motivation and emotion. psychology: an introduction charles a. morris & albert a. maisto © 2005...

Motivation and Emotion

Psychology: An IntroductionCharles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto

© 2005 Prentice Hall

Did You Know That? The founding father of American psychology believed that there is a

human instinct for cleanliness. According to a leading psychological theory, if you had to wait in line

for hours to purchase tickets for a concert, you would probably rate the event as more enjoyable that you would if the tickets had been easy to come by.

A researcher once swallowed a balloon to test the theory that stomach contractions signal hunger.

The adult weight of people who were adopted as babies is closer to the weight of their biological parents that to the weight of the parents who raise them.

Obese people typically have more fat cells than people of normal weight have.

There is no emotion center in the brain Responding without thinking can be a lifesaver in some situations.

?Questions?

Why does Lucho play football so intensely?

Why do people try to climb Mount Everest or cross the Atlantic in a balloon?

Why are some people obsessed with fantasy football or baseball…while others cannot tell you the difference between the Panthers and the Braves?

Why do fools fall in love?



Motivation and Emotion

MotiveSpecific need or desire, such as hunger,

thirst, or achievement,The urge to move towards one’s goals, to

accomplish tasksEmotion

Feeling, such as fear, joy, or surprise, that underlies behavior

MotivationMotivation: An internal state that activates

behavior and directs it towards a goal.Meaning:In other words, motivation includes various

psychological factors that cause you to act a certain way at a certain time.

The words anger, fear, pain, starving, etc…can all trigger certain motivations within your body.

So how do psychologists attempt to explain these things?



Instincts

Inborn, goal-directed behavior that is characteristic of an entire species

Human behavior is not easily explained by instincts becauseMost important human behavior is learnedHuman behavior is rarely inflexible

Instinct Theory

In the 1900’s, William McDougall (1908) proposed that humans were driven by a variety of instincts.

Instincts: Are natural or inherited tendencies of an organism to make a specific response to certain environmental stimuli without involving reason.

For example, salmon have an instinctive urge to swim thousands of miles through ocean waters and up rivers until they reach the exact gravel spot where they were spawned years earlier. They then lay their eggs and die.

Instinct Theory

Psychologist William James proposed that humans have instincts such as cleanliness, curiosity, parental love, sociability, and sympathy.

Eventually, psychologists realized a flaw in the Instinct Theory.Instincts do not explain behavior; they simply

label behavior.

Drive-Reduction Theory

Something that motivates us moves us to an action.

The thing that motivates us starts with a need that leads to a drive.

Need: Biological or psychological requirement of an organism.

A need results from a lack of something that is desirable or useful.

We have both physiological and psychological needs.

Drive-Reduction Theory

Every need produces a drive.

Drive: A state of tension produced by a need that motivates an organism towards a goal.

We all have different drives with different goals!

For example, hunger drives us to eat and fatigue drives us to rest.

Drive – Reduction Theory

Drive-Reduction Theory: When an organism is deprived of something it needs or wants (such as food or water), it becomes tense and agitated. To relieve this tension, it engages in more or less random activity. So, biological needs “drive” an organism to act, and the organism strives to maintain homeostasis.

Homeostasis: The tendency of all organisms to correct imbalances and deviations from their normal state.

The Incentive Theory

The drive-reduction theory of motivation emphasizes the internal states of the organism; however, the incentive theory stresses the role of the environment in motivating behavior.

While a drive is something inside of us that causes us to act, our actions are directed towards a goal, or an incentive.

Incentive: An external stimulus, reinforcer, or reward, that motivates behavior.

The Incentive Theory

While drives push us to reduce needs, incentives pull us to obtain them.

For example, hunger may cause us to walk into a cafeteria, but the incentive for our action is the sandwich we hope to eat.

What is another example of the Incentive Theory?

Cognitive TheoryCognitive Psychologists seek to explain

motivation by looking at forces inside and outside of us that energize us to move.

They propose that we act in particular ways at particular times as a result of extrinsic and intrinsic motivations.

Extrinsic Motivation: Engaging in activities that either reduce biological needs or help us obtain external incentives.

Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in activities because they are personally rewarding or because they fulfill our beliefs and expectations.



Incentives

External stimuli that prompt goal-directed behavior

We are often unaware of the incentiveExamples

Aroma of food may cause us to eat even when not hungry

Advertisements can lead us to buy a product



Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivationMotivation for a behavior is the behavior itselfChildren playing is an example

Extrinsic motivationBehavior is performed in order to obtain a

reward or to avoid punishmentA bonus program is an example

Cognitive Theory Example

Example: If you spend hours and hours playing basketball because you wish to excel at the sport, you are following intrinsic motivation!

Example: If you hours playing basketball because your parents want you to excel at basketball, you are following extrinsic motivation.

Biological Motives

Hunger – What motivates you to seek food? Often you eat because of the sight and smell of, say, pizza makes you want to go to a restaurant.

At other times you eat because of habit. For example, if you always eat at 8pm, you become hungry every day around 8pm.

Water, Air, etc.



Hunger



Biological Factors

Hunger appears to be regulated by regions in the hypothalamusLateral hypothalamus acts as a feeding

center, triggering the onset of eatingVentromedial hypothalamus acts as a satiety

center, stopping eating behaviorParaventricular nucleus influences the drive to

eat specific foods In addition, areas in cortex and spinal cord

also play a role



Biological Factors

Changes in blood glucose level, fats, carbohydrates, and insulin signal need for food

Leptin, a hormone released by fat cells, can signal satiety

Receptors in the stomach and a hormone released by small intestine also signal brain about satiety



Cultural and Environmental Factors

Responses to food are governed by learning and social conditioningFor example, time of day can trigger the body

to become hungryCulture also influences what we choose to

eat and how much we consume



Eating Disorders

Anorexia nervosa Intense fear of weight gain Distorted body image Refusal to maintain minimal normal body weight Absence of at least three consecutive menstrual

cycles (for women)

About 1% of adolescents afflicted Approximately 90% of those are white upper-

and middle-class females



Eating Disorders Bulimia nervosa

Recurrent episodes of binge eating Recurrent behaviors to prevent weight gain, such as

self-induced vomiting Behaviors must occur at least twice a week for three

months Body shape and weight overly influence self-image Symptoms occur independent of anorexia

About 1-2% of female adolescents afflicted Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are the

most common eating disorders in more affluent nations



Obesity

Considered by U.S. Surgeon General to be the most pressing health problem today

Obesity can lead to increased risk forHypertensionCardiovascular diseaseDiabetesSleep apnea

Tendency may be inherited



Thirst



Thirst

Both internal and external cues can trigger the thirst driveInternal cues include level of fluids inside

body cells and amount of fluids outside body cells

External cues can include advertisements and weather conditions

Social Motives

Measuring need based solely on achievement.

I need the approval of certain people or groups.

Fear of FailureFear of Success

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

According to Abraham Maslow, there are 3 basic types of needs:

Fundamental Needs: Biological drives that must be satisfied to maintain life.

Psychological needs: The urge to belong and give and receive love, and the urge to acquire esteem.

Self-Actualization Needs: The pursuit of knowledge and beauty or whatever is required for the realization of one’s unique potential.



Emotions



Basic Emotions

Fear Surprise Sadness Disgust

Anger Anticipation Joy Acceptance

Plutchik proposed that there are eight basic emotions



Plutchik’s Basic Emotions



Basic Emotions

Some have criticized Plutchik’s model as applying only to English-speakers

Revised model of basic emotions includes:HappinessSurpriseSadnessFearDisgustAnger



Theories of Emotion

James-Lange theoryEnvironmental stimuli bring on physiological

changes that we interpret as emotionsCannon-Bard theory

Environmental stimuli elicit emotions and bodily responses simultaneously

Cognitive theoryEnvironment gives us clues that help us

interpret physiological reaction



Theories of Emotion



Nonverbal Communication of Emotion

Voice qualityFacial expressionBody language

Posture and the way we move communicates information

Personal spaceExplicit acts

For example, slamming doors

EmotionsWhat drives Michael Jordan to perfect his

basketball game? How did he feel when he hit all of those winning shots? Was he tired, thirsty, excited, nervous, or happy?

It is very difficult to draw a clear line between motives and Emotions.

So what are the differences?Well, let’s take a look shall we.

Emotion

Emotion: A set of complex reactions to stimuli involving subjective feelings, physiological arousal, and observable behavior.

See Page 329 in your text for a chart of the full range of emotions.

James – Lange TheoryBoth William James and Carl Lange came

to the conclusion at about the same time that “we use the word emotion to describe our visceral, or gut, reactions to the things that take place around us.

Because they came up with this theory at the same time, it was named the James-Lange Theory.

The Cannon – Bard TheoryThe Cannon – Bard Theory: According to this

theory, certain experiences activate the thalamus, and the thalamus sends messages to the cortex and to the other body organs.

The theory states that the brain sends two reactions – arousal and the experience of emotion. Yet, one does not cause the other.

So, when we use the word emotion, we are referring to the simultaneous burst of activity in the brain and gut reactions.

More about the various Theories

See Text Page 335 for more info!



Arousal Theory

People are motivated to seek an optimal level of arousal for a given moment

Yerkes-Dodson lawStates that there is an optimal level or arousal

for best performance on any taskThe more complex the task, the lower the

level of arousal that can be tolerated without interfering with performance



Yerkes-Dodson Law



Sexual Motivation



Biological Factors

TestosteroneImportant in both men and women in early

developmentNot very important for regulating sexual

activity in humansPheromones

Scents secreted which can promote sexual readiness, particularly in animals



Cultural and Environmental Factors

Human sexual motivation is much more dependent on experience and learning than on biologyMen are very responsive to visual stimuliWomen respond better to touch

Culture can influence what is sexually attractive



Human Sexual Response Cycle

Excitement Plateau

Orgasm Resolution



Sexual Orientation

Refers to the direction of an individual’s sexual interest Heterosexual

Sexual attraction to other gender

Homosexual Sexual attraction to same gender

Bisexual Sexual attraction to both genders

Examination of causes of differing orientations is a nature-nurture debate



Other Motives

Exploration and curiosityManipulation and contactAggression

Intent is a key element of aggressionAggressive behavior may be innate, although

learning clearly plays a roleAggression and cultureGender and aggression

Males are more physically aggressive



Other Motives

Achievement Motivation to excel at a taskDesire is for achievement for its own sake

AffiliationMotivation to be with others



Gender, Culture and Emotion



Gender and Emotion

Men and women feel emotions equally, but express them differently

Men and women may experience different emotions in the same situation

AngerMen tend to direct their anger outwardWomen tend to direct their anger inward

Women are more skilled at understanding nonverbal components of emotion



Culture and Emotion

Expression of emotion can be influenced by cultural norms

Some emotional displays are universalDisplay rules

Culture-specific rules that govern how, when, and why expressions of emotion are appropriate

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