mountains of the world - cbd resources for sustainable development. they have formulated policies...

Mountains of the WorldSustainable Development

in Mountain Areas

The Need for Adequate Policies and Instruments

Mountain Agenda

cde

Prepared for

The World Summit on SustainableDevelopment 2002

in Johannesburg

Published by Mountain Agenda Mountain Agenda is an informal group of people with professional interests in sustainablemountain development, drawn from the academic and development cooperation communities.The group was created prior to the Rio Earth Summit (UN Conference on Environment andDevelopment, 1992) to enhance the position of mountains on the global environmental agenda.

Contact Address:Mountain AgendaCentre for Development and Environment (CDE), Institute of Geography, University of BerneSteigerhubelstrasse 3, CH-3008 Berne, Switzerland

Fax: +41 31 631 85 44e-mail: [email protected]

© Mountain Agenda 2002Printed by Buri Druck AG, Berne, Switzerlandon environmentally friendly paper

ISBN 3-906151-63-8

Prepared by Mountain Agenda in close cooperation with

SDC Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation

CDE Centre for Development and Environment, University of Berne

Funded by

SDC Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation

Sustainable Development in Mountain AreasThe Need for Adequate Policiesand Instruments

Foreword 3

Why policies and instruments for mountain development? 4

Key issues, principles and strategies ● Recognition of mountains as important and specific areas of development 6● Compensation for services rendered to surrounding areas 8● Diversification and the benefit of complementarities 10● Taking full advantage of the local potential for innovation 12● Cultural change without loss of identity 14● Conservation of mountain ecosystems and early warning function 16● Institutionalising sustainable development of mountain areas 18

National and regional experience● Costa Rica: Compensation for environmental services from mountain forests 20● Bolivia: Decentralisation and strengthening local institutions: two complementary strategies 22● Bolivia and Peru: Commercial cooperation programmes to make mountain economies fit

for export markets 24● Europe: The Alpine Convention: an international mountain policy framework 26● Europe: “Alliance in the Alps”: filling a policy framework with the spirit of innovation 30● Switzerland: A compensation fund to support development in mountain areas 32● Tajikistan: Generating knowledge for development in the Pamir mountains 34● Kyrgyzstan: Rural development through investments in community-based tourism 36● Vietnam: New challenges for sectoral policy making and planning in an economy in transition 38● Japan: The Mountain Village Development Act and its impacts on sector policies 40● Morocco: Elaborating a policy framework for conservation and mountain development 42● Lesotho: Water policy and management: trade-offs between mountains and downstream areas 44● United States: How the people of the Warm Springs Indian Reservation defined their own policy 46● Canada: Integrated Resource Management (IRM) as a policy for public lands management 48

A call for multi-level policy initiatives and partnerships 50

World map: The countries of the world and their mountain areas 28–29

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Foreword

In 1992, with the adoption of Chapter 13 aspart of Agenda 21 at the Earth Summit in Riode Janeiro, a global framework and a plat-form for sustainable development in moun-tain regions were created. In the ten yearssince, much related work has been done,mainly in the areas of public awareness, advo-cacy, policy, networking and implementation,with some impressive results.

The year 2002, with Rio + 10 and theInternational Year of Mountains (IYM2002),now presents us with a dual challenge withregard to sustainable development and thecause of mountain regions – at different lev-els:

Let us focus first on the sectoral level. Ineach of the last five years we have prepared apublication addressing one of the main topicson the meeting agenda of the Commission onSustainable Development (CSD). These the-matic brochures have focused on linksbetween the sectoral topics on the CSD agen-da and the main features of sustainable devel-opment in mountain regions. In other words,we designed these brochures – which dealtwith water, tourism, forestry, transport andenergy – to relate these sectoral topics andstrategies to mountain regions.

Over the course of these years, we realisedthat not only the sectoral level but also thenational level has a crucial role to play. Eachcountry needs to define its own frameworkfor sustainable mountain development – andrelated policies, laws and instruments – basedon its understanding of mountain regionsand their role in national development.

Our own history has taught us that sustain-able development in mountain regions is alengthy political, social and economic processthat extends over decades and moves forwardstep-by-step – sometimes two steps forwardand one step back. This process has allowedall segments and groups in the population achance to engage in debate and discussion, aswell as in decision-making procedures. Overtime, this process creates the elements andinstruments of a framework that permitsimplementation of sustainable developmentin mountain regions, as well as improvementsin the standard of living of mountain popula-tions.

Hence the present publication focuses onthe framework and instruments needed forsustainable mountain development at the

national level. It follows the pattern estab-lished in previous thematic brochures. Firstan overview of the topic and its main aspectsis presented. This is followed by case studiesthat illustrate specific instruments and poli-cies in many different countries of the world.The brochure concludes with a presentationof concrete recommendations, issues andconclusions relevant to all of us who are readyto commit ourselves to advancing the cause ofsustainable development in mountainregions.

Finally, let us return to the global level. Atthis level we intend to meet regularly infuture in order to make common efforts topromote sustainable development andimprovement of livelihoods in mountainregions. Hence we intend to create a basis fordifferent types of partnerships in order toexchange experience, undertake joint efforts,and make common commitments. This is theaim of the “International Partnership forSustainable Development in MountainRegions” that was agreed upon at thepreparatory meeting in Bali and is to belaunched at the World Summit onSustainable Development in Johannesburg.This partnership will be further debated anddiscussed, and given operational and con-crete shape, at the Bishkek Global MountainSummit.

Dear readers: let us seize the opportunity athand and accept the dual challenge of 2002.Let us foster the conditions for sustainablemountain development at the national leveland commit ourselves to the InternationalPartnership for Sustainable Development inMountain Regions at the global level. Thus we will be acting locally and networking glob-ally. And finally, let us remember that friend-ships and partnerships inspire people andtherefore promote the cause of development.

Walter Fust

Director General, Swiss Agency for Development andCooperation

Foreword

Frontispiece:Kyrgyz ornament symbolis-ing the eternal movementof the earth and the har-mony and richness ofnature and life. (CourtesyH. Meessen/CAMP)

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Why policies and instrumentsfor mountain development?Mountains cover a significant portion of the land area of many countriesin the world, and their resources are playing an increasingly crucial role insustainable development. But the specific challenges of development inmountains are rarely reflected in national policies. Only a few countrieshave adopted coherent policies that address these challenges from amountain perspective. The present publication advances the idea of policyinitiatives for sustainable development of mountain areas and providesvisions and principles that could help elaborate such initiatives. It presentscase studies from mountain areas around the world that illustrate promis-ing examples of mountain development.

Mountains play a key role in sustainabledevelopment, and their importance willincrease in future. As water towers of theworld, mountains will play a crucial role inproviding fresh water for a growing numberof people, for industrial development, andfor agriculture and irrigation in mountainsand downstream areas. Food security, povertyalleviation, and, ultimately, political stabilitywill thus be critically linked to mountainresources, and hence to the development tak-ing place in mountain areas. Mountains willalso continue to play an important role ashotspots of biodiversity. Increasing urbanisa-tion within mountains will put additionalstress on scarce resources such as water.

At the same time, mountains are charac-terised by specific development challenges.

Typically, these include difficult access, eco-nomic and political marginality, outmigra-tion, environmental sensitivity, diversity oflivelihoods, and cultural diversity. These chal-lenges need to be addressed by specific poli-cies, laws, and institutional arrangements atthe international, national, and local levels.

From Rio to Johannesburg

At the global level, the adoption of Chapter13 of Agenda 21 (Rio 1992) was a milestonein achieving recognition of the specific chal-lenges of sustainable development in moun-tain areas. Chapter 13 also recognised thatmountain areas experience rapid socio-eco-nomic and cultural transformation coupledwith environmental degradation, and thatspecial efforts would be needed to addressthese problems.

A significant number of countries haverealised the importance of mountain

Sustainable Development in Mountain Areas

What do China, Eritrea, and Costa Rica have in common with the UnitedStates, Austria, Afghanistan,Russia, and New Zealand?In these countries, as in 91 other coun-tries of the world, mountains cover a sig-nificant portion of the land area – over25%. In the remaining 101 countries ofthe world, mountains cover less than 25%of the land area, but often play an impor-tant role based on resources such as water,minerals, or forests (see map on pages28–29).

More than 75% of the ter-ritory of Kyrgyzstan is clas-sified as mountainous (seetable on page 29).(U. Lutz)

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resources for sustainable development. Theyhave formulated policies and laws in specificsectors such as watershed management,forestry, tourism, energy, transport and infra-structure development.

However, most of these policies were elabo-rated from a downstream perspective. Theyperceive mountains as “hinterlands” that sup-ply specific resources needed by the nationaleconomy and society. Typically, they disregardmountain livelihoods and local developmentagendas and fail to consider the specific chal-lenges of mountain development. What isneeded, therefore, are policy initiatives andinstruments for mountain development, that– recognise mountain areas as equal partners

in development,– consider the specific challenges of develop-

ment in mountain areas, and – ensure that sectoral policies are adapted to

take account of this specificity.

A key role for national policies and international partnerships

In the contemporary world, authority forthe formulation of policies and laws restslargely with individual countries. Therefore,policies and instruments concerned with thedevelopment of mountain areas must be elab-orated and translated into action primarily atthe national level. Such policies and instru-ments will provide orientation and coherencefor laws and regulations, and for programmesat the local level. National policies can beeffectively supported by international part-nerships for mountain development.

The purpose of the present publication

In its opening section, this publication pres-ents ideas and principles that could help elab-

orate national policies, initiatives, and instru-ments (pages 6–19).

Next, regional case studies (pages 20–49)from mountain areas around the world pre-sent concrete examples of the many differentways these principles have been incorporatedinto policies and policy frameworks.

The final section (pages 50–54) provides anoutline of how policies and instruments formountain development could be initiatedand institutionalised, and suggests where link-ages are possible with international partner-ships.

A map showing the main mountain areas ofthe world by country can be found on pages28–29.

Why policies and instruments for mountain development?

2002 – a year of opportunityfor the promotion of mountain development The year 2002, celebrating both theInternational Year of Mountains(IYM2002) and the World Summit onSustainable Development (WSSD2002) inJohannesburg, presents a unique opportu-nity for policy initiatives to support moun-tain development.

Some key termsThe following terms are used in thispublication in reference to mountainareas and development at different spatiallevels:

Global refers to the whole world

Regional refers to several countries

National refers to one country

Sub- refers to parts of a country, national such as a province, district,

or national watershed

Local refers to specific localities,valleys, or other sub-nationalareas

Remote valleys that are difficult to access:North West FrontierProvince, Pakistan.(P. Walther)

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Key issues, principles and strategiesRecognition of mountains as important and specific areas of developmentDevelopment of mountain areas is often shaped by decisions taken inpolitical and economic centres in lowland areas. The interests behindthese decisions are short-term rather than long-term, and extraction ofresources takes precedence over the sustainable development of moun-tain areas. To end political and economic marginalisation, mountain areasneed to be recognised as equal partners in development. Strategies toachieve this goal include decentralisation, local institution building, recog-nition of local rights to natural resources, and establishment of platformsand collaborative networks to give mountain populations a “voice”.

Externally driven development

Mountains have specific environments andeconomies. These constitute specific develop-ment contexts, a reality that is often not wellunderstood – or not taken into account – by

policy- and decision-making institutions thatare mainly located in urbanised and denselypopulated lowland areas.

Hence, many mountain areas share a longhistory of political marginalisation. They haveonly limited access to policy and decisionmaking beyond the local or the sub-nationallevel and their development is externally driv-en. It is difficult to define an agenda for devel-opment that genuinely takes into accounttheir specific needs.

Partners with equal rights

In order to enhance their position on thepolitical agenda, mountain areas mustbecome partners with equal rights. This canbe achieved if they are given the power toadvocate their interests, especially vis-à-vispolitical and economic centres. This requireslong-term political commitment, at thenational policy level, to concepts such as par-ticipation in policy making, federalism,


Defining mountain areas in EuropeMany European countries define moun-tain areas according to constraints onagriculture. Altitude, length of growingseasons and slope are typical criteria. Theminimum altitude increases from north tosouth. While it is 240 m in the UK, it risesto 600 m in mainland France and 700 min Italy.

Community-based property rights“A key component (of mountain develop-ment) will entail the legal recognition ofcommunity-based property rights and thedevolution of management authority tomountain communities, with governmentmaintaining monitoring and regionalcoordination powers.”

From: Mountain Laws and Peoples, 1999

In Scotland, an altitude of240 m above sea level issufficient to classify anarea as mountainous.(T. Kohler)

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decentralisation, local institution building, orsubsidiarity.

This is not a radical plea for political auton-omy of mountain areas. Mountain communi-ties depend on surrounding areas for theexchange of goods and services, and are wellaware of this.

Recognition, policies, and laws

Development in mountain and lowlandareas has to follow different paths because theconditions for resource management andproduction are different. Countries that dif-ferentiate between mountain and other areasat the national level, and apply this differenti-ation to the relevant sector policies, havemade a significant step towards acknowledg-ing the specificity of mountain areas and thuspromoting their sustainable development.

Depending on the purpose of the differentia-tion between highland and lowland areas, itcan be made according to altitude, water-sheds, or political units.

It is particularly important to acknowledgelocal rights of access to, and use of naturalresources. As the example of Suriago del Surshows (see box), recognition of such rightscan be the expression of a policy aiming toacknowledge the specificity of developmentin mountain areas.

Alliances for consensus building

Mountain areas harbour very diverse soci-eties, due to differences that reach far back inhistory. It is therefore often difficult formountain communities to reach a consensus,although this is currently in the interest ofboth the individual communities and nation-al policy makers: in today’s world, mountainareas need to advocate their interests in aconcerted manner, as “one voice”. It is there-fore important to promote formal and infor-mal networks and platforms through whichmountain communities can exchange infor-mation, establish the terms of collaboration,build consensus and express their specificdevelopment interests.

Key issues, principles and strategies

Checklist for national policymakers:– Do mountain areas have a lobby in

national policy and decision making?

– Is decentralisation an issue in yourcountry? Has it progressed in the last 10 years?

– How are mountain areas defined inyour country? Do any official mapsdemarcate mountain areas? Are tradi-tional rights to natural resources considered in policies and laws?

– Do mountain regions have a voice inpolicy and decision making, for exam-ple through interest groups?

Recognition of traditional rights in Suriago del Sur, PhilippinesIn traditional economies, access to ances-tral land is the basis for hunting, collect-ing, and processing forest products. Someof these activities also have a spiritualvalue, as they are a form of communica-tion with the spirits of the ancestors. InSuriago del Sur, an international NGOsupported local partners in establishing aplatform for negotiation with the centralgovernment. In 1997, the Government ofthe Philippines delivered a deed to theindigenous communities to guaranteethese rights.

Members of an ethnicminority community inSuriago del Sur, Philippines.(Helvetas)

Small towns such as thisone in Peru are often over-looked by developmentprogrammes. However,they can play an importantrole in mountain devel-opment. On the otherhand, their prosperity alsodepends on developmentin the surrounding moun-tain areas. (P. Walther)

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Compensation for services rendered to surrounding areasMountains possess unique natural resources such as fresh water, forests,minerals, and attractive landscapes for tourism. Often, these resources aredeveloped and exploited with external intervention and investment, andprofits are rarely re-invested in mountain areas. Hence, they continue tosuffer from a lack of capital, widespread poverty, degradation of naturalresources, and outmigration. Adequate compensation for the use of theseresources should be granted to mountain areas as part of a comprehen-sive arrangement between highland and lowland systems.

Extraction of natural resources

The ways in which mountain resources areextracted often have historical roots.Mountain areas have always been the “hinter-lands” of urban centres. Their resources havebeen the wealth on which the developmentand industrialisation of a country was built;these resources have been taken for grantedby “heartland” societies.

Today, such extraction is an increasinglyserious threat to the sustainability of develop-

ment in mountain areas. In many parts of theworld, property rights to natural resourceshave never been granted to local people.Often, land speculation has led to the sale ofthe most valuable properties to outside inter-ests.

Globalisation increases pressure

Globalisation and current neo-liberalisttrends may accelerate the extraction ofmountain resources. International powerengineering, water, and mining companiesare building alliances with the betterinformed leaders of traditionally-organisedmountain societies. At the end, only a fewprofit from the resulting investments, particu-larly if these do not lead to permanent, well-paid, and safe local jobs.

Mountain areas are doubly disadvantaged:mountain resources are rarely processed inthese areas, which also have to buy the


Checklist for national policymakers:– Are financial flows between mountains

and lowlands analysed? Do sectoral poli-cies recognise, and prevent, the negativeimpacts of resource extraction in moun-tains?

– What are the trade-offs of globalisationand liberalisation in mountain areas?

– Are the rights of mountain communitiesto local resources ensured in nationalpolicies and laws? Can these rights bedefended in court?

– Is compensation for the use of moun-tain resources on the political agenda inyour country? Are there any examples ofcompensation mechanisms?

Century-old commitments In British Columbia, Canada, the provin-cial government leased forest lands to log-ging companies as early as 1900. Nativecommunities’ property rights were not onthe political agenda at that time. Attemptsto “right such wrongs” can lead to highcosts and complex legal cases for govern-ments.

The development of the city of Los Angelesdepends heavily on moun-tain water resources thathave to be transportedover very great distances.(P. Walther)

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processed goods back from the lowland areas,mostly at a higher cost than people in urbancentres.

Clarifying rights and obligations

The first step, politically sensitive and mostdisputed, is to define the rights and obliga-tions of mountain communities with regardto local natural resources. Rights to land,forests, fresh water and, in some cases, miner-als have to be defined in keeping with a coun-try’s legal system, as traditional laws areunlikely to be defendable in court.

Legalisation provides minimal protectionagainst inequitable extraction, and preparesthe ground for local investment as well as fornegotiation of compensation for use ofresources. Preparation of resource cadastresand development of a court system in which

rights to resources can be defended is a moredemanding and expensive task, requiringlong-term commitment of national policymakers.

Negotiating compensation

The question whether mountain peoplehave a right to be compensated for the goodsand services that they contribute towardsnational growth and prosperity in down-stream centres, requires political discussion atthe national level. Such a debate can decisive-ly influence efforts to address poverty effec-tively in mountain areas.

Once rights and obligations are agreedupon, it is possible to discuss appropriatecompensation mechanisms. Instruments todevise such mechanisms for a wide range ofresources exist in many countries.

In the case of large-scale resource develop-ment, such as commercial forestry or damconstruction, local communities shouldreceive compensation for negative environ-

mental impacts. Compensation should alsobe paid for loss of access to resources caused,for example, by the establishment of a naturereserve.


Timber royalties in northern PakistanIn Kalam, northern Pakistan, local com-munities receive timber royalties fromcommercial firms amounting to approxi-mately US$ 50–100 per year and house-hold. Royalties are negotiated betweenthe contract partners. Some of the moneyis re-invested in tourism.

Economic instrumentsCompensation does not necessarily in-volve payment of subsidies to dis-advantaged areas, a well-known tool inEuropean mountain areas. Othereconomic instruments include: invest-ment and social compensation funds, pay-ment of royalties for the use of naturalresources (e.g. water, forests), taxes.

Chumbivilcas, Peru.Construction of this com-munity building was madepossible with money fromthe social compensationfund. (P. Walther)

Families in Kalam, Pakistanreceived significant incomefrom royalties paid bylogging companies. Theyinvested part of the moneyin local tourism develop-ment. Recently, incomefrom royalties decreased,due to the proclamation of forest bans.(P. Walther)

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Diversification and the benefit of complementaritiesMany of the world’s mountains are marginal lands, with little potentialfor large-scale agriculture or other mono-functional uses. Mountain com-munities and families have traditionally overcome such limitations bydiversifying and using complementarities. Thus, many mountaineconomies are characterised by use of land in various altitudinal belts andclimatic zones, complementary income from other sectors such as smallindustry and tourism, and seasonal migration. Policy makers should buildon the strength of such diversified systems.

Traditional economies

Mountain landscapes contain a mosaic ofsmall areas with different climatic and topo-graphic conditions. This normally imposesnarrow limitations on large-scale forms ofland use such as mono-functional commercialagriculture.

For centuries, multi-functionality was there-fore a key principle of mountain agricultureand economies. Complex land managementsystems with land in different altitudinal beltsrequired large families, as work had to bedone simultaneously in several areas. These

multi-functional systems provided stability ina hostile and marginal environment. Thebeauty of the resulting cultural landscapeshas become an asset for tourism (see page14).

The limits of modernisation

In mountain areas in the South, traditionalmulti-functional land management is stilloften practised. In most countries in theNorth, modernisation of traditional land-usesystems was inevitable due to social change.Gradual integration of the workforce in busi-ness, industry and tourism prevented massivedepopulation and land abandonment afterthe 1950s, when modernisation set in andagriculture no longer provided a sufficientbasis for livelihoods. Simultaneously, the agri-cultural sector was modernised, leading to aconcentration on fewer land-use zones inmountains.

But modernisation did not make mono-functional approaches and economies ofscale more suitable for mountain conditionsthan before. Multi-functionality continued tobe the best development option for manymountain economies in the North.

In the South, similar strategies oriented


“Farming here is enough for the stom-ach, but not for buying clothes or foreducating our children. To achieve this,you have to add other businesses liketrade or tourism.” Farmer from theAnnapurna region, Nepal.

Undermining of diversificationFor centuries, the people of Maras(Cuzco, Peru) earned additional incomefrom over 6000 salt fields (salinas), whichthey had inherited from the Incas. Thishelped them secure their livelihoods. Arecent national mining law confrontedthem with the existential threat that theright to use “their” salt fields might besold to an international company.

Salinas de Maras, Peru.A unique cultural land-scape that provides signifi-cant income to local fami-lies.(P. Walther)

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towards economies of scale and mono-func-tional land use were adopted as blueprintsfrom the North, seldom leading to sustain-able results in mountain areas. For example,investment in large-scale fruit tree or othercash crop plantations, as well as in masstourism, increased dependence on unpre-dictable external markets and climatic condi-tions.

Developing economic niches

Experience shows that policies and strate-gies for the sustainable development ofmountain areas benefit from careful and par-ticipatory assessment of the opportunitiesand limitations of multi-functional systems inmountain economies. Identification of eco-nomic niches is one element of such anassessment.

The central role of agriculture as a localsource of food, employment and incomemust be acknowledged, particularly in theSouth. If based on small-scale enterprises,industry and services such as tourism spreadrisks and strengthen local economies. A diver-sified economy based on natural resources isan important means of retaining people inmountain areas and maintaining decen-tralised settlement patterns. This, in turn,helps conserve unique cultural landscapes,biodiversity and ecosystems.

Mountain economies can be successfullyintegrated into world markets, as demonstrat-ed by the case study on commercial coopera-tion programmes (pages 24–25). Better

advice, improved access to markets, qualitylabelling, and the use of new instrumentssuch as information technology and exportpromotion programmes, increase the capaci-ty of mountain people to strengthen theireconomies and define their own agenda forsustainable development.

Complementarity with lowland areas

Investing in decentralised infrastructuresuch as rural roads, to cover basic needs anddevelop land and resources, will remain animportant strategy for mountain develop-ment. Improved access also increases thepotential for exploiting complementarity withdownstream areas and population centres.Local governments or communities can main-tain rural roads if they have adequate expert-ise and funds. Decentralisation programmes(see pages 22–23) can help develop theseresources.

Provided basic services are available, eco-tourism ideally complements mountaineconomies, not least because it depends onan attractive environment enhanced by diver-sified land use and a rich local cultural her-itage.


Checklist for national policymakers:– Have the characteristics of the moun-

tain economy in your country beenanalysed and do decision makers knowabout them?

– Are sectoral policies biased in favour ofpromoting mono-functional resourceuse? If so: what has been done to pre-vent the risks this entails for mountainareas?

– Do national policies and programmesexist that target mountain economies,increase the range of economic optionsand include strategies of diversification?

– Have the possibilities of achieving com-plementarity between mountain andlowland areas been identified?

Highly diversified land-usesystem in Madagascar:home garden with uplandrice fields in the back-ground. Cash crops grownin home gardens are a sus-tainable option to generate additionalincome.(P. Messerli)

A diversified economystrengthens mountainlivelihoods. Processing rawmaterials from artisanalmining, Bolivia.(T. Hentschel)

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Taking full advantage of the local potential for innovationLocal potential for innovation is a key factor in mountain development,requiring support for human resource development and capacity building.Promotion strategies must involve local leaders and increase investmentin decentralised education systems that meet the needs of mountainareas without neglecting linkage with national and global networks thatpromote innovation. An appropriate policy framework can create anenabling environment and support the combined efforts of local commu-nities, governments, the private sector, and NGOs for tapping local inno-vation potentials.

Innovation versus brain drain

One common explanation for underdevel-opment and widespread poverty in mountain

areas is that the local potential for innovationis inadequately tapped and hardly integratedinto development policies and efforts toexploit production and market opportunities.

In mountains, as in other marginal areas,the local potential for innovation is weakenedby brain drain. If employment and incomealternatives are lacking, younger and moreinnovative people are the first to leave.

Regionally anchored education

Mountain people face specific challengesnot only in securing their livelihoods but alsoin providing a future for their children. Theprovision of basic education is a vital first steptowards offering a perspective to the youngergeneration. It is also the basis for acquiringaccess to higher-level education in technolo-gy, engineering, business, administration, andother skills and training that promote innova-tion, especially in small industry and business,but also in agriculture.


Protecting innovations in the Andes of BoliviaThe Agroecology Programme of theUniversity of Cochabamba (AGRUCO) inBolivia developed a simple methodologyto document local technologies and inno-vations in the form of handbills. To date,around 1000 handbills have been pro-duced. Community authorities watch overthem as part of their “cultural heritage”.Innovations that have been documentedin the collection of “Andean technolo-gies” cannot be patented by foreign multi-national firms.

Centro Bartolomé de las Casas, PeruFounded in 1985 as a non-profit organisa-tion by the Church, the Centro Bartoloméde las Casas (CBC) in Cuzco has devel-oped into a regional centre that stimu-lates democratisation and development inthe often very remote areas of thePeruvian Andes. Besides running a studycentre and a unit for applied research,the “Casa de Campesino” regularly organ-ises courses for local leaders from the vil-lages, and information about marketprices is disseminated by radio. TheCentro has its own web site:

http://www.cbc.org.pe

Innovation throughcollaboration. Forestersseek common answers in a government treenursery in Pakistan.(P. Walther)

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Local agricultural colleges, technicalschools, and other higher education institu-tions that take into account the specific needsof mountain areas while maintaining links tonew developments in the wider world, canbecome focal points of innovation and devel-opment. Planning of education and develop-ment of curricula should involve both localand outside institutions and individuals.Centralised planning at the national leveloften means inadequate coverage of remotemountain areas and curricula that are lessmeaningful for mountain people.

In countries in the South – but not onlythere – technical and business colleges andother higher education facilities initiated anddirected by NGOs or the private sector oftenplay a very important role, particularly whenthey can create an environment for discussingan area’s specific problems and for seekinginnovative solutions. Such facilities can

become the main intellectual centres of anarea, as teachers often speak local languagesand are familiar with the local people andculture. The impact of such centres can beenhanced if they have the capacity to managedonor-funded development projects.

Creating an enabling environment

Innovation gains momentum if opportuni-ties to exchange local and external knowl-edge exist. Such interaction initiates learningprocesses that can be enhanced by theexchange of success stories that serve as rolemodels, and by the organisation of platformsthat facilitate the exchange of experiencebetween private enterprises, policy makers,local authorities, and research and traininginstitutions.

Credits for new ventures, know-how abouthow to obtain them, access to ways of protect-ing intellectual property and collaboratingwith international specialists, and basicknowledge of business management are addi-tional important ingredients for promotinginnovation and translating it into successfullocal ventures.

Other enabling factors such as a reasonablerange of employment opportunities, access tocapital, and good quality basic services(health, education, supply of consumergoods) are commonly needed to retaintrained people. Many of these factors are pro-vided by private institutions.

Supporting the publication and dissemina-tion of national professional journals in locallanguages can also support innovation andfacilitate the exchange of local and externalknowledge. Radio programmes can serve thesame function. Such forms of exchange canenhance self-reliance and self-esteem, andstrengthen the local potential for innovation.


Checklist for national policymakers:– Is brain drain in mountain areas recog-

nised as a problem? What does the gov-ernment do to prevent it?

– What are the investments per capita foreducation in mountain areas, comparedto downstream areas? Are the curriculaadapted to the realities of mountaindevelopment? Do local technical col-leges or NGO-led centres with thepotential to become focal points forinnovation in mountain areas exist? Isthere a language barrier in education,and if so, is it being addressed?

– Does the government provide incentivesto promote innovation in mountainareas? Are there examples of innova-tions from mountain areas that are nowlegally protected, such as specific brandsor products?

Innovation knows many small waysFarmers in the eastern highlands ofEthiopia integrate elements of traditionaland external soil and water conservationtechniques. They combine terraces withtrashlines of sorghum straw and tradition-al drainage. This unspectacular, butmeaningful innovation optimises conser-vation, scarce land resources, and labourinput.

Locally adapted terracesfor soil and water conservation in the high-lands of Ethiopia.(K. Herweg)

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Cultural change without loss of identityA great diversity of cultures can be found in mountain areas. The richnessand diversity of this global heritage is at risk from rapid social and cultur-al change. Reasons for this change include population pressure, poverty,migration, and the global dominance of urban values, transmitted to themost remote mountain areas by the mass media, standardised formal edu-cation, and tourism. Measures to counter this cultural erosion are needed,not least because cultural identity and self-esteem are essential ingredi-ents for development.

Lively mountain cultures

A great variety of cultures can be found inmountain areas, for various reasons. Manymountain areas harbour ethnic minorities,and until recently, mountain people wereoften less exposed to the outside world thanother societies, mainly due to difficult access.

Yet mountain cultures have never beenstatic. Trade across mountain passes and withdownstream areas, and seasonal migrationhave always connected mountain people tothe wider world. Such interaction comple-mented local knowledge and values with newideas and skills. However, pressures of changeused to be less pervasive. “Abnormal” situa-tions that led to rapid economic, social andcultural change, and sometimes disruption,occurred during wars, epidemics, and naturaldisasters.

Landscape and knowledge as heritage

Landscapes shaped by terraces and irriga-tion systems are among the great achieve-ments of mountain cultures. Such land-usesystems, including the associated institutions,developed as mountain people interactedclosely with their environments, and theydocument long learning processes. Mountainsocieties carry precious knowledge, for exam-ple about stabilising sloping land, extendinggrowing seasons at high altitudes, or usingmyriad plants for agriculture and medicine.This knowledge, often only oral, is a resourcefor sustainable development.

The risks of breaking with the past

Through modernisation and mass media,even remote mountain valleys and settle-ments have become exposed to mainstreamwestern culture, which is largely urban.Tourists travelling in mountains increase thisexposure, which can lead to a severe risk of


Checklist for national policymakers:– Are traditional mountain cultures and

ethnic minorities acknowledged in yourcountry?

– Do traditional cultural landscapes andtypes of resource use exist that are sym-bols of a mountain culture? What doesyour country do to preserve them forfuture generations?

– Do sectoral policies adequately respectmountain cultures? Do national radio orTV programmes address mountaindevelopment and mountain cultures?

– Are indigenous languages officiallyaccepted in schools, administration, andcourts?

Buddhist monks celebrate the New Yearfestival, China.(W. Popp)

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loss of orientation and of cultural identity,cultural homogenisation, and the collapse oftraditional cultures.

The impact of such developments can bedramatic, leading to irreversible loss ofindigenous knowledge. Tension and conflictcan increase within communities and house-holds when some people, eager to embracemodernity, turn their back on their own cul-tures and adopt new modes, norms, and val-ues. All this can lead to undermining and dis-rupting a specific culture within a fewdecades. A culture disappears when the criti-cal mass of young people needed to maintaintraditional cultural practices no longer exists.Elements of mountain cultures may then liveon among migrants in urban areas.

Adequate policy responses?

To promote nation building, integrationand modern development, governmentsoften actively advocate cultural homogenisa-tion.

Many also lack understanding and respectfor the particularities of mountain cultures.As a result, mountain people, especially eth-nic minorities, often face economic, social,and political disadvantages or outright dis-crimination. Their language may be forbid-den, or banned from public schools, govern-ment administration, and courts. These areserious obstacles for promoting sustainabledevelopment in mountain areas. They alsoundermine efforts to maintain political stabil-ity.

An appropriate policy response could be toofficially recognise the value of cultural diver-sity and to support it actively. Mountain peo-ple must be given realistic opportunities forself-determination, and for defining theirown pace of cultural change and develop-

ment, within the national context. Increasedefforts to support cultural diversity should bereflected in sectoral policies such as agricul-ture and education. Documentation, sensiti-sation, and networking by using the media,the Internet, exhibitions, cultural associationsand museums, are important to raise aware-ness of the value of traditions, and to fosterand integrate new trends and developmentsthat will keep mountain cultures alive.

Mountain cultures must not be “protected”from modernisation. What is important is tostrengthen mountain societies so that theycan resist forced acculturation that disruptstheir cultures, livelihoods, and personal lives.


Vietnam: increasing sensitive-ness to ethnic minoritiesIn Vietnam, a Committee for EthnicMinorities and Mountain Areas was creat-ed in 1993. It supports the implementa-tion of a programme designed for 1715poor communes, many of them in moun-tain areas. The programme, implementedjointly with the FAO since 1998 and until2005, aims to create jobs and incomes,improve infrastructure, and allocateadministrative tasks at the local level.

Science meets DharmaAt the request of His Highness the DalaiLama, young Tibetan monks studyEnglish and the basics of western naturalscience in South Indian monasteries. Theproject started in 2002 and the studentsare expected to share this knowledge, oneday, with fellow students in their ownmonasteries or in Tibet. The project willcontribute to keeping alive Tibetan spiri-tual culture and opening it for dialogueand cultural exchange.

[email protected]

Rice terraces in Bali.Landscapes shaped by irri-gated terraces are amongthe great achievements ofmountain cultures and area valuable asset fortourism.(H.P. Liniger)

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Conservation of mountain ecosystems and early warning functionOwing to their climatic and topographic diversity, mountain areas arehotspots of biodiversity. Yet the natural heritage of their ecosystems isvulnerable and can be easily destroyed, particularly on steep slopes andat high altitudes. Due to their sensitivity, mountain ecosystems tend toreact to environmental degradation and global environmental trends ear-lier and more clearly than lowland ecosystems. They are early warningsystems and hence of increasing importance in an era of global change.

Mountains as hotspots of biodiversity

Mountain ecosystems have a particularlyhigh degree of diversity, with significant dif-ferences over small distances. This is due toseveral factors such as altitudinal gradients oftemperature and rainfall, and high levels ofendemism, i.e. of plants and animals that arefound nowhere else.

In mountains in the South, for example,tropical mountain forests typically host morespecies in a smaller area than lowland rain-forests. About half of the global Endemic BirdAreas are in mountain regions, particularly intropical forests. And almost all forest plants inthe mountains of Hawaii and New Caledoniaare endemic.

The values of mountain biodiversity havebeen known for centuries to indigenous peo-ple. External interest groups, such as phar-

maceutical companies, research institutionsand government agencies are becomingincreasingly aware of its commercial impor-tance.

Vulnerability and sensitivity

Mountain ecosystems are extremely vulner-able to change, particularly in areas withshort vegetation periods and steep slopes.The tundra vegetation above the treeline is acase in point. Its extreme environment ischaracterised by high temperature variation,frequent frost, poor soils, and unstable slopes.Today, this vegetation zone is disturbed inmany mountain areas by tourism or increasedpressure of grazing. Once destroyed, suchvegetation can hardly be restored, even withthe most labour-intensive methods.

Other mountain ecosystems, such asforests, are threatened by commercial agri-culture and the advance of subsistence farm-ing in countries of the South, and by under-use and air pollution in the North. Thesedevelopments threaten not only biodiversity,but also the crucial roles of mountain forestswith regard to provision of safe water and pro-tection against natural hazards.

Conservation and development

In the past, conservation programmes wereinitiated solely in response to the need for


Mountain biodiversity, a world heritage45% of all biosphere reserves inUNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere(MAB) programme are in mountainareas.

Incorporate principlesApart from creating nature reserves andconservation areas, it is important toensure that the principles of conservationare adequately reflected in sectoral poli-cies (agriculture, forestry), and in naturalresource management programmes.

Tropical mountain forestsare biodiversity hotspots.(T. Kohler)

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preserving mountain ecosystems. Today, con-servation often integrates local people’s needfor development, for example through thecreation of buffer zones around nationalparks.

In industrialised countries, conservationprogrammes have been relatively effectivelybased on legally binding inventories ofendangered species and ecosystems that areidentified for protection. Land owners havegenerally been adequately compensated. Indeveloping countries, promising results havebeen achieved by involving local communitiesin planning and implementing conservationprojects, and making it possible for them tobenefit from the employment and incomethese projects generate.

An important lesson from both industri-alised and developing countries is that biodi-versity is well maintained in areas where tra-ditional forms of land use continue.

Another economic activity that is largelycompatible with biodiversity conservation isecotourism. Increasing investment in thisform of tourism is positive for biodiversityconservation in mountains.

Early warning: the global context

Owing to their fragility and diversity, moun-tain ecosystems register global environmentalchanges earlier and more clearly than low-land systems. Mountains are the only environ-ments that occur in all climatic zones of the

earth – tropical, subtropical, temperate, andarctic. Mountain areas are thus of crucialimportance for global environmental moni-toring. They are the only global-scale terres-trial early warning system for natural andhuman-induced forms of change such as cli-mate change. This role needs to be preserved.Environmental monitoring programmes inmountains can be used to analyse trends,raise global awareness, and observe the effec-tiveness of remedial policies and action.


Checklist for national policymakers:– Are biodiversity hotspots and the most

vulnerable mountain ecosystems pro-tected by legally binding inventories?

– Is the specific need to protect mountainecosystems reflected in sectoral policiesand laws (forestry, planning, and con-struction)?

– Do positive examples exist which illus-trate that development can be achievedwithout negative impacts on biodiversityand vulnerable ecosystems?

– Which mountain landscapes and ecosys-tems in your country are particularlyendangered by global environmentalchange (for example global warming)?What coping strategies does your gov-ernment have?

Monitoring global change in mountainsThe Mountain Research Initiative (MRI)and the UNESCO World Network ofBiosphere Reserves have joined forces tostudy the impacts of global and environ-mental change in mountain ecosystems.

Left: Soil erosion onsloping land in Honduras.(Ch. Küchli)

Right: Conservation andmanagement plans forprotected areas and bufferzones were prepared aftercompletion of a nationalinventory of all remainingmoorlands in Switzerland.(P. Walther)

Rocky Mountains, Canada.Extreme climatic and topo-graphical conditions, shortvegetation periods andpoor soils increase the vul-nerability of mountainecosystems to environmen-tal change, including globalwarming.(P. Walther)

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Institutionalising sustainable development of mountain areasDespite its global importance, sustainable development in mountain areasis not yet well established at global, regional or national levels. TheInternational Year of Mountains, IYM2002, offers a unique opportunity toanchor this issue more firmly, especially at the national level. The tasksinclude advocacy, lobbying and institutionalisation, as well as exchange ofprofessional and technical expertise.

Identifying opportunities

Establishing sustainable development ofmountain areas on the political agenda is aprocess that will take time. But the opportu-nity presented by the International Year ofMountains (IYM) 2002 and the WorldSummit on Sustainable Development inJohannesburg should be seized to institution-alise mountain development more firmly andformally at the global, regional, national andsub-national levels.

Mountain development should, in fact,have a broad global constituency: in 53 coun-tries around the globe, mountains cover over50% of the national area, and in 46 othersbetween 25% and 50%. In many other coun-tries, mountains play important roles – forexample as water towers – despite the fact thatthey occupy smaller portions of the countries’total area. Mountain development is there-fore a concern for the international commu-nity.

The national level as the point of entry

The national level is the most importantlevel for the institutionalisation of mountaindevelopment because the authority to formu-late policies, laws and regulations rests withindividual states. The first step could be to


“Our secretariat checks all laws and regu-lations issued by the national governmentto make sure they take into account theinterests of mountain communities.”

Member of the Federation of MountainCantons (Provinces), Switzerland

In Italy, mountain develop-ment is included as a goal at the level of the constitution. (P. Walther)

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create a national task force such as theNational Committees formed to prepare theIYM. The mandate of such groups could be toraise parliamentarians’, decision makers’ andthe general public’s awareness of the impor-tance of sustainable mountain development,revise sectoral policies to improve their effec-tiveness for tackling mountain issues, andmaintain linkages with international initia-tives and partnerships.

Creating supportive networks

The creation of formal and informal net-works such as private associations or NGOsfor the exchange of information and for col-laboration is vital to bring mountain issuesinto political agendas and to keep them therethrough advocacy, lobbying, and awareness-raising.

Both national policy makers and the privatesector can benefit from the presence of suchcounterparts. They can play an importantrole in formulating or reviewing appropriatepolicy frameworks, policy initiatives, and sec-toral policies for mountain area develop-ment. They can facilitate consensus buildingin broad political debates at the national andsub-national levels, involving people whohave in-depth knowledge about mountainreality and who are directly affected by theserealities.

IYM 2002 – a stepping stone

The International Year of Mountains (IYM)2002 offers a unique opportunity to make afirst step in the process of institutionalisingmountain development at the national level.At the international level, this process couldbe supported, for example, by an internation-al coalition for mountain development, or amountain partnership network involving gov-ernments, NGOs, the private sector, andresearch institutions.

Alliance building within the UN system isequally needed. The UN Commission onSustainable Development and the FAO couldplay a leading role in such alliances. Theirwork could be supported by a network of gov-ernmental and non-governmental organisa-tions that function as pressure groups.


Checklist for national policymakers:– What steps have been taken in your

country to institutionalise the issue ofsustainable development in mountainareas?

– What is the focal point in your govern-ment administration for issues related tosustainable development in mountainareas? Has this focal point been attrib-uted sufficient personnel capacity andexpertise? Is this focal point integratedin national policy and decision making,and linked to international initiatives?

– Do any informal networks exist that arerecognised by your government as coun-terparts in the formulation of policiesfor mountain development?

– Which activities has your governmentplanned as a follow-up of theInternational Year of Mountains?

Examples of pressure and interest groupsAssociations of mountain municipalities,groups of parliamentarians from moun-tain constituencies, mountain farmers’associations, mountain tourism organisa-tions, forestry-related organisations,mountain research associations.

Participation and publicvote, Bolivia.Decentralisation, democra-tisation and development of local capacity are long-term processes. (AGRUCO)

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The main assumption underlying paymentfor environmental services was that forestswould be better maintained and protected ifforest owners were compensated for the serv-ices their forests provide. As Costa Rica can-not afford to establish and effectively managemore national parks and protected areas, the

mechanism of payment for environmentalservices was thought to be a suitable alterna-tive.

Costa Rica’s 1996 Forestry Law acknowl-edged a number of environmental services,ranging from the uptake of greenhouse gasesfrom the atmosphere to the protection ofwater sources, biodiversity, ecosystems, andnatural scenic beauty for tourism and scientif-ic uses. Levels of payment for environmentalservices and periods of commitment varyaccording to the type of land use.

How the compensation system works

The compensation system is managed bythe National Fund for Forestry Finance ofCosta Rica (FONAFIFO), which is responsible


Forests cover about 43% of the land area of CostaRica; 60% are privatelyowned. The compensationfund for environmentalservices from mountainforests is an institution thatmeets economic and eco-logical demands. The latestfirm to sign a contract was “Cerveceria CostaRica”, a brewery and waterbottling company thatdepends on clean water for production. (Ch. Küchli)

National and regional experienceCentral America: Costa Rica

Compensation for environmental servicesfrom mountain forestsEnvironmental services provided by mountain forest ecosystems arecrucial to people and economies. However, there are still few initiativesthat aim to compensate forest owners for these services. A successfulmodel has been implemented nation-wide in Costa Rica, where the 1996Forestry Law incorporated an innovative decision to compensate forestowners for the environmental services their forests provide to society.Since 1996, proposals have been put forward for financing of the system,through including the cost of watershed management in the cost of hydroelectricity and water supplies. The first contracts with privatefirms have now been signed.

Costa Rica’s forests arecharacterised by richbiodiversity. Biologicalcorridors have beenidentified, and the GlobalEnvironment Facility has provided funds for sustainable manage-ment of an area covering100,000 ha. (Ch. Küchli)

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for collecting resources and paying the bene-ficiaries for environmental services. Fundscome mainly from two sources: a selective taxon consumption of fossil fuels, and nationaland international payments for environmen-tal services of local or global value.

The sums fixed for the payment for water-shed services in Costa Rica are shown in thetable to the right. They result from negotia-tions between FONAFIFO and the compa-nies. The reason for a higher payment, forexample, by Compañía HidroeléctricaPlatanar for lands without clear land tenureis, that FONAFIFO cannot use public funds topay for environmental services where there isno clear land tenure.

The world’s first ecomarket

Encouraged by this positive experience,FONAFIFO and the Government of CostaRica have recently negotiated the establish-ment of the world’s first ecomarket, with thesupport of the World Bank and the GlobalEnvironment Facility (GEF). The World Bankhas provided a US$ 32.6 million loan, andGEF has provided a grant of US$ 8 million,based on US$ 10 per hectare per year for thecontribution of the system to the conserva-tion of the world’s biodiversity. The aim is topromote the development of markets forenvironmental services from private forests.

Projections into the future

From 1997 to 2001, US$ 57 million wasinvested in payments for environmental serv-ices, resulting in the preservation of 230,000ha of private natural forests, the sustainable

management of 24,500 ha of natural forests,and the reforestation of 16,000 ha. Almost4400 forest owners have been compensated.

The demand from forest owners has beenmuch higher than the funding available fromFONAFIFO. For example, in 2000 thedemand was for approximately 175,000 ha,but only 28,897 ha were funded. This indi-cates that forest owners have accepted thecompensation system and that they mightagree with the amounts paid for the environ-mental services provided by their forests.

José J. Campos

National and regional experience

Enterprise Watershed Total area Amount contri-or organisation or region funded (ha) buted

(US$ per ha and year)

Energía Global Volcán River 2493 10

San Fernando 1818 10River

Hidroeléctrica Platanar River 1400 15 for lands with titlePlatanar

30 for lands with no title, plus regentcosts, and 5% forcosts of FONAFIFO

Compañía Nac. Aranjuez River 10,900 53 (40 for forest Fuerza y Luz Balsa River owner; remain-

Cote Lake der to cover costs of regent and ofFONAFIFO)

GEF Biological 100,000 10corridors

Cervecería Segundo River 1000 45 plus regent Costa Rica costs, and 5%

for costs of FONAFIFO

Source: FONAFIFO, March 2002

Private and publicorganisations that have acknowledgedpayment for environmentalservices in Costa Rica.(Source: FONAFIFO)

Costa Rica’s Forestry Law of 1996 established thelegal basis for creation of a fund to compensateforest owners for theenvironmental servicesprovided by their forests,according to the type of use. Almost 4400 forestowners received compen-sation between 1997 and 2001. (Ch. Küchli)

Signing the first contractsFONAFIFO has been able to negotiatepayment for watershed services with threehydroelectric corporations, a private brew-ery and bottling company, and one multi-lateral fund. The first agreement wassigned with Compañía Energía Global, aprivate company that operates two hydro-electric projects in the Central VolcanicRange of Costa Rica. These funds areused by FONAFIFO, in close collabora-tion with the Ministry of Environmentand Energy and the Foundation for theDevelopment of the Central VolcanicRange; this NGO provides technical assis-tance to forest owners.

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South America: Bolivia

Decentralisation and strengthening local institutions: two complementary strategiesDecentralisation and local institution building are recognised as keys to sustainable development in mountain areas. In South America, Boliviahas taken a lead. In 1994 and 1995, three new laws on People’sParticipation, Decentralisation, and Municipalities radically changed thearchitecture of the Bolivian state. Although decentralisation and strengthening of local civil society are long-term processes, valuable lessons have already been learned.

Historical background

Already at the end of the 16th century, adescendant of the Inca dynasty, GuamanPoma de Ayala, gave an initial response to thesocial and political disorder caused by thefirst years of Spanish colonialism. In his “NewChronicle on Good Governance” he claimedthat the Spanish rulers should respect indige-nous forms of local governance as a basis forestablishing an alliance for development withthe colonial administration.

Until 1994, the country remained to be,however, characterised by heavy centralisa-tion. There were no municipal governmentsin rural areas, and only the larger citiesreceived funds from the central government.Consequently, the rural areas where half ofall Bolivians still lived remained generallyunaffected by public investments in develop-ment.


Right: Reforestation proj-ects became part of thedevelopment plans ofmany municipalities. (AGRUCO)

Below: Watershed protec-tion goes beyond the bor-ders of family plots and promotes cooperationand exchange of experi-ence.(AGRUCO)

A multi-dimensional process

The laws on People’s Participation,Decentralisation, and Municipalities madepossible a far-reaching decentralisation,based on democratically elected municipali-ties. However, it also became clear that decen-tralisation is a complex process with manyadditional requirements.

The first key element is the systematic trans-fer of economic resources to local govern-ments. In Bolivia, 20% of the public revenuesare transferred automatically to the local level;amounts are calculated on the basis of popu-lation figures. Recently the distribution pat-tern was modified with respect to six differentcategories of social and economic marginalisa-tion.

Second, significant investments are aimedat strengthening the local system of planningand management. Municipal developmentplans are recognised as a basis for negotiationby the national government.

Third, the need for more effective socialcontrol over municipal governments hasbeen recognised. Comités de Vigilancia (Vigi-

learning process is that local populationshave actively responded to new politicalopportunities resulting from the redefinitionof the role of civil society, and have madeproposals for introducing elements of directdemocracy.

One of the particular strengths of theBolivian experience is that the process wasnot imposed according to a Western model ofpublic administration. There is a consensusamong stakeholders that decentralisation andlocal institution building, if combined withinstitutionalised social control, will constituteimportant steps towards sustainable develop-ment of mountain areas.

Freddy Delgado, Stephan Rist

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lance Committees) were established. Theylink municipal government with the many tra-ditional indigenous organisations in order toinstitutionalise social control (see box below).

In order to become recognised as legiti-mate partners of the state, the Comités deVigilancia were allowed to constitute them-selves as territorial grassroots organisations.

An initial assessment of impacts

It is too early to make a firm evaluation ofimpacts, but some interesting lessons can belearned which might be relevant to othercountries.

In the early years, development plans in the314 municipalities still largely reflected con-ventional political and business activities.Local elites took advantage of their knowl-edge about management and public adminis-tration and tended to dominate the process.

The second municipal elections (2000)brought a change. It appears that the powerof the local elites was reduced, and that moremayors were chosen from indigenous com-munities. Simultaneously, the number of proj-ects targeted at rural development (for exam-ple rural roads, improvements in marketinfrastructure) increased.

Future perspectives

Today, some people claim there has beenserious deterioration of the reforms. There iseven a tendency to return to the old cen-tralised system. Lack of capacity in municipaladministrations, politisation, and lack oftransparency are concerns.

While these problems have to be monitoredcarefully, they are increasingly understood aspart of an important social learning processthat goes beyond formal implementation of anew model of public administration and maylast for decades. One major feature of this


Members of the Comité de Vigilancia of the munici-pality of Cliza, checkingbudget and developmentplans prepared by the localgovernment.(AGRUCO)

Until recently, access todrinking water was a privi-lege restricted to urbanareas. Since drinking waterfacilities became a part ofmunicipal developmentplans, they have spreadthroughout indigenouscommunities.(AGRUCO)

Comités de VigilanciaThe main objective of the Committees is to assure permanent and criticalsupervision of the activities of the municipal governments. They also helpto channel the aspirations of the local population and the private sector.They have no autonomous means of sanction, but they can report irregu-larities to different authorities, leading to legal investigations. The mem-bers of the Vigilance Committee are appointed by civil society organisa-tions according to their own system of legitimacy. Concerted deliberationsoften lead to the appointment of traditional leaders in local civil society.

Through the law on Public Participation, the Vigilance Committees,constituted as grassroots organisations, became official development part-ners of the government. This was an important historic step for the morethan 19,000 rural communities, as it was the first time that native forms of organisation were formally recognised since the Andean people werecolonised.

Changing the local development agendaIrupana is a municipality of some 12,000 inhabitants located on the slopes of the easternAndes. Livelihood systems are based on highly diversified agriculture extending over threedifferent agroecological zones, ranging from 1000–2500 m. Before the reforms, the munici-pality had an annual budget of about 3000 Bolivianos; by 1998 this had risen to 2,085,450.In 1997 civil society and the municipality jointly decided to change the way financialresources were allocated. Instead of supporting activities mainly benefiting the town areas,preference was given to rural development projects. In particular, farmers focused on meet-ing the norms for organic coffee that can be sold to a locally based company supplying fairtrade organisations in Western countries.

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South America: Bolivia and Peru

Commercial cooperation programmes to make mountain economies fit for export markets Andean countries have attempted numerous development policies and strategies to achieve economic development. Most recently there has been a radical opening to world markets. But do mountain economieshave a chance to be internationally competitive? International expertsbelieve so. Since 1999, the State Secretariat for Economic Affairs (SECO) of the Swiss Federal Department of Economic Affairs has supported a joint commercial cooperation programme in Bolivia, concentratingparticularly on mountain areas, with the aim of strengthening the privatesector. Tourism, agricultural products, and mining have been identified as profitable sectors. A second programme is planned for Peru.

Developing a tourism destination

One early activity was the development of astrategy for sustainable tourism in mountainareas with spectacular attractions: the regionincluding Sucre, the colonial capital ofBolivia; the silver-mining city of Potosí, one ofthe richest cities of the world in the 17th cen-

tury; and the salt lake of Uyuni, “where youcan touch the sky”.

To overcome age-old differences betweenthese regions, their people, and the authori-ties, it was decided to establish a new tourismdestination management organisation, forjoint development of the many public andprivate services required for tourism to flour-ish. One challenge is to integrate differentinterest groups – for example tourist, envi-ronmental, municipal – into one overarchingvision and strategy to resolve conflicting atti-tudes and to benefit the region.

Traditional agricultural products

Bolivia’s highlands are the source ofnumerous traditional crops that can beturned into products with greater addedvalue. Quínoa and Kaniwa are good exam-ples.

The local Aymara, Quetchua, and Chipayapeople have been growing these crops sincepre-Incan times, and the new commercialcooperation programme is now attempting toopen some exclusive export opportunities forthe producers of Quínoa and Kaniwa.

The Chipayas, an ethnic group whose cul-ture is threatened with disappearance, arespecialists in growing Kaniwa. In an environ-ment with a high incidence of night frost andsoil salinity, the Chipayas leach the soil eachyear with water from the Lauca River, andthen sow Kaniwa. The harvest of about oneton of grain per hectare gives them a modestincome, but only if they can sell the grain.The issue at stake is whether it is possible toexport roasted Kaniwa flour, a tasty and rich


Two niche productsBotanically speaking, Quínoa and Kaniwaare meldweeds or goosefoots, not cereals.They grow between 3000 and 4000 metresabove sea level and are resistant todrought and frost, but yield a grain that isvery rich in high-quality proteins, miner-als, and lipids, and also high in unsaturat-ed fatty acids.

Leaching the soil with water from the Lauca River.(E. Schaltegger)

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supplement used in the food processingindustry and the niche market trade in indus-trialised countries.

Artisanal mining

Bolivia is a traditional mining country: zinc,silver, tin, lead, tungsten, antimony, and goldare the most important products. Small min-ing operations account for 16% of the exportmarket and are a very important source of

employment in poor rural mountain areas.About 500,000 persons are directly or indi-rectly involved in Bolivian small-scale mining,a significant proportion of the national popu-lation of 8 million.

The commercial cooperation programmepromotes the local production of jewelleryfrom gold mined by mining cooperatives.Such jewellery is marketed internationallyunder a fair trade label. There will be a sig-nificant return to the miners, guaranteeinghigher incomes. In return, there is no childlabour in these cooperatives, and improvedliving and environmental conditions can beattained.

Conclusions

In all three sectors mentioned, there is littledoubt about the potential for substantialdevelopment of these mountain economies.

Therefore, this export promotion pro-gramme will also be extended to Peru.

Given the population concentration inmountain areas, there is a need to formulatean overall national policy that includes, first,opening mountains and their tourist attrac-tions to a wider public; second, attracting pri-vate investment in the artisanal mining sector;and third, motivating local people to partici-pate more fully in both development activitiesand their benefits. International cooperationcan do much to help local products meetinternational standards and to open foreignmarkets to such products.

Markus Reichmuth, Ernst Schaltegger, Thomas Hentschel


“We do not want free rides.Get us into export markets,and we will do the rest.”Bolivian highland farmer

Programme strategiesThe main strategies are: (a) to includemore private sector representatives indecision-making about trade-relatedissues; (b) to reduce the burden of redtape for exporters; and (c) to search for,and to improve niche products for whichthere is a growing demand in sophisticat-ed target markets.

Examples of activities planned for the Peru programme(a) Strengthen knowledge and capacities for international trade issues; (b)Support the introduction of good agricultural practice standards amongexporters; (c) Identify export-oriented firms motivated to produce high-value, non-perishable products based on Peru’s rich biodiversity.

Right: Attractive productssuch as breakfast cereals,instant soups, and bakingflour or pasta supplementsare under development oralready on the local mar-kets. About 10%, or lessthan 3000 tons, of theBolivian production ofQuinoa is exported eachyear as grain, most of itcertified as organicallygrown. (E. Schaltegger)

Left: Chipaya couplesowing Kaniwa with simple devices.(E. Schaltegger)

Below: Worker in the min-ing industry.(T. Hentschel)

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Europe: Alpine countries

The Alpine Convention: an internationalmountain policy framework The European Alps extend across eight countries that face similar devel-opment problems related to this mountain range. The process of consider-ing these problems jointly began in 1952, with the establishment of theCommission for the Protection of the Alps (CIPRA). In 1991, the environ-ment ministers of the eight Alpine states and the European Commissionsigned an international treaty, the Alpine Convention, in Salzburg. CIPRAhad paved the way for this Convention by raising awareness with studiesand lobbying. Today, the Alpine Convention is increasingly recognised asan important step towards political recognition of these mountain areas.

In light of the rapid deterioration of theAlpine environment, CIPRA decided in 1987to lay the groundwork for an internationaltreaty for protection of the Alps. The strategywas to raise public awareness and build analliance involving local and regional govern-ments.

This bottom-up strategy had an impact. In1989, the governments of the Alpine coun-tries and the European Commission, underthe leadership of the German EnvironmentMinister, began to draft a treaty. They signedthe Alpine Convention in 1991. This consti-tuted a significant and concrete contributionby the eight Alpine states to the 1992 UN Conference on Environment andDevelopment.

Negotiations at the content level

Despite several years of preparatory discus-sions, the treaty is a framework conventioncontaining no specified means of application,although its Article 2 contains objectives thatare to become binding on each signatorythrough more detailed protocols. The rest ofthe Convention is dedicated to specifyingmeans of collaboration.

One new and very positive aspect was thestrong commitment of the governments of all

Alpine states to look at very different issuesand problems (see box), using a territorialrather than a sectoral approach for the bene-fit of an entire mountain range. While thismade the process unique, it was by no meanssimple. Once the Convention was signed in1991, it was not endorsed by the first group ofsignatories until 4 years later, and did notbecome binding on all of them for another 5years. Of the 12 implementation protocolsthat were to be elaborated and signed, only 8have been drafted. They were to be ratified bythe signatories in 2002, 11 years after the orig-inal Convention was signed.


Saas Fee, a renownedtourist resort in the SwissAlps, acknowledges thepositive role which theAlpine Convention plays.According to ClaudeBumann, president of thecommunity, “The AlpineConvention offers fantasticpossibilities, beyond political boundaries, for collaboration andexchange of experiencesabout projects with which it is possible to create new jobs. Tourism is oneexample”.(T. Kohler)

CIPRAThe International Commission for the Protection of the Alps (CIPRA) wasfounded in 1952 in Rottach-Egern (Germany). CIPRA is now an NGO thatincludes over 100 organisations and institutions interested in finding inte-grated solutions to problems of nature and landscape protection and man-agement, environmental protection, and regional planning in the Alps.CIPRA has seven national offices and a regional office in Italy (SouthTyrol).

27

From conservation to a frameworkfor sustainable development

From the beginning, the overall objectiveof the Convention was to create favourableconditions for better protection of natureand cultural landscapes, and to define, inparallel, a new framework for sustainabledevelopment in the Alps, based on criteria ofenvironmental and social feasibility. Therewas a consensus that standards and norms forenvironmental protection and developmenthad to be higher than those for the sur-rounding lowland areas.

Yet despite clear arguments by its promot-ers, the Convention was not universallyaccepted. Many argued that it would be pure-ly a “protection framework”, preventingdevelopment in the Alps. One reason for thiscriticism was that the promoters had notgiven adequate attention to providing thenecessary information and involving stake-holders and the public.

It is gratifying to see that the participatingcountries had the capacity to respond withconstructive arguments and to learn rapidly.The decision in 1992 to put more emphasison socio-economic aspects and public involve-ment had a very positive impact on the wholeprocess.

Positive impacts to date

The most significant impact of theConvention has been a new consensus amongpoliticians and decision-makers that the Alpsface particular development problems whichmust be considered jointly. Today numerousinformation exchange and collaborative net-works, all referring to the Convention, arewell established (see also pages 28–29).

It is encouraging that governments couldcome together in the heart of a densely pop-ulated continent to undertake problem analy-

sis and define objectives for the future oftheir mountain areas. Today, many of the6000 Alpine communities perceive the AlpineConvention as an opportunity and, evenmore important, as an expression of thestrong commitment of their national govern-ments to the often marginal mountain areas.They know that this kind of solidarity will beincreasingly important in the future. Thispositive assessment has replaced earlier criti-cisms that portrayed the Alpine Conventionmerely as a directive from national govern-ments.

Andreas Goetz


Topics in the Alpine ConventionThe following topics are addressed in theAlpine Convention, through a territorialand integrated approach: population andculture; spatial development; air qualitymanagement; soil protection; water man-agement; protection of nature and con-servation of landscapes; mountain agricul-ture; mountain forests; tourism; transport;energy and waste management.

The Alpine Convention: A model for the Carpathian mountains?The Carpathian mountains, a trans-boundary mountain range with uniqueflora and fauna, cover an area of more than 200,000 km2 and extend intosix Central and Eastern European countries. The Carpathian mountainecosystem is under increasing pressure. The process of transition andstructural changes now underway are having a heavy impact on relationsamong the people living in the Carpathians. A common policy frameworkfor all Carpathian countries could help create a sustainable future in thisunique region. The content of such a Convention would have to be adjust-ed to the regional conditions.

The tremendous increase in trans-Alpine traffic has become a severe threatto the fragile mountainecosystem that can best be dealt with in a frame-work of common policy.The signatories of the Alpine Conventionhave pledged to pursue a sustainable transportpolicy. One possible ele-ment of such a policy is the transport of goodsacross the Alps by rail. (A. Boillat, SBB)

The logo of the AlpineConvention creates a sense of unity.(Courtesy CIPRA)

The countries of the world and their mountain areasMap sources Terrain data: Resampled from the GTOP030 Digital Terrain Model (DTM) produced by the US Geological Survey (USGS) using a model by Kapos et al. (2000). The following parameters have been derived from the DTM and were considered in the model: elevation (metres asl),slope (degree) and elevation range (metres) as maximum elevation difference in a circular neighbourhood of 5 km radius. Administrative data: ESRI Data and Maps, World CD. Map scale: approx. 1:100 million. Map projection: MollweideAuthors: GIS, research, cartography and layout: Sebastian Eugster, Albrecht Ehrensperger (CDE) and Andreas Brodbeck (Institute of Geography, University of Berne). Concept, texts: Hans Hurni, Kristina Imbach, Thomas Kohler (CDE), Martin Price (University of the Highlands and Islands, Perth). Map date: 2002.

28 Sustainable Development in Mountain Areas

Legend: 1 Percentage of mountainous area within a country (four categories)2 Number of countries analysed per category3 Percentage of total land area in category (total global land and ice area

is 147 million km2, of which about 38 million km2 are mountainous)

What is a mountain country? The map shows the countries of the world classified according to the per-centage of their mountain area. Countries with a high percentage ofmountain areas are found on all continents, and range from large coun-tries such as China and Iran to small ones such as Lesotho, New Zealand,or Slovenia. Other countries such as the United States and Russia, orIndia, Canada and Algeria, with extensive mountain areas have a lowerpercentage due to their large plains and lowlands. The underlying hillshading shows that even countries with low percentages of mountainareas, such as Australia, Brazil, or Thailand, do have mountains – whichplay an important role, for example, for the supply of fresh water. Themap therefore indicates that sustainable mountain development is anissue of global importance that needs to be addressed in all regions ofthe world.

The map was produced according to the pragmatic global approach byKapos et al. (2000), that uses elevation, slope and local elevation range todefine the “mountain areas of the world”. Included in this classificationwere highlands and elevated ice shields above 2500 m, as well as areaswith an elevation range greater than 300 m within a horizontal distanceof 5 km below that altitude.

Countries and territories of the world 1 2 3and their mountain area (%) (no.) (%)

(Countries in this category are not listed) 0–10 70 1.3

Algeria, Angola, Argentina, Belize, Cameroon, Canada, 10–25 30 3.5Equatorial Guinea, Faroe Islands, France, Germany, Guinea, Guadeloupe, India, Jordan, Kenya, Martinique, Mozambique, Namibia, Nicaragua, Oman, Uganda, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, St. Lucia, Sweden, Syria, Tanzania, Tunisia, United Kingdom, Uzbekistan

Bolivia, Bulgaria, Colombia, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, 25–50 46 10.4Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Ethiopia, Fiji, French Polynesia, French Southern & Antarctic Lands, Greenland, Guatemala, Indonesia, Israel, Jamaica, Jan Mayen, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Mauritius, Mexico, Mongolia, Myanmar (Burma), Pakistan, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Portugal, Puerto Rico, Romania, Russia, Sao Tome and Principe, Solomon Islands, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Thailand, United States, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen, Zimbabwe

Afghanistan, Albania, Andorra, Antarctica, Armenia, Austria, 50–100 53 11.0Azerbaijan, Bhutan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Burundi, Cape Verde, Chile, China, Comoros, Costa Rica, Djibouti, El Salvador, Eritrea, Georgia, Greece, Haiti, Honduras, Iceland, Iran, Italy, Japan, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Lebanon, Lesotho, Macedonia, Montenegro, Morocco, Nepal, New Caledonia, New Zealand, North Korea, Norway, Reunion, Rwanda, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Georgia and the South Sand-wich Islands, Svalbard, Swaziland, Switzerland, Taiwan, Tajikistan, Turkey, Vanuatu, West Bank, Western Samoa

Total countries and territories analysed 0–100 199 26.2

29The countries of the world and their mountain areas

Europe: Alpine communities

“Alliance in the Alps”: filling a policy framework with the spirit of innovation After the signing of the Alpine Convention in 1991, the process of cooper-ation on concrete problems got underway relatively slowly. The situationchanged in 1996 with the foundation of “Alliance in the Alps”, an organi-sation in which 27 Alpine communities started to collaborate actively to implement the principles of the Alpine Convention. This was an impor-tant breakthrough. Today, over 150 Alpine communities participate in thisinternational network, which has become a breeding ground for innova-tion and exchange of experience.

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Constitution of the network

“Alliance in the Alps” is an internationalnon-profit organisation (association) with aboard of actively engaged community presi-dents. In each of the eight Alpine countries,the association is represented by a countryoffice, usually organised as a non-profit asso-ciation. In Switzerland, where about 80 com-munities participate, the governmentfinances a small network secretariat.

One of the characteristics of the network isthe great variety and heterogeneity of the par-ticipating municipalities, each of which facesdifferent development issues. Though it issometimes difficult to define common inter-ests shared by small rural communities withless than 100 inhabitants and world-classtourism resorts or industrialised communities

with more than 5000 inhabitants, varietyamong Alpine municipalities can also beregarded as a particular strength of the net-work.

The network in practice

The network regularly organises nationaland international workshops and conferencesthat provide important opportunities fordirect interaction between municipal leaders.Many new ideas are born at these events, andprojects initiated. However, the most impor-tant benefit is exchange of experience. Whatis important is the professional follow-up thatthe network provides to its members. Expertsfrom the network are facilitators and thus fillthe gap between formulation of stimulating


Salgesch, Switzerland, was among the foundingmembers of the Alliance.Today, other municipalitiesaround the Pfynwald forest (see centre of thepicture) are also members.They jointly implement the“Landscape ExperiencePfynwald”.After decades of conflictsbetween environmental-ists, planners of roads,flood protection projects,and foresters, this projectnow defines the develop-ment goals for this uniqueforest ecosystem. (Alpenbüro)

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ideas and embarking on concrete projects.Collaboration creates new capacities for sus-tainable development. Among other things,the participating communities have the rightto use a specific label, recognised acrossEurope, which increases their competitive-ness, though only on a formal level.

What has been achieved

In its few years of existence, the “Alliance inthe Alps” has achieved a number of results.More than 70 projects have been initiatedusing a bottom-up approach. An impressive

innovative capacity is developing in the com-petitive environment of the network as aresult of this process. A report on the first fiveyears of the network, including a list of proj-ects, can be ordered from the secretariat ofthe parent association ([email protected]).The projects relate to, and link together thefollowing areas of activity: sustainabletourism, agriculture, forestry, energy, trans-port, nature protection, and economy.

Jöri Schwärzel


“Direct benefits for us”“The Val Lumnezia had already embarkedon a sustainable development path priorto the establishment of the network. Butwe joined the Alliance as we wanted tofurther improve our projects. The net-work provides us with access to experi-ence in other municipalities and to mate-rial already available in other parts of theAlps. It is also important to know peopleand to be informed in a timely mannerabout new initiatives that may be of inter-est to our community.”

Statement of Silvio Capeder, who for tenyears has been the president of Cumbel, asmall village in the Swiss Alps, and is nowthe manager of the “Val Lumnezia” proj-ect.

Bohinj, a partnercommunity of the Alliancein Slovenia.(CIPRA)

The municipality of Lauerz,Switzerland, which joinedthe network in 2001, is located at the foot of Mt. Rigi. In 2001, around40 residents participated in a conference which ledto project ideas in educa-tion, recreation and sport,marketing of local products, and social inte-gration in the village. Theprojects are now beingimplemented.(Alpenbüro)

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Europe: Switzerland

A compensation fund to support development in mountain areas For the last six decades, Switzerland has followed a policy designed to avoid widespread depopulation of its mountain areas that would alsohave led to severe ecological problems. First, farmers and forestry opera-tions in the mountains received subsidies and sectoral infrastructure pro-grammes as compensation for the disadvantages they face when compet-ing with lowland farmers. Second, an umbrella law (IHG) was passed in1975 to provide loans for small investment projects in mountain communi-ties. To gain access to the IHG, the politically independent mountain com-munities must organise themselves into so-called development (IHG)regions and reach consensus on their development priorities.

Origins and objectives of the IHG

The late 1960s were years of economicgrowth. The Swiss government was thereforeinclined to think about a more equitable dis-tribution of economic benefits between bet-ter-off areas and marginal areas found mostlyin the mountains.

The main political objective was to ensurethat mountain areas would not be depopulat-ed rapidly, and that mountain agriculturewould not collapse due to the impact of mod-ernisation. This objective was to be achieved

with a broad-based loan programme, underan umbrella law providing a Swiss InvestmentFund (IHG) for mountain areas. This law waspassed by the Parliament in 1975.

Establishing development regions

To become eligible for the soft loans pro-vided by this law, communities had to be clas-sified according to topographic criteria as‘mountain communities’ and collaborate in‘development regions’ organised as privateassociations by the communities. By 1983, 54such development regions, composed of 1225municipalities, had been registered by thefederal government. The IHG also providedthe new associations with funds to establishsmall secretariats.

The first task of each development regionwas to prepare an integrated developmentplan. The plans identified the individualdevelopment projects for which funding wassought through the IHG. They also had to


“It is not possible to start something new withouttaking a certain risk. We should have the courage to take this risk. I think that it can be calculated and managed.”Statement of Federal Councillor Brugger during a debate in the SwissParliament, in November 1973, on the IHG and whether it should beestablished as an expression of solidarity by the Swiss population with itsmountain areas.

The village of Corippo in the Verzasca valley,Switzerland, was more or less abandoned in the 1970s, though it is located only about 25 km from the tourist centres of Locarno and Ascona. (P. Walther)

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address issues of nature and landscape pro-tection, in accordance with national legisla-tion. The fact that the IHG regions were par-tially in competition with each other helpedput the process on track relatively quickly.

25 years of achievement

By 1991, 3078 development projects hadbeen co-funded by the IHG, and the imbal-ance in basic service infrastructure betweenmountain and lowland areas had beenreduced. The population increased by 10%between 1970 and 1990.

At a more psychological level, involvingrecognition of the mountains as specificdevelopment areas, the impacts were perhapseven more sustainable. While the municipali-ties initially found it difficult to organisethemselves into ‘development regions’ andagree on setting boundaries or developmentobjectives, they soon overcame these prob-lems and began to collaborate more effective-ly. This was a very important achievement, asthe level of decentralisation and local auton-omy is extremely high in Switzerland for his-torical reasons.

The regional secretariats are importantfocal and entry points for all business andpublic sector contacts, including potentialinvestors. To further strengthen their newroles, a national organisation of the regionaldevelopment secretariats was established in1993. Its main objective is to facilitateexchange of experience and collaborationbetween the development regions.

New roles in the future

Experience has shown that projects whichmake an area more attractive by creatingincentives for potential investors from indus-try, services and tourism are, in the long run,

more effective and sustainable than projectswhich focus too narrowly on basic services formountain people. Through wise investments,the IHG can help create new jobs in themountains. Examples include projects to buyland for business development, investmentsin tourism infrastructure such as thermalbath centres, congress or sport facilities.

Jörg Wyder


Opportunities for learningThe Swiss experience with the IHG couldalso be relevant to other social compensa-tion funds, for example in many countriesof South America (funded by the WorldBank and other donors). The key princi-ples are: (a) bottom-up organisation; (b)local and participatory decision-makingand planning; (c) demand-driven; (d) sig-nificant (financial) contribution frombenefiting communities.

Farm house in the BerneseOberland: the IHG does notsupport private projects,but primarily investmentsinto public infrastructure,such as access roads andcommunity centres. (T. Kohler)

The hill area of theEmmental is an IHG region. To become eligible for IHGfunds, the communitieshad to organise themselvesinto associations. Today,these communities feelthat they can effectivelyshape their future by working together. (T. Kohler)

The map indicatesmountain regionsqualifying for funding by the IHG. (Source: SECO)

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Central Asia: Tajikistan

Generating knowledge for development in the Pamir mountains The collapse of the Soviet Union brought independence to the Republicsof Central Asia. The transition from planned economy to market economyhas brought profound changes that have had a particularly heavy impacton marginal mountain areas. In the Tajik Pamir, characterised by increas-ing poverty and dependence on external humanitarian support, the PamirStrategy Project aims to promote sustainable mountain development by generating knowledge about the status and trends of selected sectorsand negotiating a strategic vision for the region.

The Pamir mountains cover parts ofAfghanistan, China, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, andTajikistan. The heart of the Pamir is theGorno Badakshan Autonomous Oblast(GBAO) of Tajikistan, a 70,000 km2 area, withpeaks rising to 7400 m. This remarkable land-scape is dominated by high plateaus in theeast, and deep valleys with glaciers and tradi-tional settlements on alluvial fans in the west.The arid climate and low levels of human dis-turbance in these sparsely populated moun-

tains have given rise to a remarkable diversityof plants and animals.

Transformation in the Tajik Pamir

Reality for most people in the Tajik Pamircontrasts with visitors’ first impressions of ahuman and natural paradise. AfterTajikistan’s independence, the Soviet Unioncut off considerable subsidies for energy,food, and infrastructure. Almost immediately,in 1992, a civil war broke out in Tajikistan,bringing many refugees to the GBAO, whichwas not directly involved. Both developmentsbrought the region to the edge of humanitar-ian catastrophe. Famine was only avoidedthrough massive relief efforts undertaken bythe Aga Khan Development Network(AKDN), which are still continuing.

The region is characterised by increasingpoverty, structural economic problems, anddecaying infrastructure. From 1995 to 2000,the number of jobs was cut in half; unem-ployment among the region’s 200,000 inhabi-tants now exceeds 20 %. Barter trade haspractically replaced the former cash econo-my. Pressure on natural resources has alsoincreased, as arable land is very limited.Energy supplies are minimal, and the region’sfew trees and bushes are cut to replace fossilfuel. A fragile peace within Tajikistan andwith its neighbours, combined with isolationdue to the remote location and the limitedand unreliable transportation links, posesmajor hurdles for development.

Yet the region has obvious potential whichremains largely unexploited. This includesrich natural resources, such as minerals andthe potential for hydropower; scenic beautyattractive for tourism; and relatively high lev-els of education due to the unifying cultural


The valleys of the WesternPamir are dotted with vil-lages where the populationengages mainly in irrigatedfarming, under severetopographic and climaticconstraints. Developingadditional economic oppor-tunities is a crucial issue in negotiations for a strategy aiming at sustainable mountaindevelopment.(Ch. Hergarten)

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orientation of the Ismaili culture of ShiaIslam. Full exploitation of this potential willrequire a transport and communication infra-structure for regional integration.

Developing a knowledge base

Promoting sustainable development in theGBAO is a great political, economic, social,and ecological challenge. As part of its pro-gramme for the IYM, the Swiss Agency forDevelopment and Cooperation is supportinga strategy to address this challenge. One pre-requisite is a knowledge system to provideinformation about the status, trends, andmechanisms of the social and ecological sys-tems.

To begin accumulating the necessaryknowledge, baseline information was gath-ered through participatory fieldwork inselected villages and high pastures in the sum-mer of 2001, in cooperation with the AKDNand the Agency for Technical Cooperationand Development. This work emphasised theliving conditions and perceptions of villagersand herders. To complement this informa-tion, remotely sensed data, data on naturalresources and socio-economic data wereincorporated in a Geographic InformationSystem.

Participatory strategy negotiations

Based on the information and knowledgeacquired in summer 2001, problems relatingto natural resources, land use, socio-economy,and governance were identified. Initialvisions for further development, as well asoptions and constraints, were then outlined.

A workshop will be held in the GBAO toensure a sound and widely accepted develop-

ment strategy, with active involvement andbroad participation by local, provincial,national, and international stakeholders. Theworkshop will enhance knowledge about theTajik Pamir for all participants, provide a plat-form to achieve joint visions, and negotiate apath towards sustainable development.

Thomas Breu, Hans Hurni


Building on a transdisciplinary approachThe process of knowledge generation and strategy development benefitsfrom the transdisciplinary mode of work, which brings together expertsfrom various disciplines and government offices, and most importantly, thepeople living in the project area. Multiple outcomes will ensue, includingan information database to be used for planning, education and monitor-ing; a common knowledge base arising from involved stakeholders; and astrategy to improve the livelihoods of mountain people in a well-preservedenvironment.

Right: The Pamir mountains are marked by extremeremoteness. This narrowroad, carved out of the rocks, connectsGorno Badakshan with Tajikistan’s capital,Dushanbe, a distance that requires a two-dayjourney. (E. Kleinn)

Left: In the Eastern Pamir, high plains extend over a vast area at an averagealtitude of 3500 m. This area is used by theKyrgyz minority, who lettheir yak herds graze dur-ing the summer months. The Pamir Strategy Projectis examining the option of expanding the use of these pastures whilealso taking account of the limitations imposedby conservation of theunique biodiversity. (J. Hangartner)

Knowledge about selectedtopics should establish a basis for negotiationsamong development stake-holders. The process shouldultimately lead to a soundand well-adapted strategicvision for the Tajik Pamirmountains.(T. Breu)

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Central Asia: Kyrgyzstan

Rural development through investments in community-based tourismKyrgyzstan, until recently largely unknown outside the CIS countries, is now becoming a destination for adventure and cultural tourism. Duringthe 1990s, tourism development was mostly managed by private touroperators based in the capital city. To counter this imbalance, the conceptof community-based tourism has been introduced.

Most of Kyrgyzstan is above 2500 m. TheTien Shan mountain range, containing highpeaks such as Victory Peak and Hantengri(both over 7000 m) divides the country intotwo distinct parts. Northern Kyrgyzstanincludes Lake Issyk-Kul, at 1600 m the secondlargest mountain lake in the world after LakeTiticaca, and is mostly populated by Kyrgyz,Russians, Chinese, and Koreans – all inminority groupings. Southern Kyrgyzstan ismainly populated by Kyrgyz and Uzbeks.Kyrgyzstan’s rich and diverse cultural heritagestems from the nomadic lifestyle of its peopleand its location on the Great Silk Road toChina.

The Year of Tourism (2001) as a starting point for policy reforms

The Kyrgyz Republic is a country stillundergoing political and economic transi-tion. Emphasising the importance of tourismfor the country’s economic development,President Akaev declared 2001 the Year ofTourism. The state administration put consid-erable effort into tourism marketing butowing to various adverse factors, including

terrorist threats and the September 11th inci-dent, the increase in tourism was marginaland certainly not of the magnitude expected.Other negative factors are the poor quality ofservices and high prices in relation to thequality of the state-run tourism services.

As a result of these shortcomings, PresidentAkaev’s administration has devised a 10-yeartourism development plan focusing on mar-keting, infrastructure, tourism education,improvement of quality, and control and pri-vatisation of state-run resorts. For instance,only 16% of the resorts around Lake Issyk-Kulhad been privatised by 2000. This situation ischanging, but painfully slowly, due in part toexcessive bureaucracy and vested interests.Hopefully, a comprehensive strategy, support-ive national and regional policies, and coop-eration between the private and state tourismsectors will make tourism a major economicsector, although it is still at an early stage.

Community Based Tourism (CBT)

Tourism development in the ten years sinceindependence has been managed by privatetour operators, mostly situated in the capitalcity of Bishkek. Due to interest in the SilkRoad and the mountainous landscape, tour


Tourism – a state priority in KyrgyzstanThe tourism industry, still a fledgling sec-tor in the economy, has become a priorityconcern for the Kyrgyz government. A 10-year action plan concentrates on develop-ing small and medium-sized enterprises(SMEs) in tourism, abolishing bureaucra-cy, and promoting (foreign) investmentthrough a conducive legal framework ofprivatisation, tax reduction, a state policyfor destination marketing, and a state-runTourism Promotion Board.

The beautiful mountainlandscape of the Tien Shanalong the Silk Road is animportant asset for tourismdevelopment. A communi-ty-based approachguarantees that the incomegenerated by tourismbenefits local communities.(Helvetas)

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operators have had an annual growth rate of10–25%, with most tourism-related businessand profits generated in Bishkek. To counterthis imbalance, community-based tourism(CBT) has been introduced and developed byan international NGO, with the goal of gen-erating income in rural Kyrgyzstan.

The project, which started in 1999, offerscapacity building and marketing support tolocal tourism providers in rural and mountainareas. There are now seven CBT groups in dif-ferent locations. Each group is self-managedand has received hospitality, tourism, andbusiness-related training or specifically out-sourced service providers, such as tour opera-tors. A self-managed quality-monitoring sys-tem helps to maintain high-quality, adaptedstandards.

Integration and networking for better marketing

In order to advertise, publicise and expandtheir activities and facilities, it is necessary tolink tourism providers to external niche mar-kets of eco-tourism and cultural tourism. TheCBT groups actively cooperate with a tourism

development company in Bishkek. In its thirdyear of operation, the company is alreadyviable and profitable, marketing CBT servicesabroad – mostly in Switzerland, Germany,France, and the Netherlands. This collabora-tion was essential in promoting CBT servicesabroad and making CBT services available topackage holidaymakers and individualtourists in the West.

From 2002, the seven CBT groups areestablishing a national CBT association aimedat unifying quality standards, joint marketing,and lobbying for rural community-basedtourism at the national level.

Karin Füeg


Community Based Tourism (CBT) in briefIn its ideal form, CBT is initiated and operated by local tourism providersor stakeholders in harmony with their traditional culture and responsiblefor the stewardship of their land. In tourism development, communityparticipation provides means through which local control and ownershipcan be maintained and the following local concerns can be addressed:(a) conservation of natural resources; (b) improvement of the socio-eco-nomic situation; (c) conservation of historical and cultural resources; and(d) more effective planning and implementation, and monitoring oftourism activities.

CBT in practice in KyrgyzstanAnnual tourism planning and evaluationworkshops are conducted independentlyby the CBT group members in seven sites.Action plans also include indicators toevaluate success and sustainability oftourism actions.

Tourist information centres in four loca-tions are self-managed by CBT groups.They inform incoming tourists abouttourism services.

Pricing and quality control in CBT sitesfoster greater tourist satisfaction. CBTgroups enforce standardisation of facili-ties, minimum prices, and control of serv-ices.

CBT group members elect coordinatorsin each location with the aim of coordi-nating and achieving common results andbuilding capacity for joint actions. CBTgroups manage a fund created from com-missions on tourist services.

Examples of micro-enterprises in CBTlocations include trekking and horsebackriding guides, interpreters, and driverswho will take care of the guests once theyhave reached a CBT site.

Horseback riding guides in Kyrgyzstan are an example of micro-enterprise creation in remote mountain areas.(K. Füeg)

Tourism is a state priorityin Kyrgyzstan. Investmentsin Community-BasedTourism include capacitybuilding, marketing, and business-relatedtraining. Today seven CBTgroups are about to createa national CBT associationto ensure uniformstandards of quality and undertake jointmarketing and lobbying at the national level.(K. Füeg)

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Asia: Vietnam

New challenges for sectoral policy makingand planning in an economy in transitionBao Loc District in the Central Highlands of southern Vietnam is one of the best areas in the world for silk farming and production. Recently,US$ 18 million was invested to modernise the state-owned silk processingfactory. Yet silk production has declined rapidly to around 10% of whatwas targeted in government plans. A pilot project was undertaken todetermine how this could be related to policy issues and the deficienciesof the heavily centralised government planning system. The project’sresults are relevant to many transition countries moving towards a mar-ket economy. Numerous economic and ecological benefits could beachieved if the agricultural planning system were modernised.

Government planning in a state economy

In the initial phase of the study, a represen-tative of the local Department of Planningand Investment (DPI) described his prob-lems: “Only around 10% of the targets for thesilk industry and the socio-economic plansthat we have defined in our sector will be met,despite the fact that Bao Loc is one of the bestareas in the world for sericulture. We haveinvested around US$ 18 million in the localstate-owned silk processing plant (VISERI),but VISERI complains about a lack of rawmaterial, as farmers are increasingly movinginto coffee plantations. These plantationscause soil erosion on steep slopes, which is

not sustainable in the long run. What shouldwe do to improve our planning system?”

This final question reflects the logic of theold state-controlled economy in which thegovernment, the only investor in the country,was perceived as responsible for solving everyproblem. The government still preparesnumerous socio-economic and sectoral plans,with little involvement of stakeholders. Thedraft plans are submitted at the national levelfor final decisions about public investmentand targets. Many plans demonstrate a lack ofclarity about the ways and means of achievingtargets and objectives. There is also a lack ofcoordination between the different sectoralplans.

Challenges in a market economy

Today, in a market economy, farmers’ deci-sions regarding investment in long-termperennial cash crops are no longer under thecomplete control of the government or VIS-ERI. Farmers make alternative investmentdecisions, based on their own perceptions ofdemand, input, and familiarity with a tech-nology package for efficient management ofsuch investments. As mulberry production


The silk industry creates jobsReviving the silk sector could pave the wayfor sustainable development in Bao Loc inthe Central Highlands of southernVietnam. One of the main advantages of sericulture is that it is very labour-intensive and can provide gainful employ-ment to large numbers of rural residents.

The state-owned enter-prise, VISERI, continues tooperate according to sec-toral plans which are elab-orated without consulta-tion with stakeholders.Production targets areoutput-oriented and notbalanced with inputs andprogrammes needed to achieve them. The logicof a business plan is still anovelty for VISERI.(B. Wiedmer)

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and silk worm rearing is not perceived as veryprofitable, coffee is replacing more tradition-al production in the area.

Discussions with farmers revealed manyopportunities for improving farming technol-ogy in sericulture. It was estimated that withmore suitable technology packages such asthose used in China or in Thailand, Bao Loc’sfarmers could triple their return per hectare,making sericulture once again very attractivefor further investment. At the same time, soilerosion could be minimised.

The present government planning system isnot responding to such challenges. Instead ofsetting socio-economic and sectoral targets, itwould be more profitable and effective forthe government to concentrate on its coreresponsibilities – such as defining a policy forsericulture development, agricultural re-search, and dissemination of informationthrough agricultural extension services. Thecurrent planning system adds virtually novalue to sericulture in Bao Loc.

New role for sectoral policies?

The study established, for the first time, aprovincial platform for discussing the above-mentioned problems and elaborating possi-ble solutions, in a spirit of collaborationbetween all stakeholders – including DPI,VISERI, and representatives of farming asso-ciations. The government played a facilitatingrole, and the platform was seen as having thepotential to develop into a new planningapproach at the district or provincial level.

However, the results still require political dis-cussion.

This analysis showed that maintaining ahigh level of central government controlmakes it difficult, especially in remote moun-tain areas, to address local developmentissues in a concrete fashion. What is requiredfrom the national government is not more orbetter planning but rather a sectoral policythat clarifies the roles and responsibilities ofthe different stakeholders in development –VISERI, the sericulture research institute, theprivate sector, agricultural extension services,farmers – and that defines a regulatory frame-work for environmental issues.

Bernhard Wiedmer, Dennis Ellingson


Mr Nguyen Xuan Kien,Director of the Lam DongDepartment of Planning and Investment (DPI), about the pilot project: “This project has already brought severalbenefits to Lamdong. First, economicevaluation confirms that there is greatpotential for development of the silkindustry. Development of this sector willbring socio-economic benefits as well assolutions for the employment problem,which is very severe. Second, public meet-ings with farmers and stakeholders helpedthem to gain a comprehensive under-standing of the silk sector. They came tounderstand which parts of the systemneed strengthening.“

One of the first local(provincial level) platformswas established for directdiscussion of particulardevelopment issuesrelevant to the silk industryin Bao Loc with the stake-holders concerned(farmers, planners, VISERI).(D. Ellingson)

The landscape of Bao LocDistrict, Lam DongProvince: an unimprovedmulberry variety at an early stage of growthcan be seen in the fore-ground.(B. Wiedmer)

Introduction of new concepts in a market economyThe relationship between the capacity of agricultural extension servicesand development of sericulture is not yet understood. As VISERI is notaccountable to farming associations but only to the national government,it is increasingly investing in tourism and other operations instead of pro-moting sericulture. There is also no legal basis that allows VISERI to signcontracts with farming associations to secure supplies of raw material.

Below: An improved high-yield mulberry variety, with proper plantingdensity, for optimalproduction, soil protection,and erosion control.(B. Wiedmer)

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Asia: Japan

The Mountain Village Development Act andits impacts on sector policiesMost of Japan is mountainous land, mainly covered by forests which have various important functions in this highly industrialised country.Mountain communities ensure that their forests are managed in a sustain-able way, but they have been partially neglected by national policy mak-ers. In 1965, in response to the problems of depopulation of mountain vil-lages, the Japanese government approved the Mountain VillageDevelopment Act. One of the aims of this act is to eliminate socio-eco-nomic differences between mountain and lowland areas.

As in many parts of the world, the moun-tain areas in Japan lack well-developed trans-portation and communication infrastructureand adequate social services. As localeconomies are often weak, mountain areasface the serious problems of depopulationand ageing. Young people migrate from theseareas, particularly in countries with vibranteconomies such as Japan.

An integrated approach...

The villages targeted by the 1965 Act arethose in need of development, located inmountainous areas with high forest cover anddeclining population. The main objectives ofthe Act are:

1. To improve communication amongmountain villages, and between mountainand lowland populations, through transporta-tion and telecommunication infrastructure;

2. To ensure that mountain land, forest,and water resources are effectively exploitedthrough such measures as road construction,

electric power generation, and improvementof agricultural land;

3. To strengthen local industries andincrease employment in mountain areasthrough measures such as the establishmentof modern forest management and farmingsystems, development of processing industriesfor agricultural and primary forestry prod-ucts, introduction of tourism, and the cultiva-tion of markets for unique, local products;

4. To control erosion and prevent naturalhazards such as landslides and avalanches, bymaintaining and conserving forests and keyinfrastructure;

5. To increase access to social services bybuilding schools, hospitals, clinics, culturalcentres, and other facilities, in order to gen-erally improve living and working conditions.

...implemented through sectoral programmes

Within the framework of this law, 12 min-istries and government agencies have adopt-ed and implemented specific policies andprogrammes.

Recently, the 1964 Forest and Forestry Actwas revised to better reflect the changes thathave taken place in the mountain areas. Thiswas a form of recognition of the long experi-


Below: Mt. Fuji from a dis-tance. Volcanic landscapes are an important feature of mountain areas in Japan. (Ministry of Foreign Affairs,Japan)

Right: Education in the forest. Children measuringthe size of a tree,Hokkaido. (M. Sato)

41

ence of the Japan Forest Agency in undertak-ing projects to revive mountain villages, suchas preservation activities and educational pro-grammes.

But the sustainable development of moun-tain areas requires a multidisciplinaryapproach. While the Mountain VillageDevelopment Act covers mainly the social andthe economic aspects of mountain develop-ment, environmental aspects are addressedby other policies and laws, such as the BasicEnvironment Plan and the NatureConservation Law.

Some mountain areas are also protected byother laws, such as the Natural Parks Law, theForest Law, and the Cultural Properties andProtection Law.

Greater cooperation among sectors

Though no specific institution currentlydeals with mountain issues, Japan is commit-ted to a comprehensive and integratedapproach to sustainable development of itsmountain areas. 12 ministries and govern-ment agencies are working together toachieve this goal, and close cooperationamong them is increasingly essential. Theyhold regular discussions on both the plan-ning and implementation of their policiesand programmes. Without this collaboration,individual ministries and agencies will not beable to meet the overall goal of sustainabledevelopment in mountain areas.

Maho Sato


Left: Northern JapaneseAlps seen from HakubaVillage, Nagano. A significant proportion of Japan’s territory ismountainous.(Ministry of Foreign Affairs,Japan)

Within the framework of the Mountain VillageDevelopment Act passed in 1965, 12 ministries and government agencieshave adopted and imple-mented specific policiesand programmes. Environmental aspects areaddressed by other laws,and through the Ministryof Environment.(Source: M. Sato)

Right: KamikochiHighlands, Nagano.Recreation in mountains and mountainforests is an importantfunction in Japan’s highlyindustrialised economy. (Ministry of Foreign Affairs,Japan)

Local developmentplansThe municipal govern-ments of mountain vil-lages are required toelaborate develop-ment plans thatinclude programmesfor various projectsdesigned to achievedevelopment goals.

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Africa: Morocco

Elaborating a policy framework for conservation and mountain development To respond to the challenge of Chapter 13 of Agenda 21, and also to the need to conserve forests subject to degradation, Morocco’s Ministryof Water and Forest, in coordination with other departments concerned,began in 1999 to draft a policy framework for conservation and inte-grated development of the country’s mountain areas. This process led to the adoption of a strategy for protection and development of these areas. It also had an important impact in promoting recognitionof the importance of mountains.

A broad focus

Morocco’s mountains cover about a quarterof the nation’s total land area. A series of stud-ies and plans conducted at the national levelhave concluded that the mountains have sig-nificant potential in terms of naturalresources; that their economic, ecological,and social systems are fragile; and that thereis a need to formulate a specific policy formountain development.

To respond to these insights and theincreasing threat of degradation of mountainforests, the national forestry programme rec-ommended the drafting of a policy and a lawfor protection and integrated development ofthe country’s mountains. There was broadconsensus that the policy should not be limit-ed to strategies and measures at the technicaland/or administrative level. Increasingly, theneed became clear for a policy to mobilise the

government administration and local com-munities and actors, in a voluntary and par-ticipatory manner. One objective of theprocess was to create national solidarity tobenefit the mountains and their integrationinto national policy.

The process of consensus building

The first step was establishment of an inter-ministerial task force on the initiative of theMinistry of Water and Forest. This resulted invarious working groups that included bothtechnical staff and representatives of researchinstitutes and NGOs. The process receivedfinancial and technical support from theFrench government.

Workshops were held on topics such asdelineation of mountain areas, agriculturaldevelopment, commercialisation, the handi-


The introduction of the national forest lawin the mid 1930s declaredforests, which were previ-ously owned and managedby the community, to be state property. Deforestation was induced by the selling of loggingrights to external contrac-tors. Interventions in this fragile environmentwere so drastic that forestsdid not regenerate. Localpeople were even forced toextract dead tree trunks forfirewood. A new national policyaiming at the rehabilitation of these degraded forestareas and restoration of responsibility to the local communitiescould be a promising wayof reversing negativetrends and moving towardssustainable development. (D. Maselli)

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craft sector, tourism, transport and access,natural resources, social services, institutionalinstruments for mountain development, andfinancial and economic regulatory frame-works for implementing strategies.

The process also included meetings in thefield with local authorities and leaders as wellas elected officials, with the further aim ofestablishing processes of mutual learning,improving problem analysis, and increasingpublic awareness of the process. Both work-shops and meetings in the field allowed thegovernment to define a realistic strategy forthe protection and integrated developmentof mountain areas.

Innovative elements in the policyframework

The framework had two main objectives:decreasing the social and economic imbal-ance between mountain areas and the rest ofthe country, and combating poverty by stimu-lating local self-governance. These broadobjectives were addressed by the followingstrategy:– promotion of a territorial approach, to pro-

vide mountain areas with a socio-economicframework that favours the organisation ofcommunities for the management of theirnatural resources;

– integration of sectoral policies and activitiesconcerned with basic social needs in a newpartnership, to ensure greater stakeholderinvolvement;

– adoption of a partnership and a participa-tory approach for the conservation of natu-ral resources;

– incentives to increase national solidarity on

behalf of mountain areas.The strategy was adopted by the Inter-min-

isterial Council on Sustainable Development.

Preliminary conclusions

Consultation about the drafting of the lawfor conservation and integrated developmentof mountain areas is also underway, and ahigh commission has begun implementationof elements of the policy framework.

One crucial issue was that the particulari-ties of different mountain areas, or massifs,must be taken into account when definingand implementing concrete measures,orders, guidelines, and regulations. At thisconcrete level, the involvement of the localstakeholders will be essential.

Ghanam Mohamed, Hammou Jader


Remote mountain areasoften suffer from out-migration to modern urbancentres. However, newlybuilt terraces still lackingbush and tree cover are positive signs thatpeople intend to stay and that they believe in the future of their tradi-tional livelihood. (D. Maselli)

The Atlas Mountains covermuch of Moroccoand are home to about20% of the total popula-tion. Accessibility is stillpoor, and in particularyoung people tend toleave for the cities. Theyare thus no longer avail-able to help maintain thetraditional terraced land-use system. A comprehen-sive development policyfor mountain areas musttherefore includeprovisions that make it possible to connect these remote areas with the modern world by means of roads, electric-ity, telecommunication,sanitation, and healthservices.(D. Maselli)

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Africa: Lesotho

Water policy and management: trade-offsbetween mountains and downstream areas Water is the principal natural resource that the land-locked Kingdom ofLesotho sells to its neighbour, South Africa. In the 1980s South Africa’sapartheid government signed an agreement with the military regime inLesotho to build the massive Lesotho Highlands Water Project. Two of fivelarge dams have now been completed. The project has brought water rev-enues, hydroelectric power, and major infrastructure to Lesotho andwater to Gauteng Province, the metropolitan and industrial centre ofSouth Africa. While the benefits to South Africa are clear, the mountainpeople of Lesotho have lost arable and grazing land, and remote moun-tain communities have experienced major changes.

The mountain Kingdom of Lesotho:water tower for southern Africa

The Kingdom of Lesotho, one of the poor-est countries in Africa, is completely sur-rounded by the Republic of South Africa, thecontinent’s most powerful nation. Sometimesreferred to as the “Kingdom in the Sky”, theLesotho Highlands receive the greatestamount of rainfall in the region and are theorigin of some of the most important rivers insouthern Africa.

Whereas South Africa dominates almost allspheres of economic and political relationsbetween the two countries, the peripheralmountain kingdom has been able to marketone asset to the South African lowlands: itswater. The Lesotho Highlands Water Projectis the largest civil engineering project in sub-Saharan Africa. This gigantic inter-basintransfer scheme is designed to divert about50% of the water of the southwest-flowingSenqu River (Orange River in South Africa)north into the Vaal River system for use in theprovince of Gauteng, which includes themajor cities of Johannesburg and Pretoria

(some 7 million people altogether), and theWitwatersrand, which contains about 50% ofSouth Africa’s industry and generates almost80% of its mining output. The LesothoHighlands Water Project appears to meet thecrucial requirement of sufficient water avail-ability for further urban expansion and indus-trial development.

The governments that signed the contractfor the Lesotho Highlands Water Project in1986 were South Africa’s apartheid govern-ment and a military regime in Lesotho, at atime when downstream Namibia was gov-erned by the United Nations Council. Thepresent democratic government of SouthAfrica also recognises the importance of theproject, since for example the promise ofmore equal distribution of water supplyrequires higher quantities of water for thelarge townships.

Managing white gold …

Diverting this amount of water into a differ-ent watershed requires several dams andreservoirs, a series of pumping plants, andinterconnecting tunnels blasted through theHighlands. The entire project consists of sixproposed dams, 225 km of water transfer tun-nels, the 72-megawatt Muela hydropower sta-tion, and construction or upgrading of 650km of roads. It is expected to cost US$ 8 bil-lion by the time it is completed in 2020. Plansfor the inter-basin water transfer scheme wereagreed in 1986 and construction started in1991 with the first large dam, Katse (1950 mil-lion cubic metres), delivering water in 1997.At present, Mohale, the second large dam(958 million cubic metres), is nearly complet-ed. Further project phases will involve the


Livestock husbandry is an integral part of livelihood strategies in the highlands of Lesotho. Especially the wetlands, whichprovide a perennial watersupply, are used as valuable grazing areas.(M. Nüsser)

45

construction of additional dams at Mashai,Tsoelike, and Ntoahae. However, the viabilityof the last three phases will be reconsidered,as growing concerns about serious economic,social, and ecological impacts have beenexpressed by various actors, including theWorld Bank.

Whereas South Africa receives all of thewater from the project, Lesotho receivesannual payments for the sale of water. Thiswill be its largest single source of foreignexchange and is expected to boost the coun-try’s economy by US$ 40 million annually.Moreover, Lesotho receives hydroelectricpower from the Muela plant and massiveinfrastructure in the form of roads and trans-mission lines. From the perspective of mod-ernisation, these are important developmentincentives. While the capital, Maseru, andother urban areas in the lowlands of Lesothohave become independent of other powersupplies, the mountain communities in theupper tributaries do not benefit from the newhydropower, as most of the high altitudecatchment areas have not yet been connectedto transmission lines.

… for whose benefit?

The project is managed by the LesothoHighlands Development Authority, a semi-governmental organisation responsible forresettlement and compensation issues, envi-ronmental protection, and overall construc-tion management. Critics of the controversialhighland-lowland project point to develop-mental and environmental problems such asthe prospective loss of thousands of hectaresof arable or grazing land, the involuntaryresettlement of 2000 people, and dramaticchanges experienced by formerly remotemountain communities, combined with insuf-ficient and delayed compensation for the lossof grazing land, fuelwood, and thatch grasses.Moreover, the high expectations of non-agrarian income opportunities for the localpopulation of the Lesotho Highlands havenot been fulfilled. Environmental concernsinclude the serious effects on downstreamdrainage patterns, such as reductions of wateravailability and wetlands, as well as other eco-logical consequences. These concerns led tohuge protests over the large dams in Lesotho,and the realisation of further project phases isbound to be controversial.

Marcus Nüsser


Large tussock grasses(Merxmuellera drakens-bergensis) used for ropemaking. Indigenousknowledge of botanicalresources and multi-functional utilisation are part of the traditionalresource use systems in Lesotho. (M. Nüsser)

With a height of 185 m,the Katse dam is the highest in Africa.(M. Nüsser)

The Katse dam is the keyelement of the completedPhase 1A of the LesothoHighlands Water Project.The reservoir has a storage capacity of 1.95 km3. (M. Nüsser)

Due to the combination ofhigh quantity summer pre-cipitation and regular win-ter snow, the hydrology ofthe Senqu River is charac-terised by constant watersupply.(M. Nüsser)

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North America: United States

How the people of the Warm Springs IndianReservation defined their own policy Strong tribal leadership and an insistence on receiving fair value for natu-ral resources have seen the Warm Springs Indian Reservation through dif-ficult times. Through capable decision-making coupled with persistence, along-term outlook, deliberate diversification, and an ability to adapt tochanging circumstances, the Warm Springs Indians have created a home-land that offers decent jobs as well as cultural richness and landscapebeauty.

Indian reservations: a unit for policy formulation

Ancestors of the people of Warm Springsare believed to have occupied what is nowOregon for at least 11,000 years. As a result ofthe westward expansion of white settlers, atreaty was signed in 1855 between the tribesof middle Oregon and the US government.This treaty ceded 4 million hectares of land inreturn for the equivalent of US$ 150,000 intools, clothing, provisions, salaries, and theright to continue fishing at traditional sites.Over half a million acres of forest and rangemountain land on the edge of their tradition-al range were set aside as the Warm SpringsIndian Reservation, where several tribes,including the Wasco, Walla Walla, and Paiute,were forced to relocate.

Leadership, committed to a vision

Many Indian reservations have lost much oftheir area or have been terminated since theirestablishment more than a century ago.Warm Springs is lucky to have had leaderswho effectively fought the many attempts toreduce the size of their reservation – includ-ing privatisation and subsequent re-sale tonon-Indians, inaccurate surveys, and frequentchanges in the legal status of reservation land.

In 1957, a major setback – the loss of tradi-tional salmon fishing sites on the ColumbiaRiver, due to flooding caused by The Dalles


The People’s Plan, 1999Nearly one quarter of the 4000 membersof the Warm Springs Indian Reservationparticipated directly in developing a com-prehensive plan that goes beyond eco-nomic goals to consider what is good fortheir culture and the health of their com-munity.

The 20-year plan is not a dry bureaucraticdocument but rather a keepsake book, ina customised binder for each household.The whole idea is to have a plan that fam-ilies keep and value. In the words of plan-ner Jolene Atencio, “Our sovereignty isbased on us knowing our culture.”

Below: Action-packedIndian rodeo is popularwith tribal members of allages.(D. McMechan)

Right: Warm SpringsReservation with Mt. Jefferson in the background.(D. McMechan)

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dam – was turned to advantage. The tribesnegotiated a US$ 4 million settlement fromthe US Army Corps of Engineers, and pro-ceeded to invest this money wisely in theirown future. Rather than distributing theentire settlement among tribal members – asis commonly done – the money was held intrust for the reservation as a whole.

The development path of diversification

The first big expenditure was an OregonState College study of the reservation’s natu-ral and human resources and their potentialfor sustainable economic development. Thisstudy, adopted in 1959, has proved to be a keyinvestment in developing land policies to pre-serve the integrity of the reservation.Deliberate diversification led to investment ina number of economic activities, about half ofwhich were successful. Today, the fruits of thispolicy include a forest products industry, aluxury resort, a hydroelectric plant, rentalmonies from two utility-owned dams, and cat-tle ranching. The reservation is filled withyoung people, and a lively museum/cultural

centre celebrates the cultures of the tribes,both past and present.

The tribal organisation continues to worktoward effective governance, including clarityin its own relationships, roles, and responsi-bilities. In 1999, a People’s Plan was elaborat-ed, which further bundles developmentunder the vision of sustainable development.

Common lessons to be learned

This example demonstrates how a relativelyindependent territorial entity, an Indianreservation, can succeed in defining, withinthe legal boundaries of its autonomy, its ownvision and policy, for the benefit of sustain-able development. Clearly, such examples canhave a positive impact on the policy discus-sions as a whole. They can become true pio-neers of sustainable development in moun-tain areas.

Elizabeth Byers


A vision for development“We the people of the ConfederatedTribes of Warm Springs, since time imme-morial, carry forth the inherent rights ofsovereignty and spirituality through unityand a respect for the land, water, eachother and the many gifts given by theCreator.”

The People’s Plan, 1999

Putting tribal values at the centre“In my work with the community over the past five years, I have learnedthe importance of having our inherent tribal values be the heart of ourplans. I feel we need to be very selective in adopting non-tribal models,laws, and policies. If models are adopted, we need to be sure they are‘alignable’ with tribalism. This will be one of our biggest challenges, sincemuch of our governmental success was built upon non-tribal structuresand thinking. Professionally, I have had to learn the tribal thinking tobegin to distinguish the difference. I thank my tribal people for these les-sons.”

(Jolene E. Atencio, planner and coordinator for the “The People’s Plan”for Warm Springs, as well as an enrolled tribal member)

Below left: Young girlprepares for traditionalcelebration (powwow) at the Warm Springs IndianReservation.(D. McMechan)

Below right: First day of school for tribal youth.Three native languages are taught in elementaryschool, but all of them are in danger of dying out. The Kiksht (Wasco) and the Numu (Paiute) onlyhave five fluent speakerseach, none of them under the age of fifty. (D. McMechan)

Below: Guests at the Kah-Nee-Ta Resort can chooseto stay in an Indian teepeeas part of cultural heritagetourism initiatives on theWarm Springs IndianReservation.(D. McMechan)

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North America: Canada

Integrated Resource Management (IRM)as a policy for public lands managementMost of the mountainous area of western North America consists of pub-lic lands managed by government agencies. Several decades ago, theprovincial government of Alberta, Canada, adopted the “philosophy” ofIntegrated Resource Management (IRM) for management of the manyvaluable natural resources on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains.Today, IRM continues with the same objectives: integration and sustain-able development. But IRM strategies have evolved in order to make theconcept more effective.

IRM since 1977

The eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountainsof Alberta, Canada, cover an area of roughly90,000 km2 of mountains and forestedfoothills. The region supports forestry, oil andgas development, mining, tourism and recre-ation, and forms the headwaters of theprairies’ major rivers.

The land is owned and managed by thepublic sector, providing an opportunity to

manage land and resources for the publicgood. Realising that opportunity – balancingcurrent benefits with opportunities for futuregenerations – is an ongoing challenge.

In 1977, the Province of Alberta adoptedthe concept of IRM as its leading resourcemanagement philosophy in a major policydocument. In order to make IRM opera-tional, it established a programme to developIntegrated Resource Plans (IRPs).

These IRPs provided integrated objectivesfor resource use and protection for each area.Their lasting legacy was to delineate sensitivelands and withdraw them from industrial orcommercial development. The IRPs also pro-vided a forum for the various provincial man-agement agencies to work toward commongoals. The public involvement componentwas advanced for its day.

IRM and sustainable development

In the 1990s, the IRP programme declinedas provincial revenues dropped (see box) andimpatience with the lengthy IRP process grew.In a slower economy, the plans were less effec-tive in stimulating appropriate developmentthan they had previously been in restrictinginappropriate development.

This decline did not, however, represent aloss of commitment to the goals for whichIRM had been established. Sustainable devel-opment subsequently became a core concept,and in 1999, the provincial governmentreleased a policy statement, “Alberta’sCommitment to Sustainable Resource andEnvironmental Management”. This docu-ment expressed a vision of a vibrant economyand a healthy environment for all Albertans,and it set out a strategy to achieve that vision.

The new policy provides high-level policydirection for sectoral policies. It also directs


Economic aspects

Revenues from royalties and bids for resource use titles are significant forthe Alberta government, but they are alsosubject to fluctuations. In 1980, theyamounted to about 50% of the provincialbudget, in 2000 to only about 20%.

Development of resource-based industries (logging,mining) began in the late 19th century, overwhelm-ingly with a sectoral focus,and with little concernabout environmentalimpacts.(Calgary, Historic Archive)

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reform of the decision-making and regulatoryregime, to make it more efficient and firmlybased on sustainability and IRM principles.

IRM: new directions

Today’s resource and environmental man-agement agenda in Alberta includes a num-ber of thematic areas:

1. Cross-government initiatives and cooper-ation have become the norm, as the vision ofsustainable development is clearly defined atthe most senior levels. Increasingly, govern-ment departments focus on this strategiclevel, leaving programme delivery to others.

2. Streamlining regulatory systems: a clearand efficient regulatory system is an essentialelement of an attractive investment climate.Today, there is a greater focus on desired out-comes, defined through planning.

3. In the past, IRM was often perceived as anecessary expense. Today, it is seen as ameans to a more efficient, outcome-focusedmanagement system.

4. Cumulative effects: IRPs were good atdefining where activities are not appropriate,but they were less successful in determininghow such activities should take place and towhat extent they could be supported in anarea. Today, new management tools alsoaddress cumulative effects.

5. Many cumulative effects are regional inscale and scope, and they demand regionalsolutions (for example forest fires, largewildlife reserves).

6. Industry-led operational integration:Under “command and control” regulation,government imposed rules on each industryor company separately, specifying how theywere to operate. Today, inter-industry collabo-ration is increasingly important. It minimisesconflicts and negative environmentalimpacts, while also saving companies money.

Regional strategies through partnership

The new commitment to sustainable devel-opment also encouraged new initiatives forregional planning. In 2000, the Alberta gov-ernment launched the Northern East SlopesSustainable Resource and EnvironmentalManagement Strategy, covering an area of40,000 km2 of mountain land. The strategywas initiated following highly contentiouspublic hearings into a proposed new coalmine (Cheviot), to be located adjacent toJasper National Park.

The process is led by a committee of citi-zens and government representatives, and isconsidered a prototype for other strategiesthat may eventually cover the rest of theprovince.

David W. Belyea


Classification of Alberta’s land into “white”and “green areas”. The “green areas” wereestablished in 1948 to withdraw forest landsfrom agricultural settle-ment. They remain almostentirely in public owner-ship, managed for multipleuses. (Province of Alberta)

Pioneering regional planningThe Northern East Slopes SustainableResource and EnvironmentalManagement Strategy could become amodel for regional planning in otherareas. To date, the process has led to: (a)a regional vision, including goals andindicators; (b) the identification of impor-tant regional development issues.Simulation models are used to forecastthe cumulative ecological and economicconsequences of various options.

Kananaski: a beautifullandscape on the easternslopes of the RockyMountains in Alberta,Canada.(D. Belyea)

Improved collaboration between resource industriesOne good example of collaboration is coordination and sharing of roadaccess for forestry, oil and natural gas development. Previously, each com-pany would have constructed its own roads.

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A call for multi-level policyinitiatives and partnershipsThere are many ways to incorporate the principles of sustainable develop-ment into policies and instruments that promote mountain development,as illustrated by the experiences of mountain areas around the world pre-sented in the preceding chapter. However, there is a need to enhancecoherence in mountain development and to adjust policies accordingly. Inorder to achieve tangible results, these processes must especially takeplace at the national level. The National Committees that have beenestablished for preparation of IYM2002 could be used as a platform toelaborate such processes through policy initiatives. International partner-ships are needed to support national initiatives, promote the exchange ofideas and experiences, and initiate concrete programmes for mountaindevelopment.

10 years after Rio

Chapter 13 of Agenda 21 of the 1992 RioConference identified two major programmeareas: generation of knowledge about theecology and sustainable development ofmountain ecosystems, and promotion of inte-grated watershed development and alterna-tive livelihood opportunities in mountainareas. Where do we stand 10 years afterChapter 13 was adopted?

Significant progress has been made inacquiring knowledge of mountain ecosystems

and in gaining insight into the specific chal-lenges of mountain development. However,progress with regard to the management ofmountain resources is much less impressive.Livelihoods in mountains have deterioratedin many places. Poverty is widespread. Inother words, the gap between knowledge andaction, between information and implemen-tation, has widened. The coming decadeshould be devoted to narrowing this gap andrenewing efforts to achieve tangible and last-ing results in the development of mountainareas.


A recent study of theMekong region conductedby the Asian DevelopmentBank, concluded that fourout of five conflict areasinvolving a clash betweenenvironmental and devel-opment interests, are located in mountain areas. (T. Kohler)

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Inadequate policies

Many countries have realised the impor-tance of their mountain areas and have elab-orated sectoral policies, laws, and regulationsfor the use of their resources. However, mostof these instruments were formulated to servedownstream interests, a bias which perme-ates, for example, large hydropower and elec-trification plants, concessions for timber andmineral extraction, and road construction.National policies tend to disregard mountainlivelihoods and local development agendas.Moreover, they do not consider the specificchallenges of mountain development.

These challenges are different in industri-alised and developing countries, and may alsodiffer within one and the same mountainregion. However, they typically include prob-lems such as difficult access, economic andpolitical marginality, outmigration, environ-mental sensitivity, and diversity of livelihoodsand cultures. In future, these problems mightbe compounded by increasing local, national,and transboundary conflicts over scarcemountain resources such as water, land, plantgenetic resources, timber, and minerals.

The need for multi-level policyinitiatives and partnerships

What is needed, therefore, are policies andinstruments which promote mountain devel-opment from a mountain perspective, with-out neglecting the wider political context,

including downstream interests and theincreasing potential for conflict over moun-tain resources within and between countries.Such policies and instruments will build onnational and international partnerships, andinvolve mountain communities as equal part-ners.

What is called for are policy initiatives that– put sustainable development of mountain

areas on the political agenda, – consider the specific challenges of develop-

ment in mountain areas, and – ensure that sectoral policies are adapted to

take account of these challenges and thatthey complement and reinforce each other,thus enhancing their effectiveness for thebenefit of overall development.

Guiding principles

Ideas and principles that could form thebasis for such policy initiatives are presentedon pages 6–19 of the present publication. Foreasier reference, they are summarised in thebox to the left.

Countries play a key role

In the contemporary world, authority forthe formulation of policies and instrumentsrests largely with individual countries.Therefore, policy initiatives for the sustain-able development of mountain areas must beinitiated, formulated, and translated into

A call for multi-level policy initiatives and partnerships

Key elements and principlesof a policy initiative for sustainable developmentin mountain areas:– Recognition of mountain areas as

important and specific areas of develop-ment

– Compensation for services rendered tosurrounding downstream areas

– Diversification and the benefits of com-plementarities

– Exploitation of the local potential forinnovation

– Cultural change without loss of identity

– Conservation of mountain ecosystemsand early warning function

– Institutionalising sustainable develop-ment of mountain areas

Women in mountain areasoften have a difficult life.Their important roles infarming and naturalresource managementcontrast sharply with theirlimited rights of ownershipand access to resources,education, health care, and positions of influencein many mountain commu-nities. When formulatingpolicy initiatives andpartnerships, women mustbe given a voice, and their specific concernsaddressed.(T. Kohler)

instruments and action primarily at thenational level.

Such policy initiatives will give coherence tolaws and regulations, institutions, incentiveand support systems, and specific sector pro-grammes for mountain development within aspecific country. They will help formulateeffective programmes at the local level, andprovide orientation for regional and trans-boundary cooperation between countries thatshare the same mountain areas. And they willprovide a frame of reference for the integra-tion and implementation of global partner-ships, conventions, agreements, and laws.

There is no blueprint for enacting andinstitutionalising policy initiatives at thenational level. Each country has to find its

52

own way, depending on its specific situation,political culture, and system of governance.The National Committees and similar mecha-nisms that were created by about 70 countriesworldwide in preparation for IYM 2002 couldserve as practical platforms to get the initia-tives started.

The need for broad alliances

Policy initiatives elaborated in an isolatedmanner by national governments or anyother single institution are unlikely to haveconcrete and lasting effects – a fact that isconfirmed by the case studies collected in thepresent publication. Thus, mountain policyinitiatives need to be based on a process thatinvolves a broad coalition of partners fromthe government, the private sector, and civilsociety. Support from the mass media andfrom important personalities can be useful toraise awareness among the general public andmobilise potential partners.

Linking global, national, and localefforts in an international partner-ship for mountain development

Policy initiatives for mountain developmentshould also be initiated at the internationallevel, with a view to supporting national ini-tiatives, linking international, national, andlocal programmes for mountain develop-


Partnerships could be initi-ated for development ofpublic lands, where policyformulation and implemen-tation are less complexthan for private lands. (P. Walther)

Creating an enabling policyenvironment: a key role of the governmentOften, sustainable development of moun-tain areas can be achieved through initia-tives undertaken by civil society and theprivate sector, including commercialcooperation. However, national policiesand instruments are important for creat-ing an enabling environment, includingan adequate legal and regulatory frame-work. Providing such an environmentmust be one of the aims of national policyinitiatives for mountain development.

53

ment, and promoting cooperation and part-nership between major stakeholders such asdonors, implementing agencies, NGOs, theprivate sector, the scientific, research, andtechnological communities, and mountaincommunities.

The International Partnership for SustainableDevelopment in Mountain Regions is an exampleof such an international policy initiative. Itwas prepared for the World Summit onSustainable Development in Johannesburg2002 by FAO, UNEP, and by Switzerland as arepresentative of the Mountain Focus Group,a group of countries that are interested inpromoting mountain development. ThisInternational Partnership was conceived as anumbrella alliance under which all partnerscould enter into specific sub-partnershipsaccording to their interest, competence, andwillingness. Sub-partnerships could be organ-

ised around specific areas where action isneeded, such as food security, poverty allevia-tion, biodiversity conservation, and other pri-orities, or around specific geographic regionsor institutional concerns, such as mountainpolicy and law. Partnerships within this initia-

tive will be guided by clearly agreed goals, andtheir operations will be based on commit-ments made by partners. The Partnership willplace special emphasis on transboundarycooperation.

Multilateral instruments

Given the transboundary character of manymountain areas, multilateral cooperation isanother important instrument for achievingsustainable development, as shown by thecase study on the Alpine Convention (pages26–27). Therefore, future policy initiativestaken at the international or national levelsshould seek to establish closer linkages withexisting multilateral instruments, such as theConvention on Biological Diversity (CBD),the UN Convention to Combat Deserti-fication (UNCCD), the UN FrameworkConvention on Climate Change (UNFCCC),the International Strategy for DisasterReduction (ISDR), and other instrumentswhich are thematically or geographicallyrelated and relevant to the development ofmountain areas.

A call for multi-level policy initiatives and partnerships

The International Partnership for Sustainable Developmentin Mountain Regions: an initiative linking global,national, and local actors“The international partnership was con-ceived as an umbrella alliance underwhich all partners could enter into specif-ic sub-partnerships according to theirinterest, competence and willingness.”

A herder’s family in Kyrgyzstan. Livestockhusbandry is important in many mountain areasdue to climatic limitations on crop production. (U. Lutz)

Potential policy platformsIn preparation for the International Yearof Mountains 2002, about 70 countriesestablished National Committees or simi-lar mechanisms to address the challengesof mountain development. These couldbecome platforms for initiating and elabo-rating national policy initiatives andinstruments for the development ofmountain areas.

Different countries – different approaches Many different approaches can be takento the institutionalisation of national poli-cy initiatives for the development ofmountain areas. For example, Morocco,Austria, France, Georgia, Poland, andCuba are drafting an integrated policyframework for mountain development.Nepal, Japan, Bulgaria, and Colombia areincorporating a regional focus on moun-tain development into relevant sectorpolicies.

Source: FAO, 2002

54 Sustainable Development in Mountain Areas

Formulating adequatepolicies and instrumentsfor mountain developmentis a challenging process.Many elements and components have to be addressed, arranged,and rearranged. However,if this is done inaccordance with agreedprinciples and within an accepted frame,coherent and meaningfulresults can be achieved. (U. Lutz)

55

Previous issues in the Mountains of the World series:

– Mountain Agenda 1997: Mountains of the World: Challenges for the 21st Century

– Mountain Agenda 1998: Mountains of the World: Water Towers for the 21st Century

– Mountain Agenda 1999: Mountains of the World: Tourism and Sustainable Mountain Development

– Mountain Agenda 2000: Mountains of the World: Mountain Forests and Sustainable Development

– Mountain Agenda 2001: Mountains of the World: Mountains, Energy and Transport

The above publications can be ordered from:

Mountain AgendaCentre for Development and Environment (CDE)University of BerneSteigerhubelstrasse 3CH-3008 Berne, Switzerland [email protected] [email protected]

More on mountain areas …

The journal Mountain Research and Development (MRD)

To stay updated on mountain issues, subscribe to the quarterly journal Mountain Researchand Development (MRD). MRD features stimulating articles focusing on development inmountain regions combined with the latest scholarly research. Subscriptions to MRD can beordered directly from [email protected]. Institutions in countries in the South may be eli-gible for subsidised subscription rates. For further information contact [email protected].

Web sites for IYM 2002 and beyond ...

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)http://www.fao.org

Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/

Mountain Forumhttp://www.mtnforum.org

International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD)http://www.icimod.org

The Mountain Institute http://www.mountain.org

PANOShttp://www.panos.org.uk

Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC)http://www.deza.admin.ch

Mountains of the World:


The Need for Adequate Policies and Instruments

Coordinated by Mountain Agenda (concept group):Pierre Walther, Kristina Imbach, Thomas Kohler, Ulrich Lutz, with conceptual support from Hans Hurni, Andreas Kläy, Urs Wiesmann, Martin Price, Andri Bisaz, Lukas Frey

Edited by: Martin Price, Pierre Walther, Thomas Kohler, Kristina Imbach

Proofreading by:Ted Wachs, Anne Zimmermann, Stefan Zach

Contributions on pages 4–5, 6–19, and 50–54:Pierre Walther, Thomas Kohler, Kristina Imbach, Ulrich Lutz, Lukas Frey, with additional contributionsfrom Remo Gesù, Karl Herweg, Ruedi Högger, Stephan Rist, from members of the Mountain Agenda (concept group), and from institutional reviewers (see below).

Contributions on pages 20–49: p. 20–21 José J. Campos, Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Centre (CATIE),

Turrialba, Costa Rica – [email protected]. 22–23 Freddy Delgado, Agroecologia Universidad Cochabamba (AGRUCO), Cochabamba –

[email protected] Rist, Centre for Development and Environment (CDE), Berne – [email protected]

p. 24–25 Markus Reichmuth, Ernst Schaltegger, Thomas Hentschel, TULUM Ltd., Caslano, Switzerland –[email protected]

p. 26–27 Andreas Goetz, CIPRA-International, Schaan – [email protected]. 30–31 Jöri Schwärzel, Alpenbüro Netz GmbH, Klosters – [email protected]. 32–33 Jörg Wyder, Sonnenbergstrasse 361, Remigen AG, Switzerland – [email protected]. 34–35 Thomas Breu, Centre for Development and Environment (CDE), Berne – [email protected]

Hans Hurni, Centre for Development and Environment (CDE), Berne – [email protected]. 36–37 Karin Füeg, HELVETAS Swiss Association for International Cooperation, Bishkek –

[email protected]. 38–39 Bernhard Wiedmer, Dennis Ellingson, Colenco, Hanoi – [email protected]. 40–41 Maho Sato, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Rome – [email protected]. 42–43 Ghanam Mohamed, Hammou Jader, Ministry of Water and Forest, Morocco –

[email protected]. 44–45 Marcus Nüsser, Department of Geography, University of Bonn – [email protected]. 46–47 Elizabeth Byers, The Mountain Institute, Washington DC – [email protected]. 48–49 David W. Belyea, Alberta Environment, IRM Division, Edmonton – [email protected]

Photo search:Kristina Imbach, Pierre Walther

Cartography:Inset maps (pages 20–49) by Andreas Brodbeck, Institute of Geography, University of BerneWorld map (pages 28–29) by Sebastian Eugster et al., Centre for Development and Environment, Berne

Reviewed by:FAO, IGU, TMI, UNESCO, UNU

Cover photo: Tien Shan Mountains, Kyrgyzstan (Ch. Schütz)

ISBN 3-906151-63-8

mountains of the world - cbd resources for sustainable development. they have formulated policies...

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