of doing this is by using interaction activities. In that way students work together,exchanging information in a purposeful

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and interesting way. The best way of doing this activity is to ask all the students to stand up. When the students have finished ,they can improve their results.3) involving the personality-recently some teachers and materials writers have designed exercises which practise grammar,while at the same time requiring students talks about themselves in a more involving way than in the previous examples. They are asked to discuss things that affect their personality and to this subject matter as a focus for grammar practice.4)games have been used in language teaching for long time and they are especially useful for grammar.5)written practice-grammar practice is often done through writing. Students are frequently given homework exercises which ask them to practice specific language items.

TESTING GRAMMARTYPES OF TESTWe can test the students ability to speak or write.we can test students reading or listening comprehension skills.many test include all these elements. But because marking written tests take less time and are easier marking oral tests-most tests are based on the written skills.Tests which are given in schools and classes to find out how will students have done are often called achievement tests and are given after four or six weeks study,or after three or four units of a coursebook,or after a semester,or gears work. Tests are usually written by heads of departments or by teachers of individual classes.WRITING ACHIEVEMENT TESTSWriting a test is an important job that demands skill and patience. Good tests show both teacher and students,how will they are all doing. Teacher should give everyone a chance to show how much they have learnt. Test can often go wrong so when writing tests,teachers should bear in mind the following five rules:1)don’t test what you haven’t taught-because the main purpose of an achiev test is to find out how well students have achieved what they have been studying.2) don’t test general knowledge –test writers should remember that they are testing the students knowledge of English ,not their knowledge of the world.3)don’t introduce new techniques in tests –one thing that confuses s never tudents in tests is the presence of techniques that they have never seen before. If students are given a set of jumbled words and asked to reorder them to make a sentence,we would expect them to have seen this type of activity before in class.4)don’t just test accuracy-it is vital that an achievement test examines the students ability to use language not just their knowledge of grammatical accuracy. Students must be given a chance to write a letter ,a description or an essay at some stage in the test. Items,which only test one thing are called discrete items. Test items which test the students whole knowledge of the language ,like essay writing ,are called integrative items.5)don’t forget to test the test-when you write a test,there often can arise unforeseen problems. Perhaps you forgot to write clear instructions ,perhaps there are some mistakes,perhaps the tests is too difficult,or too easy. But if the test is important for students ,you must try to ensure that it works. The first thingto do when you have just written a test is to show it to colleagues. They will often spot problems that you didn’t and they may be able to suggest improvements.

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TEACHING GRAMMARGrammar is a part of a language system where we learn how words interact with each other. The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines grammar as the roles by which words change their forms and are combined into sentences. There are two basic elements in this definition: the rules of grammar and the study and practice of the rules.The rules of grammar are about how words change and how they are put together into sentences. For example, our knowledge of grammar tells us that the word “walk” changes to “walked” in the past tense.Then, grammar is the way in which words change themselves and group together to make sentences. Also, grammar is what happens to words when they become plural or negative, or what word order is used when we make questions, or join two clauses to make one sentence.There are two ways of teaching grammar: covert and overt grammar teaching.Covert grammar teaching is where grammatical facts are hidden from the students, although they are learning language. In this kind of teaching students are given an information, gap activity, or read a text where new grammar is practiced or introduced, but their attention will be drawn to the activity or to the text-and not to grammar. With covert grammar, teachers help the students to acquire and practice the language but they don’t draw conscious attention to any of the grammatical facts of the language.Overt grammar teaching means that the teacher provides the students with grammatical rules and explanations –the information is openly presented.When people learn language they encounter a number of problems especially with grammar, which can be complicated and sometimes confusing.In teaching grammar teachers should make a distinction between form and function and meaning and use, similarities and differences between student’s own language and the language that is being learnt and various exceptions that all languages seems to suffer from.

ERRORS AND CORRECTION (MISTAKES)Many teachers regard students errors as an evidence of progress. Errors often show that students experiment with language ,try out ideas,take risks attempt to communicate. Errors give us a clear state of what is wrong and what should be worked on. In dealing with errors teacher look for correction techniques rather than simply giving students the answers on a plate. Teacher help them to make their own correction. So,teacher’s aims when correcting might include :a)building confidenceb)raising awarenessc)a knowledging achievement and progress as well asd)helping students to become more accurate in their use of language.Error is a systematic mistake. Errors should be corrected and correction practise must be done both in individual and class work. Errors are wrongly learned language.Mistake is an occasional wrong use of language and teacher should give a chance to students to selfcorrection .mistakes could happen everyone.

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Exept the grammar errors there are errors in intonation. When work with oral errors in class teacher should make some decision: 1)what kind of error has been made2)is it useful to correct it3)when to deal with it4)who will correct 5)use the appropriate technique to indicate an error or to enable correctionThere are two basic correction stages: showing incorrectness and using correction techniques.1)showing incorrectness means that we indicate to the student that a mistake has been made and if he or she understands this feedback he ‘ll able to correct the mistake and this self-correction be helpful to him as a part of a learning process. There are a number of techniques for showing:a) repeating-we ask a student to repeat what he said using the word ‘again’ with a questioning intonation to indicate that student made errorsb)echoing-we repeat what student says with a questioning intonation to indicate that something is wrong with his answerc)denial-we can simply just say that the respons is unsatisfactory and ask student to repeat it againd)questioning-we can say ‘is that correct?’ asking any student in the class to answer our question.this has the advantage of focusing everyone on the problem but the student who made mistake may seem exposede)expression-we can indicate incorrectness by expressing or gesture. It can be dangerous if student thinks that this kind of correction is a for of mockery.2) using correction twchniques a)student corrects student-we can ask if anyone else can give the correct response. We can ask if anyone can help but if we do this insensitively the student who may mistake might feel humiliated.b)teacher corrects students-when we see that the majority of the class have the same problem,it’s appropriate that we make correction.

FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATIONWhwn we talk about fluency and communication ,an important consideration here is the aim of the activity –is it to improve learners accurate use of English? If this is the case,then immediate correction is much more appropriate than in,an activity,where fluency is the objective. This is very important distinction.There are other factors to take into account when deciding if a correction should be made:will it help or hinder learning? What is my intention in correcting? Next question is when to correct? The opinion include: immediately after a few minutes ,at the end of the activity,later in the lesson ,at the end of the lesson,in the next lesson,later in the coure or never. The distinction between accuracy and fluency aims is again important here. If the objective is accuracy, then immediate correction is more likely to be useful,if the aims is fluency ,then immediate correction is less appropriate and any correction will probably come after the activity has finished or later. While the students are working ,you can listen in discreetly and collect a list of errors.‘Who corrects’ is next important question. There is self-correction,student-student, teacher-student, small group, all class,coursebook. There are some ideas for correcting errors: a) tell them,eg. There’s an error in that sentenceb)facial expression: surprise,raised eyebrows

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c)gesture combined with facial expressiond)finger correctione)repeat sentence up to errorf)ask a questiong) ask a one word questionh)draw a time line on the boardi)write the problem sentence on board for discuss.When you speak ,you have to work on two things. One is accuracy-getting everything correct.the other is fluency-speaking at a good speed and communicating easily with other people. In any way both accuracy and fluency is important.

ACTIVITIES AND LESSONSCLASSROOM ACTIVITIESA basic skill in teaching English as a foreign language is to be able to ‘prepare, set up and run’ a single classroom activity, for example a game or a communication task or discussion.Teacher should prepare the activity before the lesson. he should be familiar with the activity, the knowledge of his students. He should know how much time the activity will take, he should think of possible problems or questions about possible errors, what his role is going to be.. the activities involves students in talking and listening to one another on a personal level. This may help students to build good relationship within the class. Each of activities is possible by using the same material in different ways. For example: a) the class discuss the problems and possible solutions, b) the students write their feelings about the situations at home or perhaps turn them into a story, c) the teacher dictatates a situational description to the students and then invites one student to invent and dictate the first line of the dialogue,then another student does line two and so on, d) students make up dialogues in pairs and perform them.The activity you will chose will depend on what you want youe students to learn from it. Most coursbook material will have clear instructions for doing a single activity with specific aims. The teacher has a number of options in organizing the activity. For example the giving of instructions:a) she could simply tell the class to read the coursebook instructions and do the activity,b)she could give instructions oraly, c) she could demonstrate the activity in front of the whole class, d) she could start with an introduction to the activity . very important is:a) Pre-activity: introduction and lead in to activityb)set up the activity-teacher should organize students so that they can do the activity. Teacher should demonstrate or give an example rather than explainc)run the activity-if the instructions are clear,teacher can let the students to do it by themselves.d)close the activity-allow it to close properly. Teacher should try to sense when the students are ready to move on. If you want to close the activity while many students are working ,give a time warninge) post-activity-it may be useful to have some of feedback session on the activity. Learners can complet opinions ,check answers,look at problems arising,etc.

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KINDS OF LESSONThere are four basic lesson types:1. LOGICAL LINE-in this type of lesson one activity follows the next.A--b--c-Activity A leads to activity B,and activity B leads to activity c. Activity C builds on what has been done in activity B,and activity B builds on what has been done in activity A.In work on language skills,the sequence of activities often move from an overview toward work on specific details. For example, the learners move gradually from general understanding of a reading text toward a tailed comprehension. In work on grammar ,the sequence of activities might be: a)first we understand an item of language, b) we practice it orally in drills, c) we get practice, d) we do some written exercise to confirm our understanding.There is probably one clear objective to the whole lesson. The teacher has predicted possible problems and difficulties and has prepared ways to deal with them when they come up in the class. This kind of lesson is well prepared and the teacher knows the aim of it during the lesson. 2. TOPIC UMBRELLA- this type of lesson may contain more objectives than one. In this kind of lesson ,a topic provides the main focal point for student work. The teacher might include a variety of separate activities,eg.on vocabulary, speaking,grammar,etc, linked only by the fact that the umbrella topic remains the same. The activities can often be done in a variety of orders without changing the overall success of the lesson. In some cases activities may be linked. There may be a number of related or disparate aims in this lesson,rather than a single main objective. For example: reading,listening,speaking,grammar.3. JUNGLE PATH- in topic umbrella and logical line,teachers have already planned a lesson and activities. They feel able to predict,what language areas will be worked on. The essential difference between this type of lesson and two previous is that teacher works more with the people in the room ,and less with material or plan. The starting point might be an activity or a piece of material ,but what comes out of it will remain unknown until it happens. In this type of lesson teacher do not predict or prepare for the class so much,he created a lesson moment by moment in class. Teacher and learners work together discussing problems and options,find new activities.. it’s like a group of people walking through the jungle in search of a new experiences and learning. Sometimes the teacher leads,sometimes the students. For this kind of lesson teacher should know the students well,their abilities ..lesson’s objectives will be stated when the lesson finishes. For example. A) the teacher asks;” How was the weekend?” after the students answer ,she chooses one of the answers and starts discussion about that topic. B) the teacher asks:” what shall we do today?” and waits while the class decides taking take not to manipulate them into deciding,something she wants them to do. 4.RAG-BAGThis kind of lesson is made up of a number of unconnected activities. For example,class can start with a chat on a specific theme,followed by a vocabulary game,work In pairs and a song. In this type of lesson there is no overall language objective. Each separate activity might have its own aims.

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ELICITINGEliciting means drawing out informations ideas language from the students,rather than having the teacher give them. It’as a technique based on the principles that: -students probably know more than we expect- starting with what they know is productive way to begin new work- involving people in discussion in making questions or giving answers is better than simply give them lector.Involving students in work of discovering new language items is more effective,more interesting for students and help teacher to find out where the problems are. There are three steps of eliciting:1. convey a clear idea to the student using picture or gestures,or questions2.then they supply the appropriate information,language,etc.3.teacher gives them a feedback.Teacher can elicit language idea,feelings,meaning context,memories,but can’t elicit what the students don’t know. With this techniques there is a reduction in unnecessary teacher talk and a maximization of student talk. The students take an active part in the learning being involved even in the part of the lesson that might otherwise be only teacher explanation., the teacher is able to state what the students know and what should be worked on,what has to be improved. The language is learned through a process of quided discovery and it has bigger chances of being memorable because of students involvement in the learning. Eliciting is when you don’t tell students the new word or form,but ask from them to think and try to elicite the word or form for them first.

COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES The aim of a communicative activity in class is to get learners to use the language they are learning,to interact in realistic and meaningful was usually involving exchanges of information. The activities are designed to provoke spoken communication between students and between teacher and students.

INFORMATION GAP- exists when one person in an exchange knows something that other person doesn’t. in this example man A speaks to a woman B at a but stop>A: excuse me!B: yes?A:do you have a watch? B:yes..why?A: I wonder if you could tell me what the time is?B:certuinly…it’s three o’clock.A:thank you.B: don’t mention it.The men who starts the conversation may have many reasons for speaking. He may want to get into conversation with the woman because he thinks sle looks interesting,ask the question about the time may simply be a pretext for this. On the other hand he may genvinely want to know the time. In both cases there exists an information gap between what A and B know, and conversation between them helps to close that gap so that both speakers have the same information.

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TEACHING ENGLISH TO CHILDRENThere is a big difference between what children of five can do and what children of ten can do. Some children develop early some later. We have divided the children into two main groups: five to seven year olds,and the eight to ten year olds. Five to seven year olds are all at level one the beginner stage. The eight to ten year olds may also be beginners or they may have been learning the foreign language for some time.GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN FROM FIVE TO SEVEN YEAR OLDS-They can talk about what they are doing-they can tell you about what they have done -thy can plan activities-they can use logical reasoning-they can understand direct human interaction-they can argue for something and tell you why they think what they think-they know that the world is governed by rules -they understand situations move quickly than they understand the language used-they use language skills long before they are aware of them-their own understanding comes through hand ,eyes and ears.the physical word is dominant at all times.-they are very logical-they have a very short attention and concentration span-young children sometimes have difficulty in knowing what is fact and what is fiction.-they can be very reluctant to share. It’s often so that children are very self-centred up to the age of six and seven and they cannot see things form someone else’s point of view-the adult world and the child’s world are not the same. Children don’t always understand what adults are talking about-young children cannot decide for themselves what to learn-young children are enthusiastic and positive about learning.EIGHT TO TEN YEAR OLDS(GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS)Their basic concepts are formed. They have very decided views of the world.-they can tell the difference between fact and fiction -they ask question all the time-they rely on the spoken word as well as the physical word to convey and understand meaning-they are able to make some decisions about their own learning-they have definite views about what they like and don’t like doingThey have a developed sense of fairness about what happens in the classroom and begin to question the teacher’s decisions-they are able to work with others and learn from othersEight to ten years old have a language with all the basic elements in place. By the age of ten children are:-understand abstracts-understand symbols-generalise and systematize

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CLASS MANAGEMENT AND ATMOSPHEREFirst of all,we should respect our pupils and be realistic about what they can manage at an individual level,then our expectations will be realistic too. As a teacher we should treat all our pupils equally.HELPING THE CHILDREN TO FEEL SECURESecurity is not an attitude or an ability,but it is essential if we want our pupils to get the maximum of the language lessons. The things which will help to create a secure class atmosphere are:-pupils need to know what is happening-respect your pupils-whenever a pupil is trying to tell you something accept whatever he or she says-mistakes as well-pupils shouldn’t laugh at others mistakes and this had to be one of the rules of the class-establish routines-give the children the responsibility for doing practical jobs in the classroom-avoid /organized competition,because language learning is a situation where everyone can win-aivoid giving physical rewards or prizes-don’t give children English namesTHE PHYSICAL SURROUNDINGSYoung children respend well to surroundings which are pleasant and familiar. Teacher should put on the walls calendars,posters,postcards,etc. encourage the children to bring in objects or pictures or postacards and tell the rest of the class a little bit about them in English. Your classroom is probably used for other subject or other classes as well ,but try to have an English corner-you need shelves,a notice board,etc.ARRANGING THE DESKSYou may want to arrange the desks in different way for different lessons,but it’s much simpler if you decided on the most suitable arrangement for a lesson and stick to it. Moving desks during a lesson is a very noisy and time-consuming business.GROUPING THE CHILDREN1.PAIRWORK-is a very useful and efficient way of working in language teaching. It is simple to organize and easy to explain.-let pupils who are sitting near each other work together -establish a routine for pairwork ,so that when you say “now work in your pairs’ ,pupils know what is expected of them. The routine depends on how your classroom is arranged-pairwork means that everyone in the class is occupied but even if everyone in the class is working on the same thing, not all pairs will finish At the same time-be on the lookout for pupils who simply don’t like each other2.GROUPWORK -Children should not be allowed to choose their groups because this takes a lot of time and because it usually means that someone is left out. If your pupils sit in groups all the time, then it’s natural for them to work most of the time in these groups. Particulary ,with the 8-10 year olds you might want to put them in mixed ability groups some of time,but sometimes group them according to ability clever pupils can help not so clever ones if the group are mixed,but also sometimes you need to help clever pupils.

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1. start by having teaching groups-groups which you teach separately from rest of the class2. then you can go on to introducing self-reliant groups-groups which are given something to do on their own with the teacher only giving help when needed3. start with just one group. Tell them clearly what the purpose is4. go through this process with all the groups before you cet the whole class work in groups at the same time.

TOPIC-BASED WORKTopic-based teaching is not the only way to organize your teaching ,but it’s useful ,helpful,practical and exciting way to teach. The reasons are: -by concentrating on a particular topic-the content becomes more important than the language itself-the learning process is easier if associating words functions,structures and situations with a particular topic-the teacher may add personal or local touch to the material. Now you organize your material within a topic is very personal and is dependent on the particular class that you are teaching at that particular time-topic based teaching allows you to go into a subject and brings out reactions and feelings in the pupils which are not always covered in the textbooks-topic-based teaching allows you to rearrange your material to suit what is happening generally at the time of teaching-the amount of time that you spend on a topic can be as long or as short as you like ,depending on how much interest it has, how much time you have available and how much material you have-since the emphasis in topic-based work is on content the work in the classroom naturally includes all the language skills as well as quided and free activities.Choosing your topic-usually the teacher will decide which topic to work on,but if the pupils are interested in a particular subject,and you think they can do it in English ,then try to work it into your timetableCollecting material-once you have some idea of possible topics,you should start looking for material at once-all sorts of written and spoken texts,pictures,object,cards,ideas. When you find something ,make a note of it at once.We always think we’ll remember our brilliant ideas but we don’t unless we make a note of them. Similarly,once you’ve finished with a topic,make sure that all the materials you used go back into the relevant files and boxes even the material which didn’t work well. Next year you may have a different use form. The teacher will do most of the collecting and all the spelling but the pupils can often help to find pictures of objects in connection with a particular topic.

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PLANNING YOUR WORK (TEACHING)There is very little time available during a short lesson for you to actually think. So, if you and your pupils are going to get the maximum enjoyment and learning, then the lesson must be carefully planned. All good teachers plan, just as they are prepared to adapt their plans. Why good teachers plan their work?1. it makes life much easier for you in the classroom2.it saves time: -you can adapt the plan for future use-you get quicker at preparing work with experience-you become aware of how much time activities takes3. you know what you will need for each lesson 4.you can more easily see how to balance your lesson5. it allows you to use more of your energy and enthusiasm to enjoy what you’re doing instead of worrying about what to do next6.you can sometimes sit back and observe what’s going instead of planning the next activity in your head7. as pupils get older, they become more aware of how well-prepared the lesson are, and they like to have well-prepared lessons.WHEN,HOW AND WITH WHOM TO PLAN?We can divide planning into three stages: long, short term and lesson planning. Although long term planning is followed by short term planning which is followed by lesson planning ,the three types of planning are different. a) LONG TERM PLANING –long term planning will take place either before or at the beginning of term, and you can do it before you ever see your pupils. If you can discuss with other teachers, what they think about aims methods and assessment-talk to the parents about what you intend to cover if this is at all possible-if you are using a textbook, look through the list of contents and the teacher’s guide. If the book is topic –based you might decide to change the order-if you are not using a textbook, decide roughly what you want to cover this term and how long it will take you for each unit term-if you are working in a school where other subjects are taught, try to work with other subject teachers as well-if you are teaching in new surroundings, you should check where everything is and what there is at school.b) SHORT TERM PLANNING-once your long term planning is done, then the short term planning is much easier. A short term plan usually coverts from three to ten lessons. If you have another teacher doing the same work at the same level, you can work together at this stage, although many teachers prefer to plan alone-if you are using a textbook, then much of the work at this stage is done for you. Most textbook are written by experienced teachers and the lessons are carefully thought out. If you are new to teaching, then follow them as far as you can.-look at the texts which are in one unit in the nook, or which you have collected. Note down if there is anything that you have to make or the children have to make-decide what language items you are going to teach-make quite sure you know how the language items are used-assessment is part of teaching ,so write assessment into your plan at this stage

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-don’t let your short term planning get too detailed .it’s only a rough guide, but it should show clearly where you are going and what you hope to cover.c) LESSON PLANNING-lesson planning has to be done before every lesson. If you have done short term planning, then the lesson planning is easier – you know what’s gone before and what’s coming after-most new teachers start off by writing very detailed plans, which become less detailed with time-here are some points to remember when making your lesson plans:1) decide when and how to use group work2)link this lesson with the one before and think about the one after 3) the time of day is important. Don’t do long noisy exercises at four o’clock on Friday afternoon4)indicate how much time you think each activity will take5)always have more activities than you think you’ll need6) balance: quiet/noisy exercises; different skills: listening/talking/reading/writing ; individual/pairwork/groupwork/whole class activities; teacher-pupil/pupil-pupil activities

TESTINGIf your head teacher ask you to prepare a test for your class you can test:A) the student’s progress over the course so far(a progress test) orb) their general level of English, without reference to any course( a proficiency test)the aim of test is to see if students have learned the language they have been studying or have been exposed to. Most internal school tests tend to be progress tests, most external are usually proficiency tests. When preparing progress tests you can test anything that has been studied. It usually means the four language systems and the four language skills. Your students course has probably included not only reading and writing grammar and vocabulary, but also speaking, listening, phonology and function. There are broadly speaking two kinds of ways to write the questions: a) discrete item questions(items which only test one thing) , b) integrative questions( items which tests the student’s whole knowledge of the language). These can be marked in two ways: a) objectively ( there is a clear correct answer and marker would give the same marks to the same question), b) subjectively ( different markers might give different marks for the same question).A good test: a) will seem fair and appropriate to the students and to anyone who needs to know the results-head teachers, parents, etc.b) will not be too troublesome to markc)will provide clear results that serve the purpose for which it was set.When write test teacher should follow some rules:a) don’t test what you haven’t taughtb)don’t test general knowledgec) don’t introduce new techniques in testsd)don’t just test accuracye) don’t forget to test your test.

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TYPES OF TESTSA) multiple choice- choose a,b,c,d, or choose items as a part of a dialogue or sentenceB) fill the gaps-you may offer the words and notc) sentence re-ordering-put the words in right order to make a correct sentenced)making a story-put the sentences in right order to make a storye)transformations –test of the student’s knowledge of syntax and structure – students have to rewrite the sentences so that they have the same meaning but different grammatical structuref)sentence-writing-students are given a picture where they have to write what’s on it ,may be use some structures-there is/are..g)finding and correcting mistakes- students have to cross out the incorrect wordh)rewrite sentence in correct Englishi)two-option answers- true-false/correct-incorrectj)matching (pictures, words, sentence pieces..) –write the correct word under each picture, placing words in corrects sets, etc.k) using given words-put one word from the list below in each gap.

FEEDBACKLearning teaching is a desire to move forward to keep learning from whatever happens. It involves feedback from others and from ourselves about what happened. Learning teaching is a belief that creativity ,understanding, experience and character continue growing through out one’s life. Learning teaching is an aware an active use of the experimental learning cycle in one’s own life and work. Feedback from learners; feedback from others/colleaques; feedback from you.

LANGUAGE SYSTEMS AND LANGUAGE SKILLSLanguage systems:a)vocabulary(meaning of the individual word) lexisb)grammar (how words interact with each other) c) phonology (how word sounds)d)function ( how are words used in particular situation)language skills: speaking and writing (productive) ; reading and listening ( receptive).

SPEAKING ACTIVITY Speaking is perhaps the most demanding skill for the teacher to teach students to be able to express their emotions, communicative intentions and reactions, explore the language and make fun of it.It’s very important to practice speaking and when speaking is practiced it’s important to pay attention more on fluency than on accurate sentences.There are a lot of communicative activities where students can practice speaking. The aim of communicative activities is to have one’s students become communicatively competent. A basic procedure for a communicative activity might be:

a) Teacher introduces and sets up activity(teacher centre-student)b) Students do activity (teacher uninvolved)c) Teacher gets feedback (teacher center-stage again).When a teacher gives a topic for a conversation he should choose one which the students are interested in that they have relevant knowledge or experience about

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it, something they are familiar with. Teacher should give students some time to prepare for a speaking practice-not to write down speeches, but maybe a few notes, perhaps to look up vocabulary in their dictionaries and to think through their thoughts. FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATIONSome activities as speaking on classes are focused on fluency and some on accuracy. When the focus is on fluency, teacher should not interrupt the student often to correct him, he should not interfere in student’s speaking because It will bring less communication. DRAMA AND ROLEPLAYDrama is an excellent way to get students using language. It can be a very good start for exciting listening and speaking work and it can be used to provide practice in specific grammatical, lexical or phonological areas. Success or failure of drama activities depends on the perceived attitude of the teachers and of the students. Six types of drama activity classrooms:a) Roleplay- students act out small scenes using their own ideas and informationb) Simulation –the intention is to create a much complete, complex “word’c) Drama games –short games that usually involve movement and imaginationd) Guided improvisation-a scene is improvisede) Acting play scripts f) Prepared improvised drama-students in small groups invent a short scene or

story that they perform for the others.

WRITING ACTIVITYIn many classrooms writing activities are maybe less often than the other three skills. In spite of these there are a lot of reasons why writing is important and useful to practice.

a) Many students have specific needs that require them to work on writing skills: examination preparation is area where written work is still very important.

b) Writing involves a different kind of mental process. There is more time to think, to prepare, find better solutions.

c) It can give the teacher a break.ACTIVITIESImportant activities about writing activity are:

a) Picture stories-can be a starting point for writing exercises, but also very useful for practicing speaking and listening. The students are given a picture and they have to make a story out of it.

b) Writing notes-individual work. Each student writes a note and hand it to another. Notes run through the classroom and each student has to answer or write something back to the one that wrote him.

c) Coping-insisting on accuracy.d) Doing exercises-preparing students for a writing activity e) Guided writingf) Free writing-more attention is paid on fluency.

Some ways in which guided writing exercises can help students prepare for a writing task are:

a) Students think about the topic before they write

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b) Students brainstorm ideas and approachesc) Students discuss the topic with other students d) Students do some preliminary writing exercises-making notes, answering

questions, etc.There are some options available to teacher in correcting writing:

a) Use a green or a blue pen! (not red)b) Discuss the marking criteria with studentsc) Write the corrections in the margind) Underline all errors of one typee) Discuss the work with the individual studentsf) Use errors from a number of different students writing to devise an exercise,

game, etc.g) Student mark each other’s workh) Give a dictation based on sentences from their way.

Ideas for writing tasks are:a) Write real letters-to members of Parlament, to prisoners, to fan club, etc. Send

them. Get replies . Write back.b) Publish your own newspaper, magazine, etc.c) Advertised) Instant poetry you could do this as a simple dictatione) Long-term projectsf) Computer word-processingg) Students prepare the teacher’s material, etc.

READING ACTIVITYReading is like a listening a receptive skill and similar teaching procedures can be used to help learners. People read at different speeds and in different ways. There are two basic approaches to reading:1) EXENSIVE READING-where the aim is to gain an overall understanding of a text

or story where is less important to understand every word individualy, but to caught up a general flow of the story.

2) INTENSIVE READING(accurate read) –where we have to understand information or language use in detail. Intensive read is often used in short sentences or sections. This is how we might read a paragraph on philosophy or a grammar explanation for example.

In order to make students better readerswe must help them understand that it’s the most important to read fluently and accurately and not to understand every word they read, or even most words they read, but still achieving a specific and useful goal. There are many activities used to increase reading speed but the most important are: a) Read quickly and get the gist of a passage(gist-the main theme of a text)b) Read quickly and find a specific piece of information.

The first idea is also known as siziming. Siziming is mainly concerned with finding topics, main ideas ,basics structure, etc. the students are supposed to find answers quickly without reading every word or phrase of the passage. The

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second idea is known as scanning. Students are supposed to find a specific piece of information. They move they eyes quickly over the page searching for words . Some ideas for reading tasks are:a) Put these illustration of the text in the correct orderb) Put these cut-up paragraphs back in the correct orderc) Find words in the text that mean the same as the words in this listd) Read the text and find the mistakes in this illustratione) Read the text and make a list of particular itemsf) Give a headline to each section of the articleg) Write a replyh) Look at the title and the illustrationsi) Solve the problemj) Discuss or write the missing last paragraph of the textk) Make notes under the following headingsl) Before you read the text make notes about what you already know about

the subjectm) Put this list of events in the correct order.

LISTENING ACTIVITYWe can use listening work in the classroom as way to help focus on language systems( grammar or vocabulary). Teacher need to show students that they shouldn’t worry so much if they don’t understand everything , but work on catching the bits they do need to hear. Student wants to improve his listening. When doing a listening activity,teacher should allow some rules:1) The activity must really demand listening, otherwise it easily turn on

for example writing and reading activity2) The aim mustn’t be simply a memory test3) Tasks should be realistic or useful in some way4) The activity must actively help them to improve their listening5) It shouldn’t be threatening6) Help students to overcome difficulties and achieve specific results.

If we give students questions before the tape is listened we help them in that way that we give them opportunity to listen what matters we give them a clear aim. If we do that ,we turn our activity from a memory test into a listening task. This ‘question first’ technique is known as ‘task before tape’.

TASK-BASED LISTENING: some techniquesSome listening tasks are obviously more difficult than others. An important point is that the students getting the right answer is not necessarily the most important thing. A student who finds all the correct answers on first hearing and with no difficulty has simply not been challenged but the tape. It means that the task is too easy for them. If we want to help students listen better, we may use some techniques:- Teacher should play tape a sufficient number of times- Let students discuss their answers together ,in pairs

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- Let them all do the task, not just one or a few best students- Play little bits of the tape, a word, phrase or sentence as long as it becomes clear- Task should be difficult but achievable- Teacher shouldn’t cheat students by changing requirement in halfway.‘grade the task-not the tape’ means don’t worry too much about what student level the recording is suitable for-but to make sure your task is set for the right level. It is possible to use any tape with any level. At beginner level teacher could ask students to watch the names of every famous person they heard. But at much higher level teacher could expect from students to be able to understand most of the tape and do a more complicate tasks.Extensive listening is listening where students should understand the whole text and gain an overall impression.Intensive listening is listening where students are supposed to understand a particular word, or phrase, or sentence.

Principles of learning and teaching vocabulary However many theories about vocabulary learning process were written , it still remains the matter of memory. Thus, there are several general principles for successful teaching , which are valid for any method. According to Wallace, 1988 the principles are: - aim – what is to be taught, which words, how many - need – target vocabulary should respond students’ real needs and interests - frequent exposure and repetition - meaningful presentation – clear and unambiguous denotation or reference should be assured Learning vocabulary is a complex process. The students’ aim to be reached in learning vocabulary process is primarily their ability to recall the word at will and to recognize it in its spoken and written form. Generally, knowing a word involves knowing its form and its meaning at the basic level. In deeper aspects it means the abilities to know its (Harmer 1993): 1) Meaning, i.e. relate the word to an appropriate object or context 2) Usage, i.e. knowledge of its collocations, metaphors and idioms, as well as style and register (the appropriate level of formality), to be aware of any connotations and associations the word might have 3) Word formation, i.e. ability to spell and pronounce the word correctly, to know any derivations (acceptable prefixes and suffixes), 4) Grammar, i.e. to use it in the appropriate grammatical form

LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES AND APPROACHESLANGUAGE LEARNING BASED ON PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIESBEHAVIOURISM AND COGNITIVISMNo one knows exactly how people learn languages, although a great deal of research has been done into the subject. The idea of conditioning is based on the theory that you can train an animal to do anything. To do this you need to follow a three stage procedure, where the stages are: stimulus, response and reinforcement. For example, a signal light is operated (the stimulus),the rat goes up to a bar and presses it (the

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response) and a tasty food pellet drops at its feet( the reinforcement). If the rat’s behavior is reinforced a sufficient number of times it will always press to bar when the light comes on. Reinforcement in this example took the form of a reward and therefore was positive. In a book ‘Verbal Behaviour’ ,the psychologist Skinner applied this theory of conditioning to the way humans acquire their first language. He said that ‘language is a form of behaviour’. Because we are concerned with a form of behavior, this theory is called behaviourism. The same model of stimulus-response- reinforcement accounts for how a human baby learns a language. An stimulus such as hunger prompts crying as a response, and this crying is reinforced by the milk that is made available to the baby. Behaviourism was adapted for some time by language teaching methodologists, particulary in America and the result was the ‘audio-lingual method’, still used in many parts of the world. This method made constant drilling of the students, followed by positive or negative reinforcement a major focus of classroom activity. The language habit was formed by constant repetition and the reinforcement of the teacher. Congitivism is a theory that was represented by psychologist Chomsky. He published a strong attack on Skinner’s ‘ Verbal Behaviour’. He asked himself if language is learnt behavior, how is it that young child can say things, that they have never said before? Language is not a form of behavior, Chomsky maintained. On the contrary, it is an rule-based system and a large part of language acquisition is the learning of the system. It is competence that a child graduate acquires, and it is this language competence that allow children to be creative as language users. The idea that language is not a set of habit has informed many teaching techniques and methodology students are often encouraged to use rules to create sentences on their own.

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