mr. miller - table of contents · 2018-11-01 · each element box on the periodic table contains...
TRANSCRIPT
900 Student Resources
Table of ContentsElements Handbook . . . . . . . . . 901
Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
Group 1: Alkali Metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906
Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals . . . . . . . 910
Groups 3–12: Transition Elements . . . . 916
Group 13: Boron Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922
Group 14: Carbon Group . . . . . . . . . . . . 926
Group 15: Nitrogen Group . . . . . . . . . . . 932
Group 16: Oxygen Group . . . . . . . . . . . . 936
Group 17: Halogen Group . . . . . . . . . . . 940
Group 18: Noble Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 944
Math Handbook . . . . . . . . . . . . 946Scientific Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946
Operations with Scientific Notation . . . 948
Square and Cube Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949
Significant Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949
Solving Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . 954
Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
Unit Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
Drawing Line Graphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 959
Using Line Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961
Ratios, Fractions, and Percents. . . . . . . . 964
Operations Involving Fractions . . . . . . . 965
Logarithms and Antilogarithms. . . . . . . 966
Reference Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . 968R-1 Color Key. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968
R-2 Symbols and Abbreviations. . . . . . 968
R-3 Solubility Product Constants . . . . 969
R-4 Physical Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969
R-5 Names and Charges of
Polyatomic Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 970
R-6 Ionization Constants . . . . . . . . . . . 970
R-7 Properties of Elements. . . . . . . . . . 971
R-8 Solubility Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . 974
R-9 Specific Heat Values . . . . . . . . . . . . 975
R-10 Molal Freezing Point Depression
and Boiling Point Elevation
Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975
R-11 Heat of Formation Values . . . . . . . 975
Supplemental Practice Problems . . . . . . .976
Solutions to Selected Practice Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .992
Glossary/Glosario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1005
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1031
Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1051
For students and parents/guardians In the Elements Handbook, you’ll find use-
ful information about the properties of the
main group elements from the periodic table.
You’ll also learn about real-world applications
for many of the elements.
The Math Handbook helps you review and
sharpen your math skills so you get the most
out of understanding how to solve math prob-
lems involving chemistry. Reviewing the rules
for mathematical operations such as scientific
notation, fractions, and logarithms can also
help you boost your test scores.
The reference tables are another tool that
will assist you. The practice problems and
solutions are resources that will help increase
your comprehension.
Elements in Earth’s Atmosphere
Other0.04%
Argon0.93%
Nitrogen78.08%
Oxygen20.95%
Calcium4.15%
Iron5.63%
Other7.69%
Aluminum8.23%
Silicon28.20%
Oxygen46.10%
Other1.50% Calcium
1.20%Magnesium3.90%
Sulfur2.70%
Chlorine 58.30%
Sodium32.40%
Elements in Earth’s Crust
Elements Dissolved in Earth’s Oceans
Elements Handbook 901
Elements Handbook
CORBIS
Strontium
38
Sr[Kr]5s2
Metal
Metalloid
Nonmetal
Gas
Liquid
Solid
Synthetic
902 Elements Handbook
Elements Handbook
Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .904
Group 1: Alkali Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .906
Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .910
Groups 3–12: Transition Elements . . . . . . . . . . . .916
Group 13: Boron Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .922
Group 14: Carbon Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .926
Group 15: Nitrogen Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .932
Group 16: Oxygen Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .936
Group 17: Halogen Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .940
Group 18: Noble Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .944
How to Use Element BoxesEach element box on the periodic table contains useful information. In the Elements
Handbook, each element box has an element name, symbol, atomic number, and electron
configuration. At the beginning of each section, each element box also identifies the state
of matter at 25°C and 1 atm. A typical box from the handbook is shown below.
States of Matter Key
Atomic number
Symbol
Element
State of matter
Electron configuration
Color Key
To find links to information on the elements, visit glencoe.com.
Table of ContentsHow This Handbook Is Organized The Elements Handbook is divided into
10 sections: hydrogen and groups 1, 2, 3–12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18. You will discover
physical and atomic properties, common reactions, analytical tests, and real-world
applications of the elements in each section. Questions at the end of each section will
assess your understanding of the elements.
Interactive Figure To see animations of the elements, visit glencoe.com.
Elements Handbook 903
How to Use the Elements Handbook
Calcium
20
Ca[Ar]4s2
Strontium
38
Sr[Kr]5s2
Toothpaste containingstrontium chloride
Crystals
Pore to root canaland nerves
Root canal
Dentine
Root
Nerve
Barium
56
Ba[Xe]6s2
914 Elements Handbook
GypsumDrywall is made from gypsum, which is a soft
mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate
(CaS O 4 ·2 H 2 O). Drywall boards are used in build-
ing construction because the gypsum provides fire
protection. Gypsum contains large amounts of
water in its crystal form, which vaporizes when
heated. The boards remain at 100°C until all of the
water evaporates, protecting the wood frame of the
building. Gypsum that has had most of its water
removed is known as plaster of paris. Most
minerals form pastes when mixed with water.
When plaster of paris is mixed with water, it forms
a rigid crystal structure, so it is often used for casts
to set broken bones and for molds.
Sensitive TeethAlmost 40 million people in the United States
have teeth that are hypersensitive to touch and
temperature. Sensitivity occurs when the dentine
and roots of teeth are exposed due to receding
gums or thinning of the tooth enamel. This is the
result of poor oral hygiene or, in many instances,
from brushing too hard. Exposing the root enables
stimuli, such as cold temperatures, to reach the
Medical X RaysBarium is used by medical professionals to exam-
ine a person’s gastrointestinal tract. Patients drink
barium liquid, which coats the tract, and are then
X-rayed. Barium is almost completely insoluble in
water and acids and appears as a bright white
color in X rays. This allows doctors and radiolo-
gists to locate tumors, ulcers, areas of reflux, and
other abnormalities in the digestive tract.
nerve through openings called pores. Toothpastes
that contain strontium chloride (SrC l 2 ) help
reduce the sensitivity. The compound reacts with
a person’s saliva to create crystals that fill in the
pores so stimuli cannot reach the nerves.
A layer of plaster of paris protects fossils during shipment.
Crystals formed from strontium chloride and saliva fill in pores in the root of a tooth and block access to the nerve.
After being coated with barium liquid, the large intestine shows up clearly on an X ray.
Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals
Assessment
Radium
88
Ra[Rn]7s2
Elements Handbook 915
Real-World Applications
The Discovery of RadioactivityMarie Curie’s discovery of the atomic property she called
radioactivity paved the way for present-day advancements
in science and medicine. Curie and her husband, Pierre,
unveiled the characteristics and capabilities of radiation,
revolutionizing scientific thinking and laying the ground-
work for present-day cancer treatments, genetics, and
nuclear energy. Today, many cancers are treated with
radiation therapy.
Radon GasDecay of radium-226 in soil and rock produces radon gas.
The radioactive radon gas can seep through cracks in a home’s
foundation or can be dissolved in water pumped into the house
from a well. High concentrations of radon can increase the risk
of cancer. In many homes, installing a radon-reduction system
reduces the concentration of radon gas by using a fan to draw
the gas through pipes that vent to the outside of the home.
13. Describe the general trend in first ionization energies in group 2, and explain why this trend occurs.
14. Explain What is the charge on alkaline earth metal ions? Explain your answer.
15. Compare and contrast the physical properties of the alkaline earth metals and the alkali metals.
16. Evaluate why magnesium is used in emergency flares instead of other alkaline earth metals.
17. Analyze Use the atomic properties of the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals to explain why calcium is less reactive than potassium.
18. Infer The alkaline earth metals are usually found combined with oxygen and other nonmetals in Earth’s crust. Based on the atomic properties of this group, explain why alkaline earth metals are so reactive.
19. Calculate Calcium makes up about 1.5% of a human’s body mass. Calculate the amount of calcium found in a person who weighs 68 kg.
20. Calculate Radium-226 has a half-life of 1600 years. After 8000 years, how much of a 500.0-g sample of radium-226 would be left?
A radon-reduction system lowers the concentration of radon in homes by venting the radon gas from the home to the outside environment.
Fan
Vent pipe
Marie Curie died at the age of 67 from aplastic anemia, probably caused by her exposure to massive amounts of radiation. Today, the effects of radiation on health are well known, and suitable safety precautions are taken when using radioactive materials.
Radium
88
Ra[Rn]7s2
Barium
56
Ba[Xe]6s2
Strontium
38
Sr[Kr]5s2
Calcium
20
Ca[Ar]4s2
Magnesium
12
Mg[Ne]3s2
Beryllium
4
Be[He]2s2
1000 2000 30000
Temperature (ºC)
MP
BP
12872469
6501090
8421484
7771382
7271870
7001737
Melting Points and Boiling Points
Be
Mg
Ca
Sr
Ba
Ra
1 20 3 4 5
g/mL
1.848
1.738
1.550
2.630
Densities
Be
Mg
Ca
Sr
Ba
Ra 5.000
3.510
910 Elements Handbook
Physical Properties• Most of the alkaline earth metals have a silvery-white, metallic
appearance. When exposed to oxygen, a thin oxide coating forms
on the surface.
• The alkaline earth metals are harder, denser, and stronger than many
of the group 1 elements, but are still relatively soft compared to other
metals.
• Most alkaline earth metals have higher melting points and boiling
points than alkali metals.
• Moving down the group, densities generally increase.
Common Reactions• Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with
halogens to form salts, such as
magnesium chloride, and
hydrogen gas.
Example: Mg(s) + 2HC l (g) →
MgC l 2 (s) + H 2 (g)
• Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with
hydrogen to form hydrides,
such as barium hydride.
Example: Ba(s) + H 2 (g) →
Ba H 2 (s)
• Be, Mg, Sr, and Ca react with
nitrogen to form nitrides, such
as magnesium nitride.
Example: 3Mg(s) + N 2 (g) →
M g 3 N 2 (s)A ribbon of magnesium reacts with HCl in an aqueous solution to produce M g 2+ ions, C l - ions, and hydrogen gas.
Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals
Pauling units
Be
Mg
Ca
Sr
Ba
Ra
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.00
1.57
1.31
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.90
Electronegativities
kJ/mol
Be
Mg
Ca
Sr
Ba
Ra
2000 400 600 800
738
590
550
503
509
First Ionization Energies
900
Be112
Be2+
31
Atomicradius(pm)
Mg160
Mg2+
72
Ca197
Ca2+
100
Sr215
Sr2+
118
Ba222
Ba2+
135
Ra220
Ionicradius(pm)
Elements Handbook 911
Element Facts
• Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with oxygen to
form oxides, such as magnesium oxide.
Example: 2Mg(s) + O 2 (g) → 2MgO(s)
• Sr and Ba react with oxygen to form
peroxides, such as strontium peroxide.
Example: Sr(s) + O 2 (g) → Sr O 2 (s)
• Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with water to form
bases, such as barium hydroxide, and
hydrogen gas.
Example: Ba(s) + 2 H 2 O(l) →
Ba(OH ) 2 (aq) + H 2 (g)
Barium reacts with water to form B a 2+ ions, O H - ions, and hydrogen gas.
Analytical TestsThree of the alkaline earth metals can be
identified by flame tests. Calcium produces a
scarlet color, while strontium produces a crimson
color. Barium, which if present in a sample can
mask the colors of both calcium and strontium,
produces a yellow-green color.
Atomic Properties• Each element in group 2 has two valence electrons and an electron
configuration ending with n s 2 .
• Alkaline earth metals often lose their two valence electrons to form
ions with a 2+ charge.
• Atomic radii and ionic radii increase moving down the group but are
smaller than the corresponding alkali metal.
• Ionization energies and electronegativities generally decrease moving
down the group but are larger than the corresponding alkali metal.
BariumStrontiumCalcium
See how a group fits in the Periodic Table.
Discover the Physical Properties and Atomic Properties of the elements in a group.
Summarize Common Reactions for the elements within a group.
Identify elements by Analytical Tests.
Learn how elements are used every day in Real- World Applications.
Test your knowledge of the elements by answering Assessment questions.
Source: Elements Handbook, p. 910–911
Source: Elements Handbook, p. 914–915
When you read the Elements Handbook, you need to read for information. Here
are some tools that the Elements Handbook has to help you find that information.
Hydrogen
1
H1s1
904 Elements Handbook
Hydrogen: Element Facts
Physical and Atomic Properties• At constant temperature and pressure, hydrogen gas ( H 2 ) has the
lowest density of any gas.
• At very high pressures, such as the interior of planet Jupiter, hydrogen
might exist as a solid metal.
• Hydrogen is placed in group 1 because it has one valence electron.
• Hydrogen shares some properties with the group 1 metals. It can lose
an electron to form a hydrogen ion ( H + ).
• Hydrogen also shares some properties with the group 17 nonmetals.
It can gain an electron to form a hydride ion ( H − ).
• There are three common
hydrogen isotopes. Protium,
the most common isotope,
has one proton, one electron,
and no neutrons. Deuterium,
also called heavy hydrogen,
has one proton, one neutron,
and one electron. Tritium,
which is radioactive, has one
proton, two neutrons, and
one electron.
Common Reactions• When ignited, hydrogen reacts with oxygen
to form water.
Example: H 2 (g) + O 2 (g) → 2 H 2 O(l)
• Hydrogen reacts with sulfur to form hydro-
gen sulfide.
Example: 2H 2 (g) + S(g) → H 2 S(g)
• Hydrogen reacts with nitrogen at high tem-
peratures and pressures to form ammonia.
Example: 3 H 2 (g) + N 2 (g) → 2N H 3 (g)
Hydrogen gas in the red tube and nitrogen gas in the blue tube are mixed, then compressed under high pressure and tem-perature to form liquid ammonia in the orange tube at bottom right.
Analytical TestspH is a measure of the hydrogen ion ( H + )
concentration of aqueous solutions. When the
hydrogen ion concentration is expressed in
moles per liter, pH is the negative logarithm of
the hydrogen ion concentration, −log[ H + ]. For
example, if the hydrogen ion concentration is
1 × 1 0 -2 mol/L, the pH is 2.
Common household items are bases or acids, depending on their H + concentrations: the greater the H + concentration, the lower the pH.
Physical and Atomic Properties of Hydrogen
Melting point -259°C
Boiling point -253°C
Density 8.98 × 1 0 -5 g/mL
Atomic radius 78 pm
First ionization energy
1312 kJ/mol
Electronegativity 2.2 Pauling units
(l)©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc., (r)Matt Meadows
Assessment
Hydrogen
1
H1s1
Elements Handbook 905
Identifying Hydrogen in StarsSpectroscopy is the study of the spectral lines present
in an electromagnetic spectrum. The colored lines in
an emission spectrum represent the emission of energy.
How do scientists know that more than 90% of the atoms
in the universe are hydrogen atoms? By recording the
emission spectra of light from stars or galaxies, astrono-
mers can identify hydrogen. The spectrum of hydrogen
consists of four distinct color lines at different wave-
lengths. They are produced when electrons in a gas move
to different energy levels in an atom by absorbing and
then emitting energy. Each element can be identified by
characteristic patterns of spectral lines.
Hydrogen Fuel CellsHydrogen fuel cells produce electricity by combining
hydrogen ( H 2 ) and oxygen ( O 2 ) without burning. Water
and heat are the only by-products of this process. Current
demonstration projects that use hydrogen fuel cells as
their energy sources include laptop computers, cars, buses,
classrooms, and musical instruments. In the future, it
might be possible to use a pen-sized container filled with
hydrogen gas to power a laptop computer. Or, you might
drive a fuel cell car to a filling station and fill a high-pres-
sure gas cylinder with hydrogen gas.
The colorful cloud that makes up this nebula is composed of hydrogen gas.
Hydrogen fuel cells provide the energy to power this electric guitar.
1. Compare and contrast hydrogen isotopes.
2. Write the balanced equation for the reaction between hydrogen gas and oxygen gas in a fuel cell.
3. Explain what happens when hydrogen reacts with a nonmetal element.
4. Evaluate at least one advantage and one possible disadvantage of hydrogen fuel cells compared to con-ventional petroleum engines.
5. Infer Hydrogen can gain one electron to reach a stable electron configuration. Why isn’t hydrogen placed with the group 17 elements that share this behavior?
6. Apply A solution’s hydrogen ion concentration is 3.2 × 1 0 -4 mol/L. Refer to Chapter 19 to determine if this solution is an acid or a base. What is the pH of this solution?
Real-World Applications
(t)©European Southern Observatory/Photo Researchers, Inc., (b)©Melanie Stetson Freeman/The Christian Science Monitor via Getty Images
Lithium
3
Li[He]2s1
Sodium
11
Na[Ne]3s1
Potassium
19
K[Ar]4s1
Rubidium
37
Rb[Kr]5s1
Cesium
55
Cs[Xe]6s1
Francium
87
Fr[Rn]7s1
MP
BP
Temperature (°C)
1811342
98883
63759
39668
28671
Li
Na
K
Rb
Cs
Melting Points and Boiling Points
5000 1000 1500 0.5 1.00 1.5 2.0
g/mL
0.535
0.968
0.856
1.532
Densities
Li
Na
K
Rb
Cs 1.879
906 Elements Handbook
Group 1: Alkali Metals
Physical Properties• Pure alkali metals have a silvery, metallic appearance.
• Solid alkali metals are soft enough to cut with a knife.
• Most of the alkali metals have low densities compared to the solid
form of elements from other groups. Lithium, sodium, and potassium
metals are less dense than water.
• Compared to other metals, such as silver or gold, alkali metals have
low melting points.
• Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs react
vigorously with water to form
metal hydroxides, such as
potassium hydroxide, and
hydrogen gas.
Example: 2K(s) + 2 H 2 O(l) →
2KOH(aq) + H 2 (g)
Potassium reacts violently with water, producing enough heat to ignite the hydrogen gas produced.
Common Reactions• Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs react vigorously with halogens to form salts,
such as lithium chloride.
Example: 2Li(s) + C l 2 (g) → 2LiCl(s)
• Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs react with oxygen to form oxides, such as
sodium oxide.
Example: 4Na(s) + O 2 (g) → 2N a 2 O(s)
©Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs, NYC
kJ/mol
Li
Na
K
Rb
Cs
Fr
1000 200 300 400 500
496
419
403
376
380
First Ionization Energies
520
Pauling units
Li
Na
K
Rb
Cs
Fr
0.50 1.0 1.5 2.0
0.98
0.93
0.82
0.82
0.79
0.70
Electronegativities
Li152
Li1+
76
Atomicradius(pm)
Na186
Na1+
102
K227
K1+
138
Rb248
Rb1+
152
Cs265
Cs1+
167
Fr270
Ionicradius(pm)
Elements Handbook 907
Element Facts
Atomic Properties• Each element in group 1 has one valence electron and an electron
configuration ending with n s 1 .
• Group 1 elements lose their valence electrons to form ions with a
1+ charge.
• Going down the elements in group 1, the atomic radii and ionic radii
increase.
• Electronegativity decreases going down the elements in group 1.
• The alkali metals are so reactive that they are not found in nature
as free metals.
• All the alkali metals have at least one radioactive isotope.
• Because francium is rare and decays rapidly, its properties are not
well known.
Analytical TestsAlkali metals can be qualitatively identified by flame tests. Lithium
produces a red flame. Sodium produces an orange flame. Potassium,
rubidium, and cesium produce violet flames.
Lithium
Sodium
Potassium
Rubidium
Cesium
(l)©DAVID TAYLOR/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Photo Researchers Inc., (c cl)©JERRY MASON/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/PHOTO RESEARCHERS INC.; (cr r)©Tom Pantages
Lithium
3
[He]2s1
Sodium
11
Na[Ne]3s1
908 Elements Handbook
Group 1: Alkali Metals
Environmentally Friendly BatteriesSomeday, electric cars might be powered by lightweight
lithium-ion batteries. Lithium batteries have several
advantages compared to lead-acid batteries. Unlike lead-
acid batteries, lithium batteries do not contain toxic
metals or corrosive acids, making them safer for the
environment. Lithium’s light weight is also an advantage
for electric vehicles. However, lithium batteries do have
some disadvantages. Researchers are trying to find ways
to make lithium batteries that recharge more rapidly.
Cost is also a drawback. Lithium batteries are currently
used for small applications such as laptop computers, but
they will need to be less expensive before they can be
routinely used in larger, more energy-demanding applica-
tions such as electric or hybrid vehicles.The Mars rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, use solar energy to recharge lithium-ion batteries.
Group 1: Alkali Metals
Dietary SaltIn 2006, the American Medical Association
recommended that the amount of sodium in
processed and restaurant foods be reduced by
one-half over the next decade. Sodium is essen-
tial for humans, but too much might contribute
to high blood pressure and heart failure. Current
guidelines advise consuming less than 2400 mg
of sodium per day, which is less than one tea-
spoon. However, Americans typically consume
4000 to 6000 mg of sodium per day. Foods that
contain more than 480 mg of sodium per serving
are considered high-sodium foods. To be labeled
as low sodium, foods must contain 140 mg or
less per serving. The table lists some common
foods that are either high or low in sodium.
Sodium Content of Some Common Foods
FoodSodium Content (mg) per Serving
High sodium
fast-food submarine sandwich with cold cuts
1310
canned chicken noodle soup
1106
fast-food biscuit with egg and sausage
1080
cottage cheese 851
dill pickle 833
fast-food cheeseburger 740
canned corn 571
beef hotdog 513
fried fish fillet 484
Low sodium
wheat bread 133
low-fat fruit yogurt 132
fast-food salad with cheese and egg,
no dressing
119
pound cake 111
oatmeal cookie 96
raw carrots 76
canned peaches 16
frozen corn 2
(t)©NASA/epa/Corbis, (b)©1995 Michael Dalton, Fundamental Photographs, NYC
Assessment
Sodium
11
Na[Ne]3s1
Potassium
19
K[Ar]4s1
K+
K+
K+
K+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+ Sodium-potassiumpumps
Inside cell
Outside cell
Cesium
55
Cs[Xe]6s1
Elements Handbook 909
Real-World Applications
The sodium-potassium pump brings two K + ions into a cell for every three N a + ions it moves out of a cell.
The Sodium-Potassium PumpHumans and other vertebrates need to maintain
a negative potential charge inside their cells in
order to survive. This process requires sodium
ions, potassium ions, and a membrane-bound
enzyme called sodium/potassium ATPase. Sodium/
potassium ATPase uses energy from the hydrolysis
of ATP to pump sodium ions out of cells and pump
potassium ions into cells. Because of the action of
this pump, the sodium ion concentration is low
7. Describe the trend in density of the alkali metals as atomic number increases.
8. Compare lithium-ion batteries and lead-acid batteries.
9. Write a balanced equation for the reaction between lithium and water.
10. Predict the reactivity of lithium metal with water.
11. Analyze Lithium’s properties are more like magnesium in group 2 than sodium. Use what you learned about atomic sizes to explain this behavior.
12. Organize Make a table to summarize the data for physical and atomic properties of the group 1 elements according to their trends with increasing atomic number.
inside cells and high outside cells. The potassium
ion concentration is high inside cells and low out-
side cells. In fact, potassium ions are the most com-
mon ions inside living cells. For every three
sodium ions pumped out of a cell, sodium/potassi-
um ATPase pumps two potassium ions into the
cell. The net result is a negative charge inside the
cell and concentration gradients across the cell
membrane for both potassium and sodium ions.
The cesium fountain atomic clock at NIST is accurate to about 1 second over a period of 70 million years.
Cesium Atomic ClocksOne of the most accurate clocks in the world is located
at the United States National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) in Boulder, Colorado. This cesium
fountain atomic clock provides the official time for
the United States. The clock is based on the natural
resonance frequency of the cesium atom
(9,192,631,770 Hz.), which defines the second.
©Geoffrey Wheeler
Radium
88
Ra[Rn]7s2
Barium
56
Ba[Xe]6s2
Strontium
38
Sr[Kr]5s2
Calcium
20
Ca[Ar]4s2
Magnesium
12
Mg[Ne]3s2
Beryllium
4
Be[He]2s2
1000 2000 30000
Temperature (ºC)
MP
BP
12872469
6501090
8421484
7771382
7271870
7001737
Melting Points and Boiling Points
Be
Mg
Ca
Sr
Ba
Ra
1 20 3 4 5
g/mL
1.848
1.738
1.550
2.630
Densities
Be
Mg
Ca
Sr
Ba
Ra 5.000
3.510
910 Elements Handbook
Physical Properties• Most of the alkaline earth metals have a silvery-white, metallic
appearance. When exposed to oxygen, a thin oxide coating forms
on the surface.
• The alkaline earth metals are harder, denser, and stronger than many
of the group 1 elements, but are still relatively soft compared to other
metals.
• Most alkaline earth metals have higher melting points and boiling
points than alkali metals.
• Moving down the group, densities generally increase.
Common Reactions• Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with
halogens to form salts, such as
magnesium chloride, and
hydrogen gas.
Example: Mg(s) + 2HC l (g) →
MgC l 2 (s) + H 2 (g)
• Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with
hydrogen to form hydrides,
such as barium hydride.
Example: Ba(s) + H 2 (g) →
Ba H 2 (s)
• Be, Mg, Sr, and Ca react with
nitrogen to form nitrides, such
as magnesium nitride.
Example: 3Mg(s) + N 2 (g) →
M g 3 N 2 (s)A ribbon of magnesium reacts with HCl in an aqueous solution to produce M g 2+ ions, C l - ions, and hydrogen gas.
Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals
Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Pauling units
Be
Mg
Ca
Sr
Ba
Ra
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.00
1.57
1.31
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.90
Electronegativities
kJ/mol
Be
Mg
Ca
Sr
Ba
Ra
2000 400 600 800
738
590
550
503
509
First Ionization Energies
900
Be112
Be2+
31
Atomicradius(pm)
Mg160
Mg2+
72
Ca197
Ca2+
100
Sr215
Sr2+
118
Ba222
Ba2+
135
Ra220
Ionicradius(pm)
Elements Handbook 911
Element Facts
• Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with oxygen to
form oxides, such as magnesium oxide.
Example: 2Mg(s) + O 2 (g) → 2MgO(s)
• Sr and Ba react with oxygen to form
peroxides, such as strontium peroxide.
Example: Sr(s) + O 2 (g) → Sr O 2 (s)
• Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with water to form
bases, such as barium hydroxide, and
hydrogen gas.
Example: Ba(s) + 2 H 2 O(l) →
Ba(OH ) 2 (aq) + H 2 (g)
Barium reacts with water to form B a 2+ ions, O H - ions, and hydrogen gas.
Analytical TestsThree of the alkaline earth metals can be
identified by flame tests. Calcium produces a
scarlet color, while strontium produces a crimson
color. Barium, which if present in a sample can
mask the colors of both calcium and strontium,
produces a yellow-green color.
Atomic Properties• Each element in group 2 has two valence electrons and an electron
configuration ending with n s 2 .
• Alkaline earth metals often lose their two valence electrons to form
ions with a 2+ charge.
• Atomic radii and ionic radii increase moving down the group but are
smaller than the corresponding alkali metal.
• Ionization energies and electronegativities generally decrease moving
down the group but are larger than the corresponding alkali metal.
BariumStrontiumCalcium
(l)Andrew Lambert/Photo Researchers, Inc., (others)Fundamental Photographs
N N
N NMg
CH3CH3
H2C CH————
HH
H
O
CH3CH3
CH2 CH2 CO2 CH2 CH C (CH2 CH2 CH2 CH)3 CH3
CO2 CH3
CH2 CH3 CH3
H3C
Beryllium
4
Be[He]2s2
Magnesium
12
Mg[Ne]3s2
912 Elements Handbook
Space TelescopesBeryllium and beryllium alloys have properties
that make them useful for applications in space:
they are hard, they are lighter than aluminum, and
they are stable over a wide temperature range. The
Hubble Space Telescope’s reaction plate is made of
lightweight beryllium. The reaction plate carries
heaters that keep the main mirror at a constant
temperature. Beryllium is also being used in the
Hubble’s replacement—the James Webb Space
Telescope (JWST).
Chlorophyll and Crop YieldsIn the early 1900s, German chemist Richard Willstätter discovered
that a molecule of chlorophyll has a magnesium ion at its center.
Chlorophyll, the green pigment in plants, is responsible for photo-
synthetic processes, which convert sunlight to chemical energy. It is
this chemical energy that supports life on Earth. Notice in the table
that an average yield of common crops removes large amounts of
magnesium from just one hectare of soil. Once the importance of
magnesium was revealed, soils deficient in magnesium were fertil-
ized, greatly increasing crop yields. Willstätter’s work won him the
Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1915.
Precious GemsEmerald (B e 3 A l 2 S i 6 O 18 ), one of the world’s most
valuable gemstones, belongs to a family of gem-
stones known as beryls. Pure beryls are clear,
colorless crystals. Beryls tinted with other elements
form gems such as aquamarine, morganite, and
emerald. Trace amounts of chromium or vanadium
give emeralds their unique green color.
The JWST’s large mirror is composed of 18 hexagonal beryllium plates.
Emerald beryl
Amount of Magnesium Removed by Crops from One Hectare of Soil
CropMagnesium Removed
from Soil (kg)
Alfalfa 44
Corn 58
Cotton 25
Oranges 25
Peanuts 27
Rice 15
Soybeans 27
Tomatoes 40
Wheat 20
Beryllium plates
Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals
Chlorophyll molecule
(l)Mark A. Schneider/Photo Researchers, (r)Courtesy of Northrop Grumman Space Technology
Magnesium
12
Mg[Ne]3s2
Calcium
20
Ca[Ar]4s2
Strontium
38
Sr[Kr]5s2
Barium
56
Ba[Xe]6s2
Engine cradle
Elements Handbook 913
Real-World Applications
New Engineering AlloysMagnesium alloys are used when
strong, but lightweight, materials are
needed, such as in backpack frames
and aircraft. These alloys also enable
automotive engineers to design
lighter, more fuel-efficient cars. A
new magnesium alloy, introduced in
the engine cradle of some 2006 auto-
motive models, replaces traditional
aluminum. This alloy reduces the
engine cradle’s mass by approxi-
mately one-third, creating a vehicle
that is both agile and controllable.
Considered a breakthrough in
engineering technology, the new
alloy is currently being evaluated
for use in other applications.
FireworksThe four main components of fireworks are a
container, a fuse, a bursting charge, and stars.
Stars contain the chemical compounds needed
to produce light of brilliant colors. Many of these
compounds contain alkaline earth metals, such
as barium chloride (BaC l 2 ), strontium carbonate
(SrC O 3 ), and calcium chloride (CaC l 2 ). The table
identifies which metals are needed to make the
colors seen during a fireworks display.
The magnesium-alloy engine cradle is lighter than the aluminum model, yet it can still withstand the high temperatures produced by the car’s engine.
Metals Used in Fireworks
Color Metal
Red strontium, lithium
Orange calcium
Gold iron (with carbon)
Yellow sodium
White white-hot magnesium or aluminum, barium
Green barium
Blue copper
Purple mixture of strontium (red) and copper (blue)
Silver aluminum, titanium, or magnesium powder or flakes
(t)Paul Freytag/zefa/CORBIS, (b)Rebecca Cook/CORBIS
Calcium
20
Ca[Ar]4s2
Strontium
38
Sr[Kr]5s2
Toothpaste containingstrontium chloride
Crystals
Pore to root canaland nerves
Root canal
Dentine
Root
Nerve
Barium
56
Ba[Xe]6s2
914 Elements Handbook
GypsumDrywall is made from gypsum, which is a soft
mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate
(CaS O 4 ·2 H 2 O). Drywall boards are used in build-
ing construction because the gypsum provides fire
protection. Gypsum contains large amounts of
water in its crystal form, which vaporizes when
heated. The boards remain at 100°C until all of the
water evaporates, protecting the wood frame of the
building. Gypsum that has had most of its water
removed is known as plaster of paris. Most
minerals form pastes when mixed with water.
When plaster of paris is mixed with water, it forms
a rigid crystal structure, so it is often used for casts
to set broken bones and for molds.
Sensitive TeethAlmost 40 million people in the United States
have teeth that are hypersensitive to touch and
temperature. Sensitivity occurs when the dentine
and roots of teeth are exposed due to receding
gums or thinning of the tooth enamel. This is the
result of poor oral hygiene or, in many instances,
from brushing too hard. Exposing the root enables
stimuli, such as cold temperatures, to reach the
Medical X RaysBarium is used by medical professionals to exam-
ine a person’s gastrointestinal tract. Patients drink
barium liquid, which coats the tract, and are then
X-rayed. Barium is almost completely insoluble in
water and acids and appears as a bright white
color in X rays. This allows doctors and radiolo-
gists to locate tumors, ulcers, areas of reflux, and
other abnormalities in the digestive tract.
nerve through openings called pores. Toothpastes
that contain strontium chloride (SrC l 2 ) help
reduce the sensitivity. The compound reacts with
a person’s saliva to create crystals that fill in the
pores so stimuli cannot reach the nerves.
A layer of plaster of paris protects fossils during shipment.
Crystals formed from strontium chloride and saliva fill in pores in the root of a tooth and block access to the nerve.
After being coated with barium liquid, the large intestine shows up clearly on an X ray.
Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals
(t)Dung Vo Trung/CORBIS, (b)Neil Borden/Photo Researchers
Assessment
Radium
88
Ra[Rn]7s2
Elements Handbook 915
Real-World Applications
The Discovery of RadioactivityMarie Curie’s discovery of the atomic property she called
radioactivity paved the way for present-day advancements
in science and medicine. Curie and her husband, Pierre,
unveiled the characteristics and capabilities of radiation,
revolutionizing scientific thinking and laying the ground-
work for present-day cancer treatments, genetics, and
nuclear energy. Today, many cancers are treated with
radiation therapy.
Radon GasDecay of radium-226 in soil and rock produces radon gas.
The radioactive radon gas can seep through cracks in a home’s
foundation or can be dissolved in water pumped into the house
from a well. High concentrations of radon can increase the risk
of cancer. In many homes, installing a radon-reduction system
reduces the concentration of radon gas by using a fan to draw
the gas through pipes that vent to the outside of the home.
13. Describe the general trend in first ionization energies in group 2, and explain why this trend occurs.
14. Explain What is the charge on alkaline earth metal ions? Explain your answer.
15. Compare and contrast the physical properties of the alkaline earth metals and the alkali metals.
16. Evaluate why magnesium is used in emergency flares instead of other alkaline earth metals.
17. Analyze Use the atomic properties of the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals to explain why calcium is less reactive than potassium.
18. Infer The alkaline earth metals are usually found combined with oxygen and other nonmetals in Earth’s crust. Based on the atomic properties of this group, explain why alkaline earth metals are so reactive.
19. Calculate Calcium makes up about 1.5% of a human’s body mass. Calculate the amount of calcium found in a person who weighs 68 kg.
20. Calculate Radium-226 has a half-life of 1600 years. After 8000 years, how much of a 500.0-g sample of radium-226 would be left?
A radon-reduction system lowers the concentration of radon in homes by venting the radon gas from the home to the outside environment.
Fan
Vent pipe
Marie Curie died at the age of 67 from aplastic anemia, probably caused by her exposure to massive amounts of radiation. Today, the effects of radiation on health are well known, and suitable safety precautions are taken when using radioactive materials.
(l)Fred Haebegger/Grant Heilman Photography, (r)Bettmann/CORBIS
916 Elements Handbook
Groups 3–12: Transition Elements
Physical Properties• The main transition elements include four series of d-block elements
with atomic numbers between 21–30, 39–48, 72–80, and 104–109. The
inner transition elements include the f-block (rare earth) elements in
the lanthanide series (atomic numbers 57–71) and actinide series
(atomic numbers 89–103.) All are metals.
• As metals, transition elements are generally good conductors of
electricity and heat. They are ductile, which means they can be pulled
into wires. Transition metals are also malleable, which means they
can be hammered into thin sheets. For example, 1 g of gold can be
hammered into a 1 m 2 -sheet that is 0.1 µ thick .
• In general, the transition elements have high densities, high melting
points, and low vapor pressure. Except for mercury, which is a liquid,
all are solids at room temperature.
• High density and resistance to corrosion make transition elements,
such as iron, good structural materials.
• Most transition elements can form colored compounds.
• Transition elements are often paramagnetic, which means they are
attracted to an applied magnetic field. Three transition elements—iron,
cobalt, and nickel—are ferromagnetic. That means these elements can
form their own magnetic fields.
Common Reactions• Most transition elements can form stable
complex ions and coordinate covalent com-
pounds. A complex ion is an ion in which
a central metal ion is surrounded by weakly
bound molecules or ions called ligands.
Example: Prussian blue, an intense blue pigment
used in paints, is a coordinate compound made
of iron(III) and an iron(II) cyanide complex:
F e 4 [Fe(CN ) 6 ] 3 .
• Transition elements can often combine to form
alloys.
Examples:
• Brass is a mixture of copper and zinc.
• Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin.
When exposed to a magnet, iron filings become magnetic and are attracted to the magnet and to each other.
• Transition elements and their compounds are
often useful as catalysts.
Example: Nickel is used as a catalyst in
converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats.
• Transition elements can react with oxygen to
form oxides.
Example: In the presence of water, iron reacts
with oxygen to form rust. The overall reaction is:
4Fe + 3 O 2 → 2F e 2 O 3 .
• Some transition elements are important in
biochemical reactions.
Example: In the protein hemoglobin, iron binds
to O 2 to transport oxygen from the lungs to the
rest of the body.
©CORDELIA MOLLOY/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Photo Researchers Inc.
Elements Handbook 917
Element Facts
Analytical TestsNotice in the photo the colorful compounds
of transition metals. When placed in solutions,
these compounds absorb different wavelengths
of light. Visible spectroscopy uses light absorp-
tion at specific wavelengths to measure the con-
centration of colored compounds in solution.
This method of analysis uses the interaction
of valence electrons of transition elements and
visible light. Because many transition element
compounds are colored, this technique can be
used in transition element analysis.
Atomic Properties• The main transition elements have incomplete d sublevels.
• Inner transition elements include the lanthanide series and actinide series. Elements in these
series have incomplete f sublevels.
• The electronic structures of the transition elements give rise to their physical properties.
The more unpaired electrons in the d sublevel, the greater the hardness and the higher the
melting and boiling points.
• Unpaired d and f electrons produce paramagnetism in the transition elements.
• The tendency of transition elements to form colored compounds also derives from their
electron configurations. Compounds with unpaired d electrons can absorb visible light.
• For transition elements, there is little variation in atomic size, electronegativity, and ioniza-
tion energy across a period.
• Transition metals can typically form ions in more than one oxidation state.
The compounds of transition metals have color because of the par-tially filled d sublevels. The electrons in these sublevels can absorb visible light of specific wavelengths. Compounds with empty or filled d sublevels do not produce brilliant colors.
Oxidation Numbers of the First Row of Transition Elements
Sc +3
Ti +1 +2 +3 +4
V +1 +2 +3 +4 +5
Cr 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6
Mn 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7
Fe 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6
Co 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5
Ni +1 +2 +3 +4
Cu +1 +2 +3
Zn +2
©Martyn F. Chillmaid/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Titanium
22
[Ar]3d24s2
Chromium
24
Cr[Ar]3d54s1
Manganese
25
Mn[Ar]3d54s2
Cobalt
27
Co[Ar]3d74s2
Tungsten
74
W[Xe]4f145d46s2
Platinum
78
Pt[Xe]4f145d96s1
Canada Nickel Copper Gallium Tantalum Zinc Cesium Cobalt Platinum Vanadium
Mexico Zinc Cadmium Strontium
Jamaica Aluminum
Bolivia Antimony Tin
South Africa Chromium Manganese Vanadium
Indonesia Tin
Australia Aluminum Manganese
Platinum Tantalum
Japan Cadmium China Antimony Cadmium Copper Tin Manganese Tantalum Vanadium
Norway Nickel Cobalt
Brazil Manganese Aluminum
France Manganese Gallium
Gabon Manganese
India Cadmium Chromium Manganese
Turkey Chromium
Locations of Some Strategic Metals Russia Chromium Platinum
CopperManganese
PlatinumAntimonyGold
GoldTin
TinZinc
CopperNickel
AntimonyCobaltNickel
CopperGallium
918 Elements Handbook
Lighter but Stronger than SteelThe curved surfaces of the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao,
Spain, are covered with 32,000 m 2 of 0.4 mm-thick titani-
um panels. Titanium’s reflective properties give the building
a warm look that is ever changing. Titanium is also three
times stronger than steel, more resistant to weathering, and
weighs less than steel.
The titanium panels that cover the outside of the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain, were chosen for the metal’s physical properties.
Strategic and Critical MaterialsTransition metals, such as chromium, manganese, cobalt, tungsten, and platinum, play a
vital role in the economy of many countries because they have a wide variety of uses. As the
uses of transition metals increase, so does the demand for these valuable materials. Ores
that contain transition metals are located throughout the world.
The United States now imports more than 60 materials that are classified as “strategic and critical” because industry and the military are dependent on these materials.
Groups 3–12: Transition Elements
©Colin Walton/Alamy
Iron
26
Fe[Ar]3d64s2
Nickel
28
[Ar]3d84s2
Copper
29
Cu[Ar]3d104s1
Titanium
22
[Ar]3d24s2
Chromium
24
Cr[Ar]3d54s1
Iron
26
Fe[Ar]3d64s2
Cobalt
27
Co[Ar]3d74s2
Copper
29
Cu[Ar]3d104s1
Elements Handbook 919
Real-World Applications
Copper MicrochipsFor many years, aluminum was used to make computer
microchips. Although copper is a better electrical conductor
than aluminum, it was not until the late 1990s that the tech-
nology existed to use copper in microchips. Combined with
the extremely small size of copper wires, this allows copper
microchips to be smaller and to operate 25 to 30 times faster
than other kinds of microchips. To make wires this small, the
copper must be between 99.999 and 99.9999% pure.
Paint PigmentsPaints are a mixture of particles of pigment in a liquid
base. Once the liquid evaporates, the pigment particles
coat a painted surface. Transition elements and their
compounds are often used as paint pigments. Iron oxides
are used as red, yellow, and brown pigments. Chromium,
copper, and cobalt compounds produce green and blue
pigments. Titanium dioxide is often used for white paint.
Earth’s Iron Core Earth’s core is a solid iron sphere about the size of the
Moon. Surrounding the inner core, there is an outer
liquid core that contains a nickel-iron alloy. Scientists
think the iron core formed when multiple collisions
during Earth’s early history resulted in enough heat to
melt metals. In the molten state, the densest materials,
including iron and nickel, settled to the center and
became Earth’s core. The less-dense materials
remained at the surface. As Earth cooled, the outer
layers solidified, creating Earth’s mantle and crust. Earth’s crust and mantle insulate the hot iron core.
To create a copper microchip, first a layer of tantalum coats a silicon substrate. Then, copper is deposited using a vacuum process. Copper chips like this one are used in handheld games, computers, and other electronic devices.
Artists can create their own paints by mixing dry pigments in a liquid base such as oil, latex, or even egg yolk.
Crust
Outer mantle
Inner mantle
Inner core (iron)
Outer core (iron and nickel)
(t)©Roger Harris/Photo Researchers, Inc., (c)©Tom Pantages, (b)©Kalicoba/Alamy
Gold
79
Au[Xe]4f145d106s1
Plastic sheet
Au
Glass
Au (10 nm)
CdS(3 nm)
Cadmium
48
Cd[Kr]4d105s2
Gold
79
Au[Xe]4f145d106s1
Manganese
25
Mn[Ar]3d54s2
Iron
26
Fe[Ar]3d64s2
Copper
29
Cu[Ar]3d104s1
Zinc
30
Zn[Ar]3d104s2
Silver
47
Ag[Kr]4d105s1
Cadmium
48
Cd[Kr]4d105s2
920 Elements Handbook
Groups 3–12: Transition Elements
GildingCovering an ordinary object with gold foil or gold leaf can
make the object look like it is made of solid gold. The process,
which is called gilding, has been used for more than 5000
years. To create gold foil, gold is hammered until it is very
thin. The thinnest sheets are called gold leaf. They can be as
thin as 0.1 mm thick. It takes skill and a special gilder’s brush
to handle sheets this thin, but the results can be spectacular.
Egyptian King Tutankhamun’s coffin was made of wood covered with gold foil. It has lasted more than 3000 years.
Touch Sensors for Robot FingersImagine a surgeon using a robot for microsurgery. In the
future, it might be possible for the surgeon to feel what is
happening as the robot makes a microsuture. Future robots
might use thin, film sensors to mimic the human sense of
touch. These sensors are built on a glass base from alternating
layers of nanoparticles of gold and cadmium sulfide separated
by layers of plastic. The entire sensor is only 100 nm thick and
works by transmitting an electro-luminescent signal and
electric current when regions of the sensor are touched.
This touch sensor is made from nanoparticles of gold and cadmium sulfide.
Biotreatment of Acid Mine WastesMining operations can generate acidic wastewater
that contain harmful levels of dissolved transition
metals, including manganese, iron, copper, zinc,
silver, and cadmium. One treatment method uses
naturally occurring anaerobic bacteria to remove
all of the oxygen. Then sulfate-reducing bacteria
convert sulfuric acid in the mine waste to sulfide.
Sulfide reacts with metals in the wastewater to
form metal sulfide precipitates, which can be
recovered and processed for commercial use.
Untreated acid mine drainage can contaminate streams with harmful concentrations of transition metals. The red-orange color of the water comes from iron compounds.
(t)©The Art Archive/Egyptian Museum Cairo/Dagli Orti, (b)©Theodore Clutter/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Assessment
Gadolinium
64
Gd[Xe]4f75d16s2
Thorium
90
Th[Rn]6d27s2
Lawrencium
103
Lr[Rn]5f146d17s2
Elements Handbook 921
Real-World Applications
Magnetic Resonance ImagingGadolinium contrast agents are compounds that enhance
differences between normal tissue and abnormal tissue, such
as tumors, in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. The
gadolinium compounds are injected directly into the blood-
stream prior to an MRI scan. Tumors accumulate more of the
gadolinium compounds than normal tissue. Gadolinium
enhances MRI images because it is paramagnetic. Magnetic
resonance imaging uses a strong magnetic field and radio
waves to stimulate water molecules to an excited state. The
MRI image is formed as water molecules relax back to their
normal state. Gadolinium speeds up the relaxation rate, which
improves the contrast between normal and abnormal tissue.
21. Compare the electron configurations of the main transition elements and the inner transition elements.
22. Explain how some transition metals can form ions with more than one charge.
23. Identify countries that export only one “strategic and critical” transition metal to the United States.
24. Predict Which elements would you expect to have properties most closely related to gold?
25. Calculate A particular copper-chip manufacturing process specifies that the copper must be 99.999 to 99.9999% pure. Calculate the maximum limit for impurities in the copper in parts per million (ppm).
26. Hypothesize Silver is the best conductor of electricity. Hypothesize why silver is not used for electric wires if it is such a good conductor of electricity.
This gadolinium-enhanced MRI scan from a patient with multiple sclerosis shows several areas of scar tissue (white patches).
Reorganizing the Periodic TableThe actinides are a row of radioactive elements from thorium to
lawrencium. They were not always separated into their own row in
the periodic table. Originally, the actinides were located within the
d-block following actinium. In 1944, Glenn Seaborg proposed a
reorganization of the periodic chart to reflect what he knew about
the chemistry of the actinide elements. He placed the actinide
series elements in their own row directly below the lanthanide
series. Seaborg had played a major role in the discovery of
plutonium in 1941. His reorganization of the periodic table made
it possible for him and his coworkers to predict the properties of
possible new elements and facilitated the synthesis of nine addi-
tional transuranium elements.
Seaborg won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1951 for his work. Element 106, seaborgium, was named in his honor.
(t)©ISM/Phototake, (b)©Fritz Goro/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images
Thallium
81
Tl[Xe]6s24f145d106p1
Gallium
31
Ga[Ar]4s23d104p1
Indium
49
In[Kr]5s24d105p1
Aluminum
13
Al[Ne]3s23p1
Boron
5
B[He]2s22p1
MPBP
300020000 1000
Temperature (°C)
20763927
6602519
302204
1572072
3041473
4000
B
Al
Ga
In
Tl
Melting Points and Boiling Points
g/mL
2.460
2.700
5.904
7.310
Densities
B
Al
Ga
In
Tl 11.850
3 60 9 12
922 Elements Handbook
Physical Properties• Most of the elements in group 13 are metals that have a silvery-white
appearance. The exception is boron, which is pure black. Thallium is
initially silvery, but oxidizes quickly.
• Boron is a metalloid. The remaining group 13 elements are metals.
• Elements in this group are relatively lightweight and soft, except for
boron. Boron is extremely hard—almost as hard as diamond.
• The group 13 elements are solids at room temperature. Gallium melts
slightly above room temperature.
• They have higher boiling points than the alkaline earth metals and
lower boiling and melting points than the carbon group elements.
Group 13: Boron Group
Common Reactions• B, Al, Ga, In, and Tl react with oxygen to form metal(III) oxides,
such as aluminum(III) oxide.
Example: 4Al(s) + 3 O 2 (g) → 2A l 2 O 3 (s)
• B and Al react with nitrogen to form nitrides, such as boron nitride.
Example: 2B(s) + N 2 (g) → 2BN(s)
• Al, Ga, In, and Tl react with halogens to form metal(III) halides,
such as gallium(III) fluoride.
Example: 2Ga(s) + 3 F 2 (g) → 2Ga F 3 (g)
• Tl reacts with halogens to form metal(I) halides, such as thallium(I)
fluoride.
Example: 2Tl(s) + F 2 (g) → 2TlF(s)
• B reacts with halogens to form covalent compounds, such as boron
trichloride.
Example: 2B(s) + 3C l 2 (g) → 2BC l 3 (g)
• Tl reacts with water to form thallium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Example: 2Tl(s) + 2 H 2 O(l) → 2TlOH(aq) + H 2 (g)
B85
B3+
20
Atomicradius(pm)
Al143
Al3+
50
Ga135
Ga3+
62
In167
In3+
81
Tl170
Tl3+
95
Ionicradius(pm)
kJ/mol
B
Al
Ga
In
Tl
578
579
558
589
First Ionization Energies
801
2000 400 600 800
Pauling units
B
Al
Ga
In
Tl
2.04
1.61
1.81
1.78
1.62
Electronegativities
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
indium
Elements Handbook 923
Element Facts
Atomic Properties• Each element in group 13 has three valence electrons and an electron
configuration ending with n s 2 n p 1 .
• Except for boron, the group 13 elements lose their three valence electrons
to form ions with a 3+ charge. Some of the elements (Ga, In, and Tl) also
have the ability to lose just one of their valence electrons to form ions with
a 1+ charge.
• Boron participates only in covalent bonding.
• Atomic radii and ionic radii generally increase going down the group and
are similar in size to the group 14 elements.
• First ionization energies for the group 13 elements generally decrease
going down the group.
Analytical TestsWith the exception of aluminum, which is one of
the most abundant elements in Earth’s crust, most
of the boron group elements are rare. None of the
elements are found free in nature. Three can be
identified by flame tests, as shown in the table.
Boron produces a bright green color, while indium
produces an indigo blue color. Thallium produces
a green color. More precise identification methods
involve advanced spectral and imaging techniques.
Flame Test Results
Element Color of Flame
Boron initial bright green flash
Indium indigo blue
Thallium green
Indium was named after its distinct indigo blue spectral line.
Boron
5
B[He]2s22p1
Aluminum
13
Al[Ne]3s23p1
Gallium
31
Ga[Ar]4s23d104p1
924 Elements Handbook
Group 13: Boron Group
DetergentSodium perborate (NaB O 3 · H 2 O or NaB O 3 ·4 H 2 O) is one of the
key ingredients in powdered laundry detergent. The hydrate,
formed by combining borax pentahydrate (N a 2 B 4 O 7 ·5 H 2 O)
with hydrogen peroxide and sodium hydroxide, releases
oxygen during the laundering process to help make clothes
whiter and brighter. Sodium perborate is the chemical of
choice because it remains stable over long periods of time,
helps maintain wash water pH, and increases the solubility
of detergent ingredients.
Many powder laundry detergents contain boron compounds that help make clothes cleaner.
CDs and DVDsHave you ever wondered what your CDs and DVDs are
made of? The inside is made of plastic, about 1 mm thick. A
machine embeds digital information, such as sound record-
ings, into the plastic as a series of bumps and then coats the
plastic with aluminum. That is what makes CDs and DVDs so
shiny. A thin layer of acrylic protects the aluminum. The
shiny surface allows the laser from the CD or DVD player to
read the information reflected off the disc’s surface.
A thin aluminum film coats the depressions embed-ding information in a compact disc and makes the surface of a CD shiny.
HD DVDsVideos in high-definition (HD) have higher quality sound
and pictures than regular DVDs. However, HD technology
requires more information than can be stored on regular
DVDs. A red laser is used to read and write data on a regular
DVD. Blue lasers made from gallium nitride (GaN) are used
to read and write data on HD DVDs. Blue light has a shorter
wavelength than red light, so a blue laser can read more
densely packed information, allowing more information to be
stored in the same amount of space.
HD DVDs store up to 50 gigabytes (GB) of information, com-pared to 4.7 GB on a regular DVD.
(t)©Tom Pantages, (tc)©Greg Stott/Masterfile, (b)©Toshiba Corporation images, (bc)©Eye of Science/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Assessment
Indium
49
In[Kr]5s24d105p1
Thallium
81
Tl[Xe]6s24f145d106p1
Elements Handbook 925
Real-World Applications
27. Describe how the properties of boron are different from the other group 13 elements.
28. Identify what an unknown element would be if it produced a green flash of color at the beginning of a flame test.
29. Describe any trends in the first ionization energies of the group 13 elements.
30. Explain why HD DVDs can store more information than regular DVDs.
31. Summarize how “cold” areas in thallium-201 scans could correspond to artery blockages.
32. Calculate It is estimated that 123,000 aluminum cans are recycled each minute. Assume that each can has a mass of 14 g. Determine how much aluminum (kg) is recycled during the month of September.
Flat-Screen TelevisionsKnown as ITO in the electronics industry,
indium-tin oxide has proven to be the cornerstone
of liquid crystal display (LCD) technology. During
production, a thin layer of indium-tin oxide
(a mixture of I n 2 O 3 and Sn O 2 ) is used to coat the
glass contained within an LCD flat-screen panel.
This allows the glass to be both conductive and
transparent. About half of the world’s indium is
used to make LCDs.
Indium-tin oxide is one of the main components in LCD flat-panel televisions.
Cardiac ScansThallium-201 is a radioisotope used by medical pro-
fessionals to determine the health of a person’s heart.
During a thallium-201 scan, also called a heart stress
test, a patient performs physical activity and is injected
with thallium-201 one to two minutes before stopping
the activity. The isotope emits gamma rays that are
recorded by a detector to display a two-dimensional
image of the heart and its blood supply. If gamma rays
are not detected in certain areas in and around the
heart, the areas are considered “cold.” This means that
the blood supply has been impeded or blocked, a con-
dition that often leads to heart attack or stroke.
The dark blue areas in this thallium-201 scan are areas with low blood supply.
(t)©Judith Collins/Alamy, (b)©Collection CNRI/Phototake
Lead
82
Pb[Xe]6s24f145d106p2
Germanium
32
Ge[Ar]4s23d104p2
Tin
50
Sn[Kr]5s24d105p2
Silicon
14
Si[Ne]3s23p2
Carbon
6
C[He]2s22p2
MPBP
300020000 1000
Temperature (°C)
35274027
14142900
9382820
2322602
3271749
4000
C
Si
Ge
Sn
Pb
Melting Points and Boiling Points
g/mL
2.267
2.330
5.323
7.310
Densities
C
Si
Ge
Sn
Pb 11.340
0 3 6 9 12
926 Elements Handbook
Group 14: Carbon Group
Physical Properties• Elements in the carbon group increase in metallic character going
down the group. Carbon is a nonmetal. Silicon and germanium are
metalloids. Tin and lead are metals.
• Carbon can be a black powder; a soft, slippery gray solid; a hard,
transparent solid; or an orange-red solid.
• Silicon can be a brown powder or a shiny-gray solid.
• Germanium is a shiny, gray-white solid that breaks easily.
• Tin also occurs in two forms. One form is a silvery-white solid, while
the other is a shiny-gray solid. Both forms are ductile and malleable.
• Lead is a shiny-gray solid. It is soft, malleable, and ductile.
• Moving down the group, melting and boiling points decrease and
densities increase.
Common ReactionsAt room temperature, carbon group ele-
ments are generally unreactive. Reactions
do occur under elevated temperature
conditions.
• C, Si, Ge, and Sn react with oxygen to
form oxides, such as carbon dioxide.
Example: C(s) + O 2 (g) → C O 2 (g)
• C, Si, Ge, and Sn react with halogens to
form halides, such as silicon chloride.
Example: Si(s) + 2C l 2 (l) → SiC l 4 (g)
• Sn and Pb react with bases to form
hydroxo ions and hydrogen gas.
Example:
Sn(s) + KOH(aq) + 2 H 2 O(l) →
K + (aq) + Sn(OH ) 3 - (aq) + H 2 (g)
Silicon chloride (SiCl4) reacts with water to form silicon dioxide and hydrochloric acid, which turns lit-mus paper pink.
©ANDREW LAMBERT PHOTOGRAPHY/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/PHOTO RESEARCHERS INC.
C77
C4+
15
Atomicradius(pm)
Si118
Si4+
41
Ge122
Ge4+
53
Sn140
Sn4+
71
Pb146
Pb4+
84
Ionicradius(pm)
kJ/mol
C
Si
Ge
Sn
Pb
2000 400 600 800 1000
787
762
709
716
First Ionization Energies
1087
Pauling units
C
Si
Ge
Sn
Pb
2.55
1.90
2.01
1.96
2.33
Electronegativities
0.50 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Elements Handbook 927
Element Facts
Atomic Properties• Each element in group 14 has four valence electrons and an electron
configuration ending with n s 2 n p 2 .
• Carbon group elements participate in covalent bonding with an oxidation
number of 4+. Tin and lead can also have an oxidation number of 2+.
Carbon and silicon have an oxidation number of 4- in some compounds.
• Carbon, silicon, and tin occur as allotropes.
• Atomic and ionic radii increase moving down the group and are similar to
their corresponding group 13 elements.
• Except for carbon, the group 14 elements have similar ionization energies
and no distinct pattern of electronegativities.
Analytical TestsBecause the group 14 ele-
ments bond covalently, they
do not lend themselves to
identification through flame
tests. The exception is lead,
which produces a light-blue
color. The carbon group
elements can be identified
through analysis of their
physical properties (melting
point, boiling point, densi-
ty), emission spectra, or
reactions with other chemi-
cals. For example, tin and
lead form precipitates when
added to specific solutions.
• C reacts with water to form carbon
monoxide and hydrogen gas.
Example: C(s) + H 2 O(g) →
CO(g) + H 2 (g)
• Si reacts with water to form silicon
dioxide and hydrogen gas.
Example: Si(s) + 2 H 2 O(l) →
Si O 2 (s) + 2 H 2 (g)
• Sn and Pb react with acids to form
hydrogen gas.
Example:
Pb(s) + 2HBr(aq) →
P b B r 2(aq) + H 2 (g)
• C reacts with hydrogen to form
hydrocarbons, such as propane.
Example: 3C(s) + 4 H 2 (g) → C 3 H 8 (g)If lead nitrate is added to potassium iodide, a yellow precipitate of lead iodide forms.
©David Taylor/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Too deep Too shallowIdeal
Carbon
6
C[He]2s22p2
928 Elements Handbook
Group 14: Carbon Group
Graphite Golf ShaftsSome golf shafts are created by fusing
sheets of graphite together with a binding
material. The use of graphite instead of traditional steel allows
greater versatility in club design and construction. Graphite
sheets can be layered to vary the weight and stiffness of the
club, which for many golfers translates into greater shot dis-
tance and overall performance. Graphite also offers greater
durability than steel for golfers with powerful swings.
Graphite can be easily formed into sheets due to its atomic structure.
Diamond Cutting The way a diamond is cut is one of the “4 Cs” that
gemologists use to determine a diamond’s value. If
diamond is the hardest mineral on Earth, then how
is it possible to cut a diamond? Diamond cutters use
other diamonds and lasers to create facets that reflect
and refract light. The more precisely the cuts are
made, the greater the gem’s brilliance. If a diamond
cut is too shallow or too deep, light escapes from the
diamond without traveling back to the eye, resulting
in a lackluster appearance.
The way a diamond is cut determines how well light is reflected and refracted within the gemstone.
NanotubesFullernes form a group of carbon allotropes. There are
spherical fullerenes nicknamed buckyballs and cylindrical
fullerenes known as buckytubes or nanotubes. Fullerenes
have yet to display all of their capabilities to scientists. One
of the most promising areas of fullerene research involves the
creation of nanotubes. Nanotubes are sheets of carbon that
are rolled up into cylinders. These cylinders are strong—due
to the hexagonal structure of the carbon atoms —and have
unique conducting properties. Fullerene nano-technology on
the horizon includes the development of faster computer
chips, smaller electronic components, and more advanced
space-exploration vehicles.
The hexagonal structure of carbon atoms gives extraordinary strength to carbon nanotubes.
(tr)©CHEMICAL DESIGN/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Photo Researchers Inc., (tr)©Johner Images/Getty Images, (b)©DR TIM EVANS/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Photo Researchers Inc.
Silicon
14
Si[Ne]3s23p2
Step 1 Thin wafers are cut from a bar of silicon.
Step 2 A layer of silicon dioxide is added to each wafer.
2,500,000
2,000,000
1,500,000
1,000,000
500,000
0
Sand
pro
duce
d (m
etri
c to
ns)
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05Year
Sand Production in Michigan
Elements Handbook 929
Real-World Applications
Computer ChipsComputer chips are everywhere. From pet-identification
systems to laptop computers—any device that can be
programmed contains a computer chip. Silicon’s abundance
and ability as a semiconductor make it an ideal material for
the production of computer chips. The first step in making a
computer chip involves cutting pure silicon into wafer-like
pieces. Silicon dioxide (Si O 2 ) is then cultivated on each wafer.
Layers upon layers of silicon dioxide and other chemicals are
used to create chips for specific functions.
GlassAlmost 40% of the sand produced in the United States is used for glass production. Glass is creat-
ed by first melting silicon dioxide (Si O 2 ) obtained from sand with sodium carbonate and then
supercooling the mixture. This results in a solid whose structure resembles a liquid and whose
physical properties make it ideal for glassmaking. For manufacturing purposes, sand that yields at
least 95% Si O 2 with no impurities is required for making glass products, such as exterior panels
on buildings, automotive windshields, and commercial beverage containers. Manufacturers of
high precision optical instruments, such as telescopes and microscopes, require sand that con-
tains more than 99.5% Si O 2 .
More than 250 steps are needed to create one computer chip.
Sand dunes in Michigan provide millions of metric tons of sand each year.
©Phil Schermeister/CORBIS
Germanium
32
Ge[Ar]4s23d104p2
Tin
50
Sn[Kr]5s24d105p2
930 Elements Handbook
Group 14: Carbon Group
Night VisionLenses that contain germanium are found in an array of night vision
equipment including goggles, binoculars, and cameras. Unlike ordi-
nary glass lenses, germanium-containing lenses are transparent to
infrared radiation. Infrared radiation is emitted by objects that radiate
heat. Infrared radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, a
region distinct from the visible spectrum, so special equipment is
needed to detect it. Night vision is used for military and security appli-
cations, to monitor wildlife, to navigate roads, and to locate objects
that have been hidden by criminals.The germanium lens in night vision goggles focuses infrared radiation emit-ted from living things.
Fiber Optic CablesFiber optic cables are responsible for the transmission of
information both across the street and across the globe.
These cables are made of extremely pure glass that allows
light signals to travel the span of the cable without losing a
significant amount of energy. Each fiber optic cable consists
of three main parts: a core, cladding, and a buffer coating.
The core is made by exposing gaseous germanium tetra-
chloride (GeC l 4 ) to oxygen, resulting in germanium dioxide
(Ge O 2 ). The germanium dioxide helps the light signal move
effectively along the cable.
Germanium is added to the core of a fiber optic cable to improve the efficiency of the light signal.
Food PackagingA quick trip to the grocery store reveals that many dif-
ferent foods are stored in cans. Soft drinks, fruits, veg-
etables, and even meats can be stored in cans. Cans are
made from sheets of steel that are coated on both sides
with pure tin. Known as tinplate, the metal is both
durable and resistant to rusting and corrosion. These
properties allow foods to stay fresh on the shelf for
long periods of time, and to be transported long dis-
tances. More than 200 million cans are used per day in
the United States alone. More than 2500 different products are packaged in cans.
(t)©Martin Dohrn/naturepl.com, (c)©GOODSHOOT - JUPITERIMAGES FRANCE/Alamy, (b)©Allan H Shoemake/Taxi/Getty Images
Assessment
Lead
82
Pb[Xe]6s24f145d106p2
LeaddioxideLead
Electrolyticsolution
Anode (+)Cathode (-)
Elements Handbook 931
Real-World Applications
BatteriesA car battery is composed of three main parts: one elec-
trode made of lead, one electrode made of lead dioxide
(Pb O 2 ), and an electrolytic solution made with sulfuric acid
( H 2 S O 4 ). That is why car batteries are also called lead-acid
batteries. The battery’s energy comes from the chemical
reactions occurring between the electrodes and the
electrolyte. During the chemical reaction, electrons are pro-
duced that accumulate on the lead electrode. When a wire
connects the electrodes, electrons flow freely from the lead
electrode to the lead-dioxide electrode, and the battery
discharges. Applying a current reverses the reaction,
recharging the battery.
33. Write the electron configuration of tin.
34. Summarize the physical properties of the elements in group 14.
35. Compare and contrast the atomic properties of the group 13 and group 14 elements.
36. Predict what product or products will be formed if bromine gas reacts with solid carbon under elevated temperature conditions.
37. Consider why graphite is the most suitable carbon allotrope for golf clubs.
38. Calculate Pure diamond has a density of 3.52 g/c m 3 , while graphite has a density of 2.20 g/c m 3 . Recall that density = mass/volume. Samples of diamond and graphite each displace 4.60 mL of water. What is the mass of each sample?
Leaded or Unleaded?In the early 1900s, the automotive industry needed to solve a
problem that people complained about when they drove their
cars—knocking in the engine. At the time, little was known about
the chemistry of fuels and fuel additives. Researchers spent seven
years searching for a gasoline additive that effectively reduced
knocking before discovering tetraethyl lead (Pb( C 2 H 5 ) 4 ). Further
research revealed the health and environmental risks posed by
lead, leading to the development of unleaded fuels that reduce
knocking.
Unleaded fuels reduce knocking in car engines and do not have the health and envi-ronmental concerns posed by leaded fuels.
Eighty-five percent of the lead used in the United States goes into making lead-acid batteries.
©Chinch Gryniewicz; Ecoscene/CORBIS
MPBP
-500 0
Temperature (°C)
-210-196
44277
817614
6311587
2711564
500 1000 1500
N
P
As
Sb
Bi
Melting Points and Boiling Points
2 40 6 8 10
g/mL
1.823
5.727
6.697
Densities
P
As
Sb
Bi 9.780
Nitrogen
7
N[He]2s22p3
Phosphorus
15
P[Ne]3s23p3
Arsenic
33
As[Ar]4s23d104p3
Antimony
51
Sb[Kr]5s24d105p3
Bismuth
83
Bi[Xe]6s24f145d106p3
932 Elements Handbook
Common Reactions• At high temperatures are increased, nitrogen reacts with oxygen to
form nitric oxide.
Example: N 2 (g) + O 2 (g) → 2NO(g)
• At high temperature and pressure, nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to
form ammonia.
Example: N 2 (g) + 3 H 2 (g) → 2N H 3 (g)
• P reacts with an excess of oxygen to form phosphorus(V) oxide.
Example: P 4 (s) + 5 O 2 (g) → P 4 O 10 (s)
• P, As, Sb, and Bi react with oxygen to form element(III) oxides.
Example: P 4 (s) + 3 O 2 (g) → P 4 O 6 (s)
• P, As, Sb, and Bi react with halogens to form trihalides.
Example: 2Sb(s) + 3C l 2 (g) → 2SbC l 3 (s)
Physical Properties• Like the elements in group 14, the group 15 elements increase in
metallic character going down the group. Nitrogen and phosphorus are
nonmetals. Arsenic and antimony are metalloids. Bismuth is a metal.
• Also like group 14, the nitrogen group elements vary in appearance.
• Nitrogen is a colorless, odorless gas ( N 2 ).
• Phosphorus exists in three allotropic forms, which are all solids. The
forms are white, red, and black in color.
• Arsenic is a shiny, gray solid that is brittle. Under certain conditions, it
can become a dull, yellow solid. Arsenic sublimates when heated.
• Antimony is a shiny, silver-gray solid that is very brittle.
• Bismuth is a shiny, gray solid that has a pink cast to it. It is one of the
least conductive metals on the periodic table and is also brittle.
• Boiling points and densities of the group 15 elements generally
increase going down the group.
Group 15: Nitrogen Group
N75
N3-
146
Atomicradius(pm)
P110
P3-
212
As120
As3-
222
Sb140
Sb5+
62
Bi150
Bi5+
74
Ionicradius(pm)
Pauling units
N
P
As
Sb
Bi
3.04
2.19
2.18
2.05
2.02
Electronegativities
0 1.0 2.0 3.0
kJ/mol
N
P
As
Sb
Bi
0
1012
947
834
703
First Ionization Energies
1402
500 1000 1500
Elements Handbook 933
Element Facts
Atomic Properties• Each element in group 15 has five valence electrons and an electron
configuration ending with n s 2 p 3 .
• Nitrogen is diamagnetic, meaning it is repelled by magnetic fields. This
indicates that all of nitrogen’s electrons are paired.
• Nitrogen can have oxidation numbers ranging from −3 to +5.
• Phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony can have oxidation numbers of −3,
+3, and +5.
• Bismuth can have oxidation numbers of +3 and +5.
• Going down the group, first ionization energies and electronegativities
decrease and atomic radii increase.
Analytical TestsBecause group 15 elements bond covalently and most
are nonmetallic in nature, they do not lend themselves
to identification through flame tests. The exceptions
are antimony and bismuth. Antimony produces a faint
green or blue color when placed in a flame, while
bismuth produces a light purple-blue color.
The nitrogen group elements can be identified
through analysis of their physical properties (melting
point, boiling point, density), emission spectra, or
reactions with other chemicals. For example, bismuth
ions precipitate when added to tin(II) hydroxide and
sodium hydroxide. Another example is the test for
ammonium compounds. These compounds, which
contain nitrogen, can be identified by their distinct
smell when added to sodium hydroxide and by the
color change observed when red litmus paper is
placed at the opening of the test tube.
The ammonia vapor produced by mixing ammonium compounds (N H 4 + ) with sodium hydroxide changes red litmus paper to blue.
©Tom Pantages
Nitrogen
7
N[He]2s22p3
Phosphorus
15
P[Ne]3s23p3
934 Elements Handbook
Group 15: Nitrogen Group
Nitrogen-Fixing BacteriaAlthough nitrogen makes up about 78% of Earth’s atmosphere,
it occurs in a form that plants cannot use. Some bacteria in the
soil convert nitrogen gas ( N 2 ) from the air into a usable form
by breaking the molecule’s triple bond. This creates a form of
nitrogen that plants uptake into their root systems. Plants need
nitrogen to build cellular components, to participate in photo-
synthesis, and to transfer energy effectively. Commercial
fertilizers mimic the action of nitrogen-fixing bacteria by
providing nitrogen and other nutrients in forms that are easily
incorporated into the plant system.Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are found in protective nodules along plant roots.
Liquid Nitrogen CryotherapyCryotherapy, also called cryosurgery, is a medical procedure
used to remove a variety of skin lesions, including
carcinomas, warts, and other tissue abnormalities. The pro-
cedure involves dabbing liquid nitrogen onto the affected
area to freeze and kill the cells. This is then repeated over
time until all of the affected tissue is gone. Research has
shown that patients who undergo cryotherapy treatment for
certain types of lesions experience a lower recurrence rate
than patients who receive radiation or surgical removal.
Doctors use liquid nitrogen as one of the treatment options to remove certain types of skin cancer. More than 1.3 million new cases of skin cancer are recorded each year in the United States.
Safety MatchesSafety matches consist of two main parts: the tip and the
textured strip on the side of the box. The tip contains potassium
chlorate, and the textured strip contains red phosphorus.
When these two chemicals come in contact, a chemical
reaction occurs, and fire is produced. In safety matches, the
chemicals needed for reaction are separate from each other. In
strike-anywhere matches, both chemicals are contained in the
matchstick so that ignition can occur using almost any surface.The strike of a match initiates a chemical reaction that produces a flame.
(t)©Wally Eberhart/Visuals Unlimited, (c)©Dr P. Marazzi/Photo Researchers, Inc., (b)©Al Francekevich/CORBIS
Assessment
Antimony
51
Sb[Kr]5s24d105p3
Bismuth
83
Bi[Xe]6s24f145d106p3
Elements Handbook 935
Real-World Applications
39. Identify which elements in the nitrogen group are metals, nonmetals, or metalloids.
40. Explain why nitrogen does not react with other elements under normal temperature conditions.
41. Explain why a compound of antimony is used in flame retardants that protect plastic products.
42. Describe how fertilizers mimic the action of nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
43. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction between potassium chlorate (KCl O 3 ) and red phospho-rus ( P 4 ). The reaction produces potassium chloride (KCl) and phosphorus pentoxide ( P 4 O 10 ).
44. Predict what product will be formed when bismuth is combined with chlorine.
45. Calculate A 35-kg bag of fertilizer contains 5.25 kg of nitrogen. What percentage of the fertilizer is nitrogen?
Flame RetardantsAntimony trioxide (S b 2 O 3 ) is used along with
brominated or chlorinated compounds in the making
of flame retardants that protect plastics, paints, and
some textile products. Antimony trioxide increases the
effectiveness of the halogen compounds in preventing
the spread of a fire. Research shows that approximately
5000 deaths in the United States are caused by fire
each year. The use of flame retardants improves escape
time, releases less toxic gases and heat, and decreases
fire damage.
Antimony trioxide fire retardants coat electrical wires and components found in a variety of everyday appliances.
Soothing Upset StomachsOriginally named Mixture Cholera Infantum, the popular
pink medicine now used for upset stomachs was created to
combat cholera. This mixture, whose active ingredient was
bismuth subsalicylate ( C 7 H 5 Bi O 4 ), proved effective in treating
the nausea and vomiting associated with infant cholera.
However, it could not cure the disease itself. Nonetheless, the
product became a wide success. As science advanced and doc-
tors realized that cholera was contracted from bacteria (which
could be treated with antibiotics), bismuth subsalicylate found
its way into medical treatments for a variety of other stomach
problems, including heartburn, indigestion, and ulcers.
Bismuth subsalicylate ( C 7 H 5 Bi O 4 ) is the active ingre-dient in some medicines used to treat stomach problems.
(t)©Michael Newman/Photo Edit, (bl)©Michael Newman/photoedit, (br)©Janet Horton
Oxygen
8
O[He]2s22p4
Sulfur
16
S[Ne]3s23p4
Selenium
34
Se[Ar]4s23d104p4
Tellurium
52
Te[Kr]5s24d105p4
Polonium
84
Po[Xe]6s24f145d106p4
MPBP
Temperature (°C)
-218-183
115445
221685
450988
254962
O
S
Se
Te
Po
Melting Points and Boiling Points
2000-200-400 400 600 800 1000 2 40 6 8 10g/mL
1.960
4.819
6.240
Densities
S
Se
Te
Po 9.196
936 Elements Handbook
Group 16: Oxygen Group
Physical Properties• At room temperature, oxygen is a clear, odorless gas, while the other
group 16 elements are solids.
• Some of the group 16 elements have several common allotropic
forms. Oxygen can exist as either O 2 or O 3 (ozone). Sulfur has many
allotropes. Selenium has three common allotropes: amorphous gray,
red crystalline, and red/black powder.
• Oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are nonmetals. Tellurium and pollonium
are metalloids.
• O 2 is paramagnetic, which means that a strong magnet will attract
oxygen molecules.
• Except for polonium, boiling points and melting points of the group 16
elements increase with increasing atomic number. Density increases
with increasing atomic number for all group 16 elements.
Common Reactions• S, Se, Te, and Po react with oxygen
to form oxides, such as selenium
oxide.
Example: Se(s) + O 2 (g) → Se O 2 (s)
• Oxygen also reacts with hydrogen
and most of the elements in
groups 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, and 17 to
form oxides, such as silicon oxide
and magnesium oxide.
Examples: Si + O 2 → Si O 2
2Mg + O 2 → 2MgO
• O, S, Se, Te, and Po react with
halogens to form halides, such
as sulfur(VI) fluoride.
Example: S(s) + 3 F 2 (g) → S F 6 (l)
Oxides of Main Group Elements
H H 2 O, H 2 O 2
1L i 2 O, N a 2 O, K 2 O, R b 2 O,
C s 2 O, F r 2 O
2 BeO, MgO, CaO, SrO, BaO, RaO
13 B 2 O 3 , A l 2 O 3 , G a 2 O 3 , I n 2 O 3 ,
I n 2 O, T i 2 O
14C O 2 , Si O 2 , Ge O 2 , Sn O 2 , SnO,
Pb O 2 , PbO
15 N 2 O 5 , N 2 O 3 , N 2 O, NO, N O 2 , P 4 O 10 , P 4 O 6 , A s 2 O 5 , A s 4 O 6 ,
S b 2 O 5 , S b 4 O 6 , B i 2 O 3
17 C l 2 O 7 , C l 2 O, B r 2 O, I 2 O 5
O73
O2-
140
Atomicradius(pm)
S103
S2-
184
Se119
Se2-
198
Te142
Te2-
221
Po168
Ionicradius(pm)
kJ/mol
O
S
Se
Te
Po
0
1000
941
869
812
First Ionization Energies
1314
500 1000 1500
Pauling units
O
S
Se
Te
Po
3.44
2.58
2.55
2.10
2.00
Electronegativities
3.02.00 1.0 4.0
Elements Handbook 937
Element Facts
Atomic Properties• Each element in group 16 has six valence electrons and an electron
configuration ending with n s 2 n p 4 .
• Group 16 elements can have many different oxidation numbers.
For example, oxygen can have oxidation numbers of 2- and 1-, and
sulfur can have oxidation numbers of 6+, 4+, and 2-.
• Going down the elements in group 16, the atomic radii and ionic radii
increase.
• Electronegativity and first ionization energy decrease going down the
elements in group 16.
• Polonium has 27 known isotopes. All are radioactive.
Analytical TestsOxygen can be measured in many different ways and in many
different environments. For example, dissolved-oxygen meters
measure oxygen in water samples. Dissolved-oxygen meters
use an electrochemical reaction that reduces oxygen mole-
cules to hydroxide ions. The meter measures the electric
current produced during this reaction. The higher the oxygen
concentration, the larger the current.
• Group 16 elements are involved
in many important industrial
reactions, such as the formation
of sulfuric acid.
Example: Sulfuric-acid production
is a three-step process.
1) S(s) + O 2 (g) → S O 2 (g)
2) 2S O 2 (g) + O 2 (g) → 2S O 3 (g)
3) S O 3 (g) + H 2 O(l) → H 2 S O 4 (l)
Dissolved-oxygen tests are part of routine water quality monitoring.
©Chuck Place Photography
Oxygen
8
O[He]2s22p4
938 Elements Handbook
Group 16: Oxygen Group
Photosynthesis Produces O 2 from H 2 OEarth’s atmosphere is 21% oxygen by volume. Most of the oxygen in
the atmosphere comes from photosynthesis. Photosynthetic organisms,
including plants and cyanobacteria, use energy from sunlight to oxi-
dize water. The result is hydrogen ions ( H + ) and oxygen ( O 2 ). The
reactions involved in this part of photosynthesis are called light
reactions because they depend on light energy to proceed. During the
dark reactions of photosynthesis, the hydrogen ions derived during the
light reactions are combined with carbon dioxide (C O 2 ) to form
glucose ( C 6 H 12 O 6 ). The overall reaction for photosynthesis follows:
6 H 2 O + 6C O 2 → C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6 O 2
Photosynthesis captures energy from sunlight and provides hydrogen ions to synthesize glucose from carbon dioxide.
Air Quality Index for Ozone
Index Values
Levels of Health
ConcernCautionary Statements
0–50 good none
51–100 moderate Unusually sensitive people should consider reducing prolonged or heavy exertion outdoors.
101–150 unhealthy for sensitive groups
Active children and adults, and people with lung disease, such as asthma, should reduce prolonged or heavy exertion outdoors.
151–200 unhealthy Active children and adults, and people with lung disease should avoid prolonged or heavy exertion outdoors. Everyone else should reduce prolonged or heavy exertion outdoors.
201–300 very unhealthy
Active children and adults, and people with lung disease, such as asthma, should avoid all outdoor exertion. Everyone else should avoid prolonged or heavy exertion outdoors.
301–500 hazardous Everyone should avoid all physical activity outdoors.
Data obtained from: Patient Exposure and the Air Quality Index. U.S. E.P.A. March 2006
The Dual Nature of OzoneOzone ( O 3 ), an allotrope of oxygen, has three
oxygen atoms per molecule instead of two. Like
diatomic oxygen ( O 2 ), ozone is a gas at room
temperature. However, unlike O 2 , ozone gas has
a slight blue color and a distinctive odor that
can be detected during a thunderstorm or near
a high-voltage electric motor. Ozone is also
more reactive than diatomic oxygen. At ground
level, ozone can be a serious potential health
hazard, irritating eyes and lungs. High ground-
level ozone concentrations are a particular
threat on hot sunny days. The table illustrates
how ozone affects air quality and health. On the
other hand, stratospheric ozone protects Earth
from harmful UV radiation by absorbing UV
rays from sunlight.
Many cities issue air-quality alerts when ground-level ozone levels are high.
(t)©Scientifica/Visuals Unlimited, (b)©Glow Images/Alamy
Assessment
Sulfur
16
S[Ne]3s23p4
1994
Mill
ions
of
met
ric
tons
$ Bi
llion
s
40
30
20
10
0
500
400
300
200
100
0
Year1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
Sulfuric acid
Chemical sales
Chlorine
Ammonia
U.S. Chemical Production
Data obtained from: Chemical & Engineering News 83 (2005) and 84 (2006).
Selenium
34
Se[Ar]4s23d104p4
Elements Handbook 939
Real-World Applications
46. Identify the molecule that is the source of oxygen atoms for O 2 production during photosynthesis.
47. Explain why high ozone concentrations are harmful at ground level but beneficial in the upper atmosphere.
48. Calculate Approximately 90% of the sulfur used in the United States is used to make sulfuric acid. In 2004, 38.0 million metric tons of sulfuric acid were produced. How much sulfur did the United States use in 2004?
49. Apply Coal and petroleum products are sometimes contaminated with sulfur. When coal or petroleum con-taining sulfur is burned, sulfur dioxide (S O 2 ) can be released into the atmosphere. Use the information about the reactions involved in industrial sulfuric-acid production to infer how atmospheric sulfur dioxide contributes to acid precipitation.
An Economic IndicatorSulfuric acid is one of the world’s most impor-
tant industrial raw materials. In the United
States, more sulfuric acid is produced than any
other industrial chemical. Most sulfuric acid is
used in the production of phosphate fertilizers.
Sulfuric acid is also important in extracting
metals from ore, oil refining, waste treatment,
chemical synthesis, and as a component in
lead-acid batteries. Sulfuric acid is so impor-
tant that economists use its production as a
measure of a nation’s industrial development.
Sulfuric acid production in the United States is used to track chemical economic trends.
PhotocopiesGray selenium is a photoconductor, which means it conducts
electricity more efficiently in the presence of light than in the
dark. Some photocopiers use this property to copy images.
In a photocopier, a bright light shines on the original. Mirrors
reflect the dark and light areas onto a drum coated with a
thin layer of selenium. Because selenium is a photoconductor,
the light areas conduct electricity, while the dark areas do not.
As current flows through the drum, the light areas develop
a negative charge and the dark areas develop a positive
charge. Negatively charged toner particles are attracted to the
positively charged dark areas to create a copy of the original
image. Some of this same technology has been applied in
developing new high-resolution digital detectors that use
selenium as a photoconductor.
Gray selenium is a key component in many photocopiers.
©Leslie Garland Picture Library/Alamy
Fluorine
9
F[He]2s22p5
Chlorine
17
Cl[Ne]3s23p5
Bromine
35
Br[Ar]4s23d104p5
Iodine
53
I[Kr]5s24d105p5
Astatine
85
At[Xe]6s24f145d106p5
MPBP
-400 -200
Temperature (°C)
-220-188
-102-34
-759
114184
302
0 200 400
F
Cl
Br
I
At
Melting Points and Boiling Points
940 Elements Handbook
Group 17: Halogen Group
Physical Properties• Fluorine and chlorine are gases at room temperature. Along with
mercury, bromine is one of only two elements that are liquid at room
temperature. Iodine is a solid that easily sublimes at room temperature.
• Fluorine gas is pale yellow. Chlorine gas is yellow-green. Bromine is a
red-brown liquid. Iodine is a blue-black solid.
• Both boiling points and melting points of the group 17 elements
increase with increasing atomic number.
Iodine crystals are a blue-black color. They produce a violet vapor when they sublime at room temperature.
Common Reactions• The halogens react with alkali metals and alkaline earth metals to
form salts, such as potassium bromide and calcium chloride.
Examples: 2K(s) + B r 2 (g) → 2KBr(s) and Ca(s) + C l 2 (g) → CaC l 2 (s)
• The halogens can form acids, such as hydrochloric acid, by hydroly-
sis in water.
Example: C l 2 (g) + H 2 O(l) → HClO(aq) + HCl(aq)
• Several important plastic polymers, including nonstick coatings and
polyvinyl chloride, contain group 17 elements.
Example: Polyvinyl chloride (vinyl) is made by a three-step process.
1) Ethene reacts with chlorine to form dichloroethane.
C 2 H 4 (g) + C l 2 (g) → C 2 H 4 C l 2 (l)
2) At high temperature and pressure, dichloroethane is converted to
vinyl chloride and HCl gas.
C 2 H 4 C l 2 (l) → C 2 H 3 Cl(l) + HCl(g)
3) Vinyl chloride polymerizes to form polyvinyl chloride.
2n( C 2 H 3 Cl)(l) → (—C H 2 –CHCl–C H 2 –CHCl— ) n (l)
• Fluorine is the most active of all the elements and reacts with every
element except helium, neon, and argon.
Example: 2Al(s) + 3 F 2 (g) → 2Al F 3 (s)
©Larry Stepanowicz/Visuals Unlimited
Pauling units
F
Cl
Br
I
At
3.98
3.16
2.96
2.66
2.20
Electronegativities
3.02.00 1.0 4.0
kJ/mol
F
Cl
Br
I
At
1251
1140
1008
920
First Ionization Energies
1681
5000 1000 1500 2000
F1-
133
Cl1-
181
Br1-
195
I1-
220
F72
Atomicradius(pm)
Cl100
Br114
I133
Ionicradius(pm)
Elements Handbook 941
Element Facts
Atomic Properties• Each element in group 17 has seven valence electrons and an electron
configuration ending with n s 2 n p 5 .
• Electronegativities and first ionization energies decrease going down
the elements in group 17.
• Fluorine is the most electronegative element on the periodic table.
Therefore, it has the greatest tendency to attract electrons.
• Astatine is a radioactive element with no known uses.
• The atomic radii and ionic radii of the group 17 elements increase
going down the group.
Analytical TestsThree of the halogens can be identified through
precipitation reactions. Chlorine, bromine, and
iodine react with silver nitrate, forming distinc-
tive precipitates. Silver chloride is a white
precipitate, silver bromide is a cream-colored
precipitate, and silver iodide is a yellow
precipitate.
Chlorine, bromine, and iodine can also be
identified when they dissolve in cyclohexane.
As shown in the photo, when these halogens
are dissolved in cyclohexane, the solution turns
yellow for chlorine, orange for bromine, and
violet for iodine.
The halogens are only slightly soluble in water (bottom layer). However, in cyclohexane (top layer), chlorine (yellow), bromine (orange), and iodine (violet) readily dissolve.
©ANDREW LAMBERT PHOTOGRAPHY/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Photo Researchers Inc.
Tungsten
Bromine
Tungsten-bromideparticle
Tungstenfilament
Fluorine
9
F[He]2s22p5
Chlorine
17
Cl[Ne]3s23p5
Bromine
35
Br[Ar]4s23d104p5
Iodine
53
I[Kr]5s24d105p5
942 Elements Handbook
Group 17: Halogen Group
FluoridationFluorine compounds added to toothpaste and public
drinking-water supplies have greatly reduced the incidence
of cavities. Fluoride protects teeth in two ways. As teeth
form, fluoride from food and drink is incorporated into
the enamel layer. The fluoride makes the enamel stronger
and more resistant to decay. Once teeth are present in the
mouth, fluoride in saliva bonds to teeth and strengthens
the surface enamel. This surface fluoride attracts calcium,
which helps to fill in areas where decay has begun.
How Chlorine Bleach Is MadeChlorine compounds are widely used as bleaching agents by the textile
and paper industries. Some chlorine compounds can bleach materials by
oxidizing colored molecules. Chlorine compounds are also used as disinfec-
tants. Household bleach is a 5.25% solution of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)
in water. Chlorine bleach is prepared commercially by passing an electric
current through a solution of sodium chloride in water. As the sodium chlo-
ride breaks down, sodium hydroxide collects at the cathode and chlorine
gas is generated at the anode. Sodium hydroxide and chlorine can then
be combined to form sodium hypochlorite.
Halogen lamps use bromine or other halo-gen molecules to capture tungsten vapor and return tungsten atoms to the filament.
Many brands of toothpaste contain either stannous fluoride or sodium fluoride, which, like fluoridated water, strengthen teeth and provide protection from cavities.
Household chlorine bleach is made by reacting chlorine gas or liquid chlorine with sodium hydroxide to form sodium hypochlorite.
Halogen LightbulbsHalogen lightbulbs include a halogen gas, such as iodine or bromine.
Compared to standard lightbulbs, halogen bulbs are brighter and last
longer and can be more energy efficient. During the operation of a
normal lightbulb, some of the tungsten in the filament evaporates and
is deposited on the inside surface of the bulb. In a halogen lamp, the
evaporated tungsten reacts with the halogen gas and is redeposited
back on the filament. This extends the life of the filament.
©Michael Newman / PhotoEdit
Assessment
Iodine
53
I[Kr]5s24d105p5
Iodine Deficiency Around the World
Severe deficiency (<20 µg/L)Moderate deficiency (20–49 µg/L)
Risk of iodine-induced hyperthyroidism (200–299 µg/L)Risk of adverse health consequences (>300 µg/L)No data
Mild deficiency (50–99 µg/L)Optimal (100–199 µg/L)
Elements Handbook 943
Real-World Applications
50. Compare the risks for iodine deficiency in Europe, Africa, and the United States.
51. Explain why fluorine is the most reactive of all the elements.
52. Evaluate Why does a tungsten filament last longer in a halogen lightbulb than in a normal lightbulb?
53. Calculate Household bleach is typically a 5.25% solution of sodium hypochlorite in water. How many grams of sodium hypochlorite would there be in 300 mL of bleach?
54. Hypothesize In 1962, Neil Bartlett synthesized the first noble gas compound using Pt F 6 . Hypothesize why Bartlett used a fluorine compound for this synthesis.
Combating Iodine Deficiency with SaltThe thyroid gland is the only part of the body that absorbs iodine. Thyroid cells use
iodine to produce thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism. Low levels of iodine
in the diet can lead to thyroid-hormone deficiencies and goiters, which are enlarged
thyroid glands. In serious cases, low levels of thyroid hormones can cause birth defects
and brain damage. In the United States, potassium iodide is added to most table salt
to protect against dietary iodine deficiency. Even small amounts of added iodine can
prevent iodine-deficiency disorders. However, there are parts of the world in which
iodine deficiency is still prevalent.
A significant percentage of the world’s population was at risk for iodine deficiency in 2004. In 2005, the World Health Organization launched a program to eliminate iodine deficiency worldwide.
Helium
2
He1s2
Neon
10
Ne[He]2s22p6
Argon
18
Ar[Ne]3s23p6
Krypton
36
Kr[Ar]4s23d104p6
Xenon
54
Xe[Kr]5s24d105p6
Radon
86
Rn[Xe]6s24f145d106p6
-200 -100 0-300
Temperature (ºC)
MPBP
-270-269
-249-246
-189-186
-157-153
-112-108
-71-62
Melting Points and Boiling Points
He
Ne
Ar
Kr
Xe
Rn
kJ/mol
He
Ne
Ar
Kr
Xe
Rn
500 1000 1500 20000
1521
1351
1170
1037
First Ionization Energies
2372
2081
944 Elements Handbook
Group 18: Noble Gases
Physical Properties• The group 18 elements are
colorless, odorless gases.
• They are all nonmetals.
• Their melting points and
boiling points increase going
down the group, but are much
lower than those of the other
groups in the periodic table.
Atomic Properties• Each element in group 18
has eight valence electrons,
producing an octet with an
electron configuration ending
with n s 2 n p 6 , except for helium,
which has two electrons.
• Noble gases are monatomic—
they exist as single atoms.
• Compared to the other groups
in the periodic table, the noble
gases have the highest first
ionization energies.
Common ReactionsAlthough the noble
gases are also known
as inert gases, a few
compounds can be
formed if conditions
are favorable. Generally,
however, noble gases
are nonreactive.
Analytical TestsBecause the noble gases are odorless, colorless and generally unreactive,
many of the common analytical tests used for identifying elements
are not useful. However, the noble gases do emit light of certain colors
when exposed to an electric current and have characteristic emission
line spectra.
When an electric current passes through xenon, it exhibits a characteristic color (blue) and line spectrum.
(l)©Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, Inc., (r)©TED KINSMAN/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRAR/Photo Researchers Inc.Y
Assessment
Helium
2
He1s2
Neon
10
Ne[He]2s22p6
Argon
18
Ar[Ne]3s23p6
Krypton
36
Kr[Ar]4s23d104p6
Xenon
54
Xe[Kr]5s24d105p6
Elements Handbook 945
Real-World Applications
55. Describe three physical properties of the noble gases.
56. Write the reaction for the production of xenon tetroxide.
57. Analyze why the noble gases have the highest first ionization energies compared to the rest of the elements on the periodic table.
58. Hypothesize why argon is used in everyday lighting even though krypton and xenon produce whiter light and last longer.
59. Calculate If the Sun is 150 million km away and light travels at 3.00 x 105 m/s, how long does it take for sunlight to reach Earth?
The SunOnly 150 million km away (considered close in astronomi-
cal terms), the Sun provides the energy needed to support
life on Earth. The Sun makes its energy through the fusion
of hydrogen to make helium. Scientists have determined
that the core of the Sun is composed of approximately
50% helium, leaving enough hydrogen for the Sun to burn
for another 5 billion years.The Sun’s energy comes from a nuclear reaction that produces helium.
LightingNeon, argon, krypton, and xenon are all
used in different lighting applications. Neon
signs are found in many businesses to
advertise products or display the name of
the business. Although true neon signs glow
with a red-orange color, the term neon sign
has also come to represent the collection of
gas tubes that contain gases that display
other colors. Argon is found in everyday
lightbulbs such as those in lamps. Because
argon is inert, it provides an ideal atmo-
sphere for the filament. Krypton and xenon
bulbs produce whiter, sharper light and last
longer than traditional argon bulbs. These
bulbs are commonly found in chandeliers,
flashlights, and luxury car headlights.
The noble gases are found in many different light sources.
(t)©epa/Corbis, (bl)©PHOTOTAKE Inc./Alamy, (br)©Wolfgang Kaehler/CORBIS
946 Math Handbook
Mathematics is a language used in science to express and solve problems. Calculations you perform during your study of chemistry require arithme-tic operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Use this handbook to review basic math skills and to reinforce some math skills presented in more depth in the chapters.
Scientific NotationScientists must use extremely small and extremely large numbers to describe the objects in Figure 1. The mass of the proton at the center of a hydrogen atom is 0.000000000000000000000000001673 kg. HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, is about 0.00000011 m. The temperature at the center of the Sun reaches 15,000,000 K. Such small and large numbers are difficult to read and hard to work with in calculations. Scientists have adopted a method of writing exponential numbers called scientific notation. It is easier than writing numerous zeros when numbers are very large or very small. It is also easier to compare the relative size of numbers when they are written in scientific notation.
A number written in scientific notation has two parts.
N × 1 0 n
The first part (N) is a number in which only one digit is placed to the left of the decimal point and all remaining digits are placed to the right of the decimal point. The second part is an exponent of ten (1 0 n ) by which the decimal portion is multiplied. For example, the number 2.53 × 1 0 6 is written in scientific notation.
Number between one and ten
2.53 × 1 0 6
Exponent of ten
The decimal portion is 2.53 and the exponent is 1 0 6 .Positive exponents are used to express large numbers, and negative
exponents are used to express small numbers.
Proton
Hydrogen atomProton mass = 1.673 × 1 0 -27 kg
HIV attacking a white blood cellHIV length = 1.1 × 1 0 -7 m
The SunSun temperature = 1.5 × 1 0 7 K
Figure 1 Scientific notation provides a convenient way to express data with extremely large or small numbers. Scientists can express the mass of a proton, the length of HIV, and the temperature of the Sun in scientific notation.
(l)©Chris Bjornberg/Photo Researchers, Inc, (r)©Daniele Pellegrini/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Math Handbook
Math Handbook 947
Positive exponentsWhen scientists discuss the physical properties of the Moon, shown in Figure 2, the numbers are enormously large. A positive exponent of 10 (n) tells how many times a number must be multiplied by 10 to give the long form of the number.
2.53 × 1 0 6 = 2.53 × 10 ×10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 2,530,000
You can also think of the positive exponent of 10 as the number of places you move the decimal to the left until only one nonzero digit is to the left of the decimal point.
2,530,000. The decimal point moves six places to the left.
To convert the number 567.98 to scientific notation, first write the number as an exponential number by multiplying by 10 0 .
567.98 × 1 0 0
(Remember that multiplying any number by 1 0 0 is the same as multi-plying the number by 1.) Move the decimal point to the left until there is only one digit to the left of the decimal. At the same time, increase the exponent by the same number as the number of places the decimal is moved.
567.98 × 1 0 0 + 2 The decimal point moves two places to the left.
Thus, 567.98 written in scientific notation is 5.6798 × 1 0 2 .
Negative exponentsMeasurements can also have negative exponents, such as shown by the X rays in Figure 3. Negative exponents are used for numbers that are very small. A negative exponent of 10 tells how many times a number must be divided by 10 to give the long form of the number.
6.43 × 1 0 −4 = 6.43 __
10 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 0.000643
A negative exponent of 10 is the number of places you move the deci-mal to the right until it is just past the first nonzero digit.
When converting a number that requires the decimal to be moved to the right, the exponent is decreased by the appropriate number. For example, the expression of 0.0098 in scientific notation is as follows:
0.0098 × 1 0 0
0 0098 × 10 0 − 3
9.8 × 1 0 -3
The decimal point moves three places to the right.
Thus, 0.0098 written in scientific notation is 9.8 × 1 0 -3 .
Figure 3 Because of their short wavelengths (1 0 -8 m to 1 0 -13 m), X rays can pass through some objects.
Figure 2 The mass of the Moon is 7.349 × 1 0 22 kg.
(t)©JULIAN BAUM/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Photo Researchers Inc., (b)©Royalty-Free/CORBIS
948 Math Handbook
Math Handbook
Operations with Scientific NotationThe arithmetic operations performed with ordinary numbers can be done with numbers written in scientific notation. However, the expo-nential portion of the numbers must also be considered.
1. Addition and subtractionBefore numbers in scientific notation can be added or subtracted, the exponents must be equal. Remember that the decimal is moved to the left to increase the exponent and to the right to decrease the exponent.
(3.4 × 1 0 2 ) + (4.57 × 1 0 3 ) = (0.34 × 1 0 3 ) + (4.57 × 1 0 3 ) = (0.34 + 4.57) × 1 0 3 = 4.91 × 1 0 3
(7.52 × 1 0 -4 ) − (9.7 × 1 0 -5 ) = (7.52 × 1 0 -4 ) − (0.97 × 1 0 -4 ) = (7.52 − 0.97) × 1 0 -4 = 6.55 × 1 0 -4
2. MultiplicationWhen numbers in scientific notation are multiplied, only the decimal portion is multiplied. The exponents are added.
(2.00 × 1 0 3 )(4.00 × 1 0 4 ) = (2.00)(4.00) × 1 0 3 + 4 = 8.00 × 1 0 7
3. DivisionWhen numbers in scientific notation are divided, only the decimal portion is divided, while the exponents are subtracted as follows:
9.60 × 1 0 7
_ 1.60 × 1 0 4
= 9.60
_ 1.60
× 1 0 7 − 4
= 6.00 × 1 0 3
PRACTICE Problems
1. Express the following numbers in scientific notation.
a. 5800 c. 0.0005877
b. 453,000 d. 0.0036
2. Perform the following operations.
a. (5.0 × 1 0 6 ) + (3.0 × 1 0 7 ) c. (3.89 × 1 0 12 ) − (1.9 × 1 0 11 )
b. (1.8 × 1 0 9 ) + (2.0 × 1 0 8 ) d. (6.0 × 1 0 -8 ) − (4.0 × 1 0 −9 )
3. Perform the following operations.
a. (6.0 × 1 0 -4 ) × (4.0 × 1 0 -6 ) d. 9.6 × 1 0 8 _ 1.6 × 1 0 -6
b. (4.5 × 10 9 ) × (6.0 × 1 0 -10 ) e. (2.5 ×1 0 6 )(7.2 × 1 0 4 )
__ 1.8 × 1 0 -5
c. 4.5 × 1 0 -8 _ 1.5 × 1 0 -4
f. (6.2 × 1 0 12 )(6.0 × 1 0 -7 )
__ 1.2 × 1 0 6
Math Handbook
Math Handbook 949
Figure 4 a. The number 4 can be expressed as two groups of 2. The identi-cal factors are 2. b. The number 9 can be expressed as three groups of 3. Thus, 3 is the square root of 9. c. 4 is the square root of 16. Determine the cube root of 16 using your calculator.
2 × 2 = 4
2 = 4
a b
3 × 3 = 9
3 = 9
c
4 × 4 = 16
4 = 16
Square and Cube RootsA square root is one of two identical factors of a number. As shown in Figure 4a, the number 4 is the product of two identical factors—2. Thus, the square root of 4 is 2. The symbol √ , called a radical sign, is used to indicate a square root. Most scientific calculators have a square root key labeled √ .
√ 4 = √ 2 × 2 = 2
This equation is read “the square root of 4 equals 2.” What is the square root of 9, shown in Figure 4b?
There can be more than two identical factors of a number. You know that 2 × 4 = 8. Are there any other factors of the number 8? It is the product of 2 × 2 × 2. A cube root is one of three identical factors of a number. Thus, what is the cube root of 8? It is 2. A cube root is also indicated by a radical.
3 √ 8 =
3 √ 2 × 2 × 2 = 2
Check your calculator handbook for more information on finding roots.
Significant FiguresAccuracy reflects how close the measurements you make in the labora-tory come to the real value. Precision describes the degree of exactness of your measurements. Which ruler in Figure 5 would give you the most precise length? The top ruler, with the millimeter markings, would allow your measurements to come closer to the actual length of the pencil. The measurement would be more precise.
25 26 27 29 cm28242322212019
25 26 27 29282423222120 cm19
Figure 5 The estimated digit must be read between the millimeter markings on the top ruler. Evaluate Why is the bottom ruler less precise?
950 Math Handbook
Math Handbook
Measuring tools are never perfect, nor are the people doing the measuring. Therefore, whenever you measure a physical quantity, there will always be some amount of uncertainty in the measurement. The number of significant figures in the measurement indicates the uncer-tainty of the measuring tool.
The number of significant figures in a measured quantity is all of the certain digits plus the first uncertain digit. For example, the pencil in Figure 6 has a length that is between 27.6 and 27.7 cm. You can read the ruler to the nearest millimeter (27.6 cm), but after that you must estimate the next digit in the measurement. If you estimate that the next digit is 5, you would report the measured length of the pencil as 27.65 cm. Your measurement has four significant figures. The first three are certain, and the last is uncertain. The ruler used to measure the pencil has precision to the nearest tenth of a millimeter.
How many significant figures?When a measurement is provided, the following series of rules will help you to determine how many significant figures there are in that measurement.
1. All nonzero figures are significant.
2. When a zero falls between nonzero digits, the zero is also significant.
3. When a zero falls after the decimal point and after a significant figure, that zero is significant.
4. When a zero is used merely to indicate the position of the decimal, it is not significant.
5. All counting numbers and exact numbers are treated as if they have an infinite number of significant figures.
Examine each of the following measurements. Use the rules above to check that all of them have three significant figures.
245 K Rule 1
18.0 L Rule 3
308 km Rule 2
0.00623 g Rule 4
186,000 m Rule 4
Suppose you must do a calculation using the measurement 200 L. You cannot be certain which zero was estimated. To indicate the signifi-cance of digits, especially zeros, write measurements in scientific nota-tion. In scientific notation, all digits in the decimal portion are significant. Which measurement is most precise?
200 L has unknown significant figures. 2 × 1 0 2 L has one significant figure. 2.0 × 1 0 2 L has two significant figures. 2.00 × 1 0 2 L has three significant figures.
The greater the number of digits in a measurement expressed in scien-tific notation, the more precise the measurement is. In this example, 2.00 × 1 0 2 L is the most precise data.
25 26 27 2824
Figure 6 If you determine that the length of this pencil is 27.65 cm, that measurement has four significant figures.
Math Handbook
Math Handbook 951
EXAMPLE Problem 1
Significant Figures How many significant figures are in the measurement 0.00302 g? 60 min? 5.620 m? 9.80 × 1 0 2 m/ s 2 ?
1 Analyze the ProblemTo determine the number of significant digits in a series of numbers, review the rules for significant figures.
2 Solve for the Unknown 0.00302 g
Not significant Significant (Rule 4) (Rules 1 and 2)
The measurement 0.00302 g has three significant figures.
60 min Unlimited significant figures (Rule 5)
5.620 m Significant (Rules 1 and 3)
The measurement 5.620 m has four significant figures.
9.80 × 1 0 2 m/ s 2
Significant (Rules 1 and 3)
3 Evaluate the AnswerThe measurements 0.00302 g and 9.80 × 1 0 2 m/ s 2 have three significant figures. The measurement 60 min has unlimited significant figures. The measurement 5.620 m has four significant figures.
PRACTICE Problems
4. Determine the number of significant figures in each measurement:
a. 35 g m. 0.157 kg
b. 3.57 m n. 28.0 mL
c. 3.507 km o. 2500 m
d. 0.035 kg p. 0.070 mol
e. 0.246 L q. 30.07 nm
f. 0.004 m 3 r. 0.106 cm
g. 24.068 kPa s. 0.0076 g
h. 268 K t. 0.0230 c m 3
i. 20.04080 g u. 26.509 cm
j. 20 dozen v. 54.52 c m 3
k. 730,000 kg w. 2.40 × 1 0 6 kg
l. 6.751 g x. 4.07 × 1 0 16 m
952 Math Handbook
Math Handbook
RoundingArithmetic operations that involve measurements are done the same way as operations involving any other numbers. However, the results must correctly indicate the uncertainty in the calculated quantities. Perform all of the calculations, and then round the result to the least number of significant figures in any of the measurements used in the calculations. To round a number, use the following rules.
1. When the leftmost digit to be dropped is less than 5, that digit and any digits that follow are dropped. Then, the last digit in the rounded num-ber remains unchanged. For example, when rounding the number 8.7645 to three significant figures, the leftmost digit to be dropped is 4. Therefore, the rounded number is 8.76.
2. When the leftmost digit to be dropped is greater than 5, that digit and any digits that follow are dropped, and the last digit in the rounded number is increased by one. For example, when rounding the num-ber 8.7676 to three significant figures, the leftmost digit to be dropped is 7. Therefore, the rounded number is 8.77.
3. When the leftmost digit to be dropped is 5 followed by a nonzero number, that digit and any digits that follow are dropped. The last digit in the rounded number increases by one. For example, 8.7519 rounded to two significant figures equals 8.8.
4. If the digit to the right of the last significant figure is equal to 5 and is not followed by a nonzero digit, look at the last significant figure. If it is odd, increase it by one; if even, do not round up. For example, 92.350 rounded to three significant figures equals 92.4, and 92.25 equals 92.2.
Calculations with significant figuresLook at the glassware in Figure 7. Would you expect to measure a more precise volume with the beaker or the graduated cylinder? When you perform any calculation using measured quantities such as volume or mass, it is important to remember that the result can never be more precise than the least-precise measurement. That is, your answer cannot have more significant figures than the least precise measurement. Note that it is important to perform all calculations before dropping any insignificant digits.
The following rules determine how to use significant figures in calculations that involve measurements.
1. To add or subtract measurements, first perform the mathematical operation, then round off the result to the least-precise value. There should be the same number of digits to the right of the decimal as the measurement with the least number of decimal digits.
2. To multiply or divide measurements, first perform the calculation, then round the answer to the same number of significant figures as the measurement with the least number of significant figures. The answer should contain no more significant figures than the fewest number of significant figures in any of the measurements in the calculation.
Figure 7 Compare the markings on the graduated cylinder at the top with the markings on the beaker at the bottom. Analyze Which piece of glassware will yield more precise measurements?
Matt Meadows
Math Handbook
Math Handbook 953
Table 1 Pressures of Gases in Air
Pressure (kPa)
Nitrogen gas
79.10
Carbon dioxide gas
0.040
Trace gases 0.94
Total gases 101.3
EXAMPLE Problem 2
Calculating with Significant Figures Air contains oxygen ( O 2 ), nitrogen ( N 2 ), carbon dioxide (C O 2 ), and trace amounts of other gases. Use the known pressures in Table 1 to calculate the partial pressure of oxygen.
1 Analyze the ProblemThe data in Table 1 contains the gas pressure for nitrogen gas, carbon dioxide gas, and trace gases. To add or subtract measurements, first perform the operation, then round off the result to correspond to the least-precise value involved.
2 Solve for the UnknownP O 2 = Ptotal - (P N 2 + P CO 2 + Ptrace)P O 2 = 101.3 kPa - (79.10 kPa + 0.040 kPa + 0.94 kPa )
P O 2 = 101.3 kPa - 80.080 kPa
P O 2 = 21.220 kPa
The total pressure (Ptotal) was measured to the tenths place. It is the least precise measurement. Therefore, the result should be rounded to the nearest tenth of a kilopascal. The pressure of oxygen is P O 2 = 21.2 kPa.
3 Evaluate the AnswerBy adding the gas pressure of all the gases, including oxygen, the total gas pressure is 101.3 kPa.
PRACTICE Problems
5. Round off the following measurements to the number of significant figures indicated in parentheses.
a. 2.7518 g (3)
b. 8.6439 m (2)
c. 13.841 g (2)
d. 186.499 m (5)
e. 634,892.34 (4)
f. 355,500 g (2)
6. Perform the following operations.
a. (2.475 m ) + (3.5 m ) + (4.65 m )
b. (3.45 m ) + (3.658 m ) + (47 m )
c. (5.36 × 1 0 −4 g ) − (6.381 × 1 0 −5 g )
d. (6.46 × 1 0 12 m ) − (6.32 × 1 0 11 m )
e. (6.6 × 1 0 12 m ) × (5.34 × 1 0 18 m )
f. 5.634 × 1 0 11 m __ 3.0 × 1 0 12 m
g. (4.765 × 1 0 11 m ) (5.3 × 1 0 -4 m )
___ 7.0 × 1 0 -5 m
954 Math Handbook
Math Handbook
Solving Algebraic EquationsWhen you are given a problem to solve, it often can be written as an algebraic equation. You can use letters to represent measurements or unspecified numbers in the problem. The laws of chemistry are often written in the form of algebraic equations. For example, the ideal gas law relates pressure, volume, moles, and temperature of the gases. The ideal gas law is written as follows.
PV = nRT
The variables are pressure (P), volume (V), number of moles (n), and temperature (T). R is a constant. This is a typical algebraic equation that can be manipulated to solve for any of the individual variables.
When you solve algebraic equations, any operation that you perform on one side of the equal sign must be performed on the other side of the equation. Suppose you are asked to use the ideal gas law to find the pressure of a gas (P). To solve for, or isolate, P requires you to divide the left-hand side of the equation by V. This operation must be performed on the right-hand side of the equation as well, as shown in the second equation below.
PV = nRT
PV
_ V
= nRT
_ V
The Vs on the left-hand side of the equation cancel each other out.
PV
_ V
= nRT
_ V
P × V
_ V
= nRT
_ V
P = nRT
_ V
The ideal gas law equation is now written in terms of pressure. That is, P has been isolated.
Order of operationsWhen isolating a variable in an equation, it is important to remember that arithmetic operations have an order of operations, as shown in Figure 8, that must be followed. Operations in parentheses (or brackets) take precedence over multiplication and division, which in turn take precedence over addition and subtraction. For example, in the following equation
a + b × c
variable b must be multiplied first by variable c. Then, the resulting product is added to variable a. If the equation is written
(a + b) × c
the operation in parentheses or brackets must be done first. In the equa-tion above, variable a is added to variable b before the sum is multiplied by variable c.
Order of Operations
Do all operations insideparentheses or brackets.
Examine allarithmetic operations.
Do all multiplication and division from left to right.
Perform addition andsubtraction from left to right.
Figure 8 When faced with an equation that contains more than one operation, use this flowchart to determine the order in which to perform your calculations.
Math Handbook
Math Handbook 955
To see the difference order of operations makes, try replacing a with 2, b with 3, and c with 4.
a + (b × c) = 2 + (3 × 4) = 14
(a + b) × c = (2 + 3) × 4 = 20
To solve algebraic equations, you also must remember the distributive property. To remove parentheses to solve a problem, any number out-side the parentheses is distributed across the parentheses as follows.
6(x + 2y) = 6(x) + 6(2y) = 6x + 12y
EXAMPLE Problem 3
Order of Operations The temperature on a cold day was 25°F. What was the temperature on the Celsius scale?
1 Analyze the ProblemThe temperature in Celsius can be calculated by using the equation for converting from the Celsius temperature to Fahrenheit temperature. The Celsius temperature is the unknown variable. The known variable is 25°C.
2 Solve for the UnknownDetermine the equation for calculating the temperature in Celsius.
°F = 9 _ 5 °C + 32
°F − 32 = 9 _ 5 °C + 32 − 32 Rearrange the equation to isolate °C. Begin by subtracting 32 from both sides.
°F − 32 = 9 _ 5 °C
5 × ( °F − 32) = 5 × 9 _ 5 °C Then, multiply both sides by 5.
5 × ( °F − 32) = 9°C
5 × ( °F − 32) __ 9 = 9°C _ 9 Finally, divide both sides by 9.
°C = 5 _ 9 ( °F − 32)
= 5 _ 9 (25 − 32) Substitute the known Fahrenheit temperature.
= −3.9°C
The Celsius temperature is −3.9°C.
3 Evaluate the AnswerTo determine if the answer is correct, place the answer, −3.9°C, into the original equation. If the Fahrenheit temperature is 25°, the calculation was done correctly.
956 Math Handbook
Math Handbook
PRACTICE Problems
Isolate the indicated variable in each equation.
7. PV = nRT for R
8. 3 = 4(x + y) for y
9. z = x(4 + 2y) for y
10. 2 _ x = 3 + y for x
11. 2x + 1 _ 3 = 6 for x
Dimensional AnalysisThe dimensions of a measurement refer to the type of units attached to a quantity. For example, length is a dimensional quantity that can be measured in meters, centimeters, and kilometers. Dimensional analysis is the process of solving algebraic equations for units as well as num-bers. It is a way of checking to ensure that you have used the correct equation, and that you have correctly applied the rules of algebra when solving the equation. It can also help you to choose and set up the cor-rect equation, as shown on the next page, when you learn how to do unit conversions. It is good practice to make dimensional analysis a habit by always stating the units as well as the numerical values whenever substituting values into an equation.
EXAMPLE Problem 4
Dimensional Analysis The sculpture in Figure 9 is made from aluminum. The density (D) of aluminum is 2700 kg/ m 3 . Determine the mass (m) of a piece of aluminum of volume (V ) 0.20 m 3 .
1 Analyze the ProblemThe facts of the problem are density (2700 kg/ m 3 ), volume (0.20 m 3 ), and the density equation, D = m/V.
2 Solve for the UnknownDetermine the equation for mass by rearranging the density equation.The equation for density is
D = m _ V
DV = mV _ V Multiply both sides of the
equation by V, and isolate m.
DV = V _ V × m
m = DV
m = (2700 kg/ m 3 )(0.20 m 3 ) = 540 kg Substitute the known values for D and V.
3 Evaluate the AnswerNotice that the unit m 3 cancels out, leaving mass in kg, a unit of mass.
Figure 9 Aluminum is a metal that is useful from the kitchen to the sculpture garden.
©ABN Stock Images/Alamy
Math Handbook
Math Handbook 957
Unit ConversionRecall from Chapter 2 that the universal unit system used by scientists is called Le Système Internationale d’Unités, or SI. It is a metric system based on seven base units—meter, second, kilogram, kelvin, mole, ampere, and candela—from which all other units are derived. The size of a unit in the metric system is indicated by a prefix related to the dif-ference between that unit and the base unit. For example, the base unit for length in the metric system is the meter. One-tenth of a meter is a decimeter, where the prefix deci- means one-tenth. One thousand meters is a kilometer, where the prefix kilo- means one thousand.
You can use the information in Table 2 to express a measured quantity in different units. For example, how is 65 m expressed in centimeters? Table 2 indicates one centimeter and one-hundredth meter are equivalent, that is, 1 cm = 1 0 −2 m. This information can be used to form a conversion factor. A conversion factor is a ratio equal to one that relates two units. You can make the following conversion factors from the relationship between meters and centimeters. Be sure when you set up a conversion factor that the measurement in the numerator (the top of the ratio) is equivalent to the measurement in the denominator (the bottom of the ratio).
1 = 1 cm
_ 1 0 −2 m
and 1 = 1 0 −2 m
_ 1 cm
PRACTICE Problems
Determine whether the following equations are dimensionally correct. Explain.
12. v = s × t where v = 24 m/s, s = 12 m, and t = 2 s.
13. R = nT _ PV
where R is in L·atm/mol·K, n is in mol, T is in K, P is in atm,
and V is in L.
14. t = v _ s where t is in seconds, v is in m/s, and s is in m.
15. s = a t 2 _ 2 where s is in m, a is in m/ s 2 , and t is in s.
Table 2 Common SI Prefixes
Prefix SymbolExponential
NotationPrefix Symbol
Exponential Notation
Peta P 1 0 15 Deci d 1 0 −1
Tera T 1 0 12 Centi c 1 0 −2
Giga G 1 0 9 Milli m 1 0 −3
Mega M 1 0 6 Micro μ 1 0 −6
Kilo k 1 0 3 Nano n 1 0 −9
Hecto h 1 0 2 Pico p 1 0 −12
Deka da 1 0 1 Femto f 1 0 −15
958 Math Handbook
Math Handbook
Recall that the value of a quantity does not change when it is multiplied by 1. To convert 65 m to centimeters, multiply 65 m by the conversion factor for centimeters.
65 m × 1 cm
_ 1 0 −2 m
= 65 × 1 0 2 cm = 6.5 × 1 0 3 cmNote the conversion factor is set up so that the unit meters cancels and the answer is in centimeters as required. When setting up a unit conversion, use dimensional analysis to check that the units cancel to give an answer in the desired units. Always check your answer to be certain the units make sense.
You make unit conversions every day when you determine how many quarters are needed to make a dollar or how many feet are in a yard. One unit that is often used in calculations in chemistry is the mole. Chapter 10 shows you equivalent relationships among moles, grams, and the number of representative particles (atoms, molecules, formula units, or ions). For example, 1 mol of a substance contains 6.02 × 1 0 23 representative particles. Try the next Example Problem to see how this information can be used in a conversion factor to deter-mine the number of atoms in a sample of manganese.
Figure 10 The mass of one mole of manganese equals 54.94 g.Determine How many significant figures are in this measurement?
EXAMPLE Problem 5
Unit Conversions One mole of manganese (Mn), shown in Figure 10, has a mass of 54.94 g. How many atoms are in 2.0 mol of manganese?
1 Analyze the ProblemYou are given the mass of 1 mol of manganese. In order to convert to the number of atoms, you must set up a conversion factor relating the number of moles and the number of atoms.
2 Solve for the UnknownThe conversion factors for moles and atoms are shown below.
1 mol __ 6.02 × 1 0 23 atoms
and 6.02 × 1 0 23 atoms __ 1 mol
Choose the conversion factor that cancels units of moles and gives an answer in number of atoms.
2.0 mol × 6.02 × 1 0 23 atoms __ 1 mol
= 12.04 × 1 0 23 atoms
= 1.2 × 1 0 24 atoms
3 Evaluate the AnswerThe answer is expressed in the desired units (number of atoms). It is expressed in two significant figures because the number of moles (2.0) has two significant figures.
Matt Meadows
Math Handbook
Math Handbook 959
PRACTICE Problems
16. Convert the following measurements as indicated.
a. 4 m = ____cm i. 2.7 × 1 0 2 L = ____mL
b. 50.0 cm = ____m j. 7.3 × 1 0 5 mL = ____L
c. 15 cm = ____mm k. 8.4 × 1 0 10 m = ____km
d. 567 mg = ____g l. 3.8 × 1 0 4 m 2 = ____m m 2
e. 324 mL = ____L m. 6.9 × 1 0 12 c m 2 = ____ m 2
f. 28 L = ____mL n. 6.3 × 1 0 21 m m 3 = ____c m 3
g. 4.6 × 1 0 3 m = ____mm o. 9.4 × 1 0 12 c m 3 = ____ m 3
h. 8.3 × 1 0 4 g = ____kg p. 5.7 × 1 0 20 c m 3 = ____k m 3
Drawing Line GraphsScientists, such as the one shown in Figure 11, as well as you and your classmates, use graphing to analyze data gathered in experiments. Graphs provide a way to visualize data in order to determine the mathe-matical relationship between the variables in your experiment. Line graphs are used most often.
Figure 11 also shows a line graph. Line graphs are drawn by plotting variables along two axes. Plot the independent variable on the x-axis (horizontal axis), also called the abscissa. The independent variable is the quantity controlled by the person doing the experiment. Plot the dependent variable on the y-axis (vertical axis), also called the ordinate. The dependent variable is the variable that depends on the independent variable. Label the axes with the variables being plotted and the units attached to those variables.
Origin
y-axis
0
Dep
ende
nt v
aria
ble
Independent variable
(x, y)
0
x-axis
Graph of Line with Point A
Figure 11 Once experimental data have been collected, they must be analyzed to determine the relationships between the measured variables.
Any graph of your data should include labeled x- and y-axes, a suitable scale, and a title.
This research scientist might use graphs to analyze the data she collects on ultrapure water.
©Bill Aron/Photo Edit
960 Math Handbook
Math Handbook
Determining a scaleAn important part of graphing is the selection of a scale. Scales should be easy to plot and easy to read. First, examine the data to determine the highest and lowest values. Assign each division on the axis (the square on the graph paper) with an equal value so that all data can be plotted along the axis. Scales divided into multiples of 1, 2, 5, or 10, or decimal values, are often the most convenient. It is not necessary to start at zero, nor is it necessary to plot both variables to the same scale. Scales must, however, be labeled clearly with the appropriate numbers and units.
Plotting dataThe values of the independent and dependent variables form ordered pairs of numbers, called the x-coordinate and the y-coordinate (x,y), that correspond to points on the graph. The first number in an ordered pair always corresponds to the x-axis; the second number always corresponds to the y-axis. The ordered pair (0,0) is always the origin. Sometimes, the points are named by using a letter. In Figure 12, Point A on the Density of Water graph corresponds to Point (x,y).
After the scales are chosen, plot the data. To graph or plot an ordered pair means to place a dot at the point that corresponds to the values in the ordered pair. The x-coordinate indicates how many units to move right (if the number is positive) or left (if the number is negative). The y-coordinate indicates how many units to move up or down. Which direction is positive on the y-axis? Negative? Locate each pair of x- and y-coordinates by placing a dot, as shown in Figure 12 in the Density of Water graph. Sometimes, a pair of rulers, one extending from the x-axis and the other from the y-axis, can ensure that data are plotted correctly.
Drawing a curveOnce the data is plotted, a straight line or a curve is drawn. It is not necessary to make it go through every point plotted, or even any of the points, as shown in the Experimental Data graph in Figure 12. Graphing data is an averaging process. If the points do not fall along a line, the best-fit line or most-probable smooth curve through the points is drawn. Note that curves do not always go through the origin (0,0).
Mas
s (g
)Volume (mL)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0
A (x, y)
Density of Water
Mas
s (g
)
Volume (mL)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0
Experimental Data
Figure 12 To plot a point on a graph, place a dot at the location for each ordered pair (x,y) determined by your data. In the Density of Water graph, the dot marks the ordered pair (40 mL, 40 g). Generally, the line or curve that you draw will not include all of your experimental data points, as shown in the Experimental Data graph.
Math Handbook
Math Handbook 961
Naming a graphLast but not least, give each graph a title that describes what is being graphed. The title should be placed at the top of the page, or in a box on a clear area of the graph. It should not cross the data curve.
Using Line GraphsOnce the data from an experiment has been collected and plotted, the graph must be interpreted. Much can be learned about the relationship between the independent and dependent variables by examining the shape and slope of the curve. Four common types of curves are shown in Figure 13. Each type of curve corresponds to a mathematical rela-tionship between the independent and dependent variables.
Direct and inverse relationshipsIn your study of chemistry, the most common curves are the linear, representing the direct relationship (y ∞ x), and the inverse, representing the inverse relationship (y ∞ 1/x), where x represents the independent variable and y represents the dependent variable. In a direct relationship, y increases in value as x increases in value, or y decreases when x decreases. In an inverse relationship, y decreases in value as x increases.
An example of a typical direct relationship is the increase in volume of a gas with increasing temperature. When the gases inside a hot-air balloon are heated, the balloon gets larger. As the balloon cools, its size decreases. However, a plot of the decrease in pressure as the volume of a gas increases yields a typical inverse curve.
You might also encounter exponential and root curves in your study of chemistry. See Figure 13. An exponential curve describes a relation-ship in which one variable is expressed by an exponent. A root curve describes a relationship in which one variable is expressed by a root.
Linear curvey ∝ x
Exponential curve y ∝ x n
(n > 1)
Inverse curvey ∝
Root curvey ∝
(n > 1)
-x1
xn
a
c
b
d
Figure 13 The shape of the curve formed by a plot of experimental data indicates how the variables are related.
962 Math Handbook
Math Handbook
The linear graphThe linear graph is useful in analyzing data because a linear relationship can be translated easily into equation form using the equation for a straight line.
y = mx + b
In the equation, y stands for the dependent variable, m is the slope of the line, x stands for the independent variable, and b is the y-intercept, the point where the curve crosses the y-axis.
The slope of a linear graph is the steepness of the line. Slope is defined as the ratio of the vertical change (the rise) to the horizontal change (the run) as you move from one point to the next along the line. Use the graph in Figure 14 to calculate slope. Choose any two points on the line, ( x 1 , y 1 ) and ( x 2 , y 2 ). The two points need not be actual data points, but both must fall somewhere on the straight line. After selecting two points, calculate slope, m, using the following equation.
m = rise
_ run = ∆y
_ ∆x
= y 2 − y 1
_ x 2 − x 1 , where x 1 ≠ x 2
The symbol ∆ stands for change, x 1 and y 1 are the coordinates or values of the first point, and x 2 and y 2 are the coordinates of the second point.
Choose any two points along the graph of mass v. volume in Figure 15, and calculate its slope.
m = 135 g − 54 g
__ 50.0 c m 3 − 20.0 c m 3
= 2.7 g/c m 3
Note that the units for the slope are the units for density. Plotting a graph of mass versus volume is one way of determining the density of a substance.
Apply the general equation for a straight line to the graph in Figure 15.
y = mx + b mass = (2.7 g/c m 3 )(volume) + 0 mass = (2.7 g/c m 3 )(volume)
Mas
s (g
)
Volume (mL)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0
(x1, y1)
(x2, y2)
Density of Water
Run
Rise
Figure 14 A steep slope indicates that the dependent variable changes rapidly with a change in the indepen-dent variable. Infer What would an almost flat line indicate?
Math Handbook
Math Handbook 963
Mas
s (g
)
Volume (mL)
0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
100.0
120.0
140.0
160.0
0
Density of Aluminum
Figure 15 Interpolation and extrap-olation will help you determine the values of points you did not plot.
Once the data from the graph in Figure 15 has been placed in the general equation for a straight line, this equation verifies the direct rela-tionship between mass and volume. For any increase in volume, the mass also increases.
Interpolation and extrapolationGraphs also serve functions other than determining the relationship between variables. They permit interpolation, the prediction of values of the independent and dependent variables. For example, you can see in the table in Figure 15 that the mass of 40.0 c m 3 of aluminum was not measured. However, you can interpolate from the graph that the mass would be 108 g.
Graphs also permit extrapolation, which is the determination of points beyond the measured points. To extrapolate, draw a broken line to extend the curve to the desired point. In Figure 15, you can determine that the mass at 10.0 c m 3 equals 27 g. One caution regarding extrapolation—some straight-line curves do not remain straight indefi-nitely. So, extrapolation should only be done where there is a reasonable likelihood that the curve does not change.
PRACTICE Problems
17. Plot the data in each table. Explain whether the graphs represent direct or inverse relationships.
Table 3 Effect of Pressure on Gas
Pressure (mm Hg)
Volume (mL)
3040 5.0
1520 10.0
1013 15.0
760 20.0
Table 4 Effect of Pressure on Gas
Pressure (mm Hg)
Temperature (K)
3040 1092
1520 546
1013 410
760 273
Data
Volume (mL) Mass (g)
20.0 54.0
30.0 81.0
50.0 135.0
964 Math Handbook
Math Handbook
Ratios, Fractions, and PercentsWhen you analyze data, you may be asked to compare measured quanti-ties. Or, you may be asked to determine the relative amounts of ele-ments in a compound. Suppose, for example, you are asked to compare the molar masses of the diatomic gases, hydrogen ( H 2 ) and oxygen ( O 2 ). The molar mass of hydrogen gas equals 2.00 g/mol; the molar mass of oxygen equals 32.00 g/mol. The relationship between molar masses can be expressed in three ways: a ratio, a fraction, or a percent.
RatiosYou make comparisons by using ratios in your daily life. For example, if the mass of a dozen limes is shown in Figure 16, how does it compare to the mass of one lime? The mass of one dozen limes is 12 times larger than the mass of one lime. In chemistry, the chemical formula for a compound compares the elements that make up that compound, as shown in Figure 17. A ratio is a comparison of two numbers by division. One way it can be expressed is with a colon (:). The comparison between the molar masses of oxygen and hydrogen can be expressed as follows.
molar mass ( H 2 ):molar mass ( O 2 )
2.00 g/mol:32.00 g/mol
2.00:32.00
1:16
Notice that the ratio 1:16 is the smallest integer (whole number) ratio. It is obtained by dividing both numbers in the ratio by the smaller num-ber, and then rounding the larger number to remove the digits after the decimal. The ratio of the molar masses is 1 to 16. In other words, the ratio indicates that the molar mass of diatomic hydrogen gas is 16 times smaller than the molar mass of diatomic oxygen gas.
FractionsRatios are often expressed as fractions in simplest form. A fraction is a quotient of two numbers. To express the comparison of the molar masses as a fraction, place the molar mass of hydrogen over the molar mass of oxygen as follows.
molar mass H 2
__ molar mass O 2
= 2.0 g/mol
_ 32.00 g/mol
= 2.00
_ 32.00
= 1 _ 16
In this case, the simplified fraction is calculated by dividing both the numerator (top of the fraction) and the denominator (bottom of the fraction) by 2.00. This fraction yields the same information as the ratio. That is, diatomic hydrogen gas has one-sixteenth the mass of diatomic oxygen gas.
Figure 17 In a crystal of table salt (sodium chloride), each sodium ion is surrounded by chloride ions, yet the ratio of sodium ions to chloride ions is 1:1. The formula for sodium chloride is NaCl.
Figure 16 The mass of one lime would be one-twelfth the mass of one dozen limes.
Matt Meadows
Math Handbook
Math Handbook 965
PercentsA percent is a ratio that compares a number to 100. The symbol for percent is %. You also are used to working with percents in your daily life. The number of correct answers on an exam can be expressed as a percent. If you answered 90 out of 100 questions correctly, you would receive a grade of 90%. Signs like the one in Figure 18 indicate a reduc-tion in price. If the item’s regular price is $100, how many dollars would you save? Sixty percent means 60 of every 100, so you would save $60. How much would you save if the sign said 75% off?
The comparison between molar mass of hydrogen gas and the molar mass of oxygen gas described on the previous page can also be expressed as a percent by taking the fraction, converting it to decimal form, and multiplying by 100 as follows.
molar mass H 2
__ molar mass O 2
× 100 = 2.00 g/mol
_ 32.00 g/mol
× 100 = 0.0625 × 100 = 6.25%
Diatomic hydrogen gas has 6.25% of the mass of diatomic oxygen gas.
Operations Involving FractionsFractions are subject to the same type of operations as other numbers. Remember that the number on the top of a fraction is the numerator and the number on the bottom is the denominator. Figure 19 shows an example of a fraction.
1. Addition and subtractionBefore two fractions can be added or subtracted, they must have a common denominator. Common denominators are found by finding the least common multiple of the two denominators. Finding the least common multiple is often as easy as multiplying the two denominators together. For example, the least common multiple of the denominators
of the fractions 1 _ 2 and 1 _
3 is 2 × 3 or 6.
1 _ 2 + 1 _
3 = (
3 _
3 × 1 _
2 ) + ( 2 _
2 × 1 _
3 ) =
3 _
6 + 2 _
6 =
5 _
6
Sometimes, one of the denominators will divide into the other, which
makes the larger of the two denominators the least common multiple.
For example, the fractions 1 _ 2 and 1 _
6 have 6 as the least common multiple
denominator.
1 _ 2 + 1 _
6 = (
3 _
3 × 1 _
2 ) + 1 _
6 =
3 _
6 + 1 _
6 = 4 _
6
In other situations, both denominators will divide into a number that is
not the product of the two. For example, the fractions 1 _ 4 and 1 _
6 have the
number 12 as their least common multiple denominator, rather than 24, the product of the two denominators.
The least common denominator can be deduced as follows:
1 _ 6 + 1 _
4 = ( 4 _
4 × 1 _
6 ) + (
6 _
6 × 1 _
4 ) = 4 _
24 +
6 _
24 = 2 _
12 +
3 _
12 =
5 _
12
Because both fractions can be simplified by dividing numerator and denominator by 2, the least common multiple must be 12.
9 × 108
3 × 10-4Quotient =
Dividend(numerator)
Divisor(denominator)
Figure 19 When two numbers are divided, the one on top is the numerator and the one on the bottom is the denominator. The result is called the quotient. When you perform calculations with fractions, the quotient can be expressed as a fraction or a decimal.
Figure 18 Stores often use percentages when advertising sales.Analyze Would the savings be large at this sale? How would you determine the sale price?
©Elena Rooraid/Photo Edit
966 Math Handbook
Math Handbook
2. Multiplication and divisionWhen multiplying fractions, the numerators and denominators are multiplied together as follows:
1 _ 2 × 2 _
3 =
1 × 2 _
2 × 3 = 2 _
6 = 1 _
3
Note the final answer is simplified by dividing the numerator and denominator by 2.
When dividing fractions, the divisor is inverted and multiplied by the dividend as follows:
2 _ 3 ÷ 1 _
2 = 2 _
3 × 2 _
1 =
2 × 2 _
3 × 1 = 4 _
3
PRACTICE Problems
18. Perform the indicated operation:
a. 2 _ 3 + 3 _ 4 e. 1 _ 3 × 3 _ 4
b. 4 _ 5 + 3 _ 10 f. 3 _ 5 × 2 _ 7
c. 1 _ 4 − 1 _ 6 g. 5 _ 8 ÷ 1 _ 4
d. 7 _ 8 − 5 _ 6 h. 4 _ 9 ÷ 3 _ 8
Logarithms and AntilogarithmsWhen you perform calculations, such as the pH of the products in Figure 20, you might need to use the log or antilog function on your calculator. A logarithm (log) is the power or exponent to which a num-ber, called a base, must be raised in order to obtain a given positive number.
This textbook uses common logarithms based on a base of 10. Therefore, the common log of any number is the power to which 10 is raised to equal that number. Examine Table 5 to compare logs and exponents. Note the log of each number is the power of 10 for the exponent of that number. For example, the common log of 100 is 2, and the common log of 0.01 is −2.
log 1 0 2 = 2 log 1 0 −2 = −2
A common log can be written in the following general form.
If 1 0 n = y, then log y = n.
In each example in Table 5, the log can be determined by inspection.How do you express the common log of 5.34 × 1 0 5 ? Because logarithms are exponents, they have the same properties as exponents, as shown in Table 6 on the next page.
log 5.34 × 1 0 5 = log 5.34 + log 1 0 5
Table 5
Comparison Between
Exponents and Logs
Exponent Logarithm
1 0 0 = 1 log 1 = 0
1 0 1 = 10 log 10 = 1
1 0 2 = 100 log 100 = 2
1 0 -1 = 0.1 log 0.1 = -1
1 0 -2 = 0.01 log 0.01 = -2
Math Handbook
Math Handbook 967
Table 6 Properties of Exponents
Exponential Notation Logarithm
1 0 A × 1 0 B = 1 0 A + B log (A × B) = log A + log B
1 0 A ÷ 1 0 B = 1 0 A − B log (A ÷ B) = log A − log B
A B (log A) × B
PRACTICE Problems
19. Find the log of each of the following numbers.
a. 367 b. 4078 c. X n
20. Find the antilog of each of the following logs.
a. 4.663 b. 2.367 c. 0.371 d. −1.588
Figure 20 Ammonia is a base. That means its hydrogen ion concentration is less than 1 0 −7 M.
Significant figures and logarithmsMost scientific calculators have a button labeled log and, in most cases, you enter the number and push the log button to display the log of the number. Note that there is the same number of digits after the decimal in the log as there are significant figures in the original number entered.
log 5.34 × 1 0 5 = log 5.34 + log 1 0 5 = 0.728 + 5 = 5.728
AntilogarithmsSuppose the pH of the aqueous ammonia in Figure 20 is 9.54 and you are asked to find the concentration of the hydrogen ions in that solu-tion. By definition, pH = −log [ H +]. Compare this to the general equa-tion for the common log.
Equation for pH: pH = −log [ H +] General equation: y = log 1 0 n
To solve the equation for [ H +], you must follow the reverse process and calculate the antilogarithm (antilog) of −9.54 to find [ H +].
Antilogs are the reverse of logs. To find the antilog, use a scientific calculator to input the value of the log. Then, use the inverse function and press the log button. The number of digits after the decimal in the log equals the number of significant figures in the antilog. An antilog can be written in the following general form.
If n = antilog y, then y = 1 0 n.
Thus, [ H +] = antilog(−9.54) = 1 0 −9.54 = 1 0 (0.46 − 10)
= 1 0 0.46 × 1 0 −10
= 2.9 × 1 0 −10M
Check the instruction manual for your calculator. The exact procedure to calculate logs and antilogs might vary.
Geoff Butler
968 Reference Tables
Table R-1 Color Key
Carbon Bromine Sodium/Other metals
Hydrogen Iodine Gold
Oxygen Sulfur Copper
Nitrogen Phosphorus Electron
Chlorine Silicon Proton
Fluorine Helium Neutron
Table R-2 Symbols and Abbreviationsα = rays from radioactive
materials, helium nucleiβ = rays from radioactive
materials, electronsγ = rays from radioactive
materials, high-energy quanta
∆ = change inλ = wavelengthν = frequencyA = ampere (electric current)amu = atomic mass unitBq = becquerel (nuclear
disintegration)°C = Celsius degree (temperature)C = coulomb (quantity of
electricity)c = speed of lightcd = candela (luminous intensity)c = specific heatD = density
E = energy, electromotive forceF = forceG = free energyg = gram (mass)Gy = gray (radiation)H = enthalpyHz = hertz (frequency)h = Planck’s constanth = hour (time)J = joule (energy)K = kelvin (temperature) K a = ionization constant (acid) K b = ionization constant (base) K eq = equilibrium constant K sp = solubility product constantkg = kilogram (mass)M = molaritym = mass, molalitym = meter (length)mol = mole (amount)min = minute (time)
N = newton (force) N A = Avogadro’s numbern = number of molesP = pressure, powerPa = pascal (pressure)q = heat Q sp = ion productR = ideal gas constantS = entropys = second (time)Sv = sievert (absorbed radiation)T = temperatureV = volumeV = volt (electric potential)v = velocityW = watt (power)w = workX = mole fraction
Reference Tables
Reference Tables 969
Table R-3 Solubility Product Constants at 298 KCompound K sp Compound K sp Compound K sp
Carbonates Halides Hydroxides
BaC O 3 2.6 × 1 0 -9 Ca F 2 3.5 × 1 0 -11 Al(OH ) 3 4.6 × 1 0 -33
CaC O 3 3.4 × 1 0 -9 PbB r 2 6.6 × 1 0 -6 Ca(OH ) 2 5.0 × 1 0 -6
CuC O 3 2.5 × 1 0 -10 PbC l 2 1.7 × 1 0 -5 Cu(OH ) 2 2.2 × 1 0 -20
PbC O 3 7.4 × 1 0 -14 Pb F 2 3.3 × 1 0 -8 Fe(OH ) 2 4.9 × 1 0 -17
MgC O 3 6.8 × 1 0 -6 Pb I 2 9.8 × 1 0 -9 Fe(OH ) 3 2.8 × 1 0 -39
A g 2 C O 3 8.5 × 1 0 -12 AgCl 1.8 × 1 0 -10 Mg(OH ) 2 5.6 × 1 0 -12
ZnC O 3 1.5 × 1 0 -10 AgBr 5.4 × 1 0 -13 Zn(OH ) 2 3 × 1 0 -17
H g 2 C O 3 3.6 × 1 0 -17 AgI 8.5 × 1 0 -17 Sulfates
Chromates Phosphates BaS O 4 1.1 × 1 0 -10
BaCr O 4 1.2 × 1 0 -10 AlP O 4 9.8 × 1 0 -21 CaS O 4 4.9 × 1 0 -5
PbCr O 4 2.3 × 1 0 -13 C a 3 (P O 4 ) 2 2.1 × 1 0 -33 PbS O 4 2.5 × 1 0 -8
A g 2 Cr O 4 1.1 × 10 -12 M g 3 (P O 4 ) 2 1.0 × 1 0 -24 A g 2 S O 4 1.2 × 1 0 -5
Iodates Fe(P O 4 ) 2 1.0 × 1 0 -22 Arsenates
Cd(I O 3 ) 2 2.3 × 1 0 -8 N i 3 (P O 4 ) 2 4.7 × 1 0 -32 P b 3 (As O 4 ) 2 4.0 × 1 0 -36
Table R-4 Physical ConstantsQuantity Symbol Value
Atomic mass unit amu 1.6605 × 10 -27
Avogadro’s number N 6.022 × 10 23 particles/mole
Ideal gas constant R 8.31 L·kPa/mol·K0.0821 L·atm/mol·K62.4 mm Hg·L/mol·K
62.4 torr·L/mol·K
Mass of an electron m e 9.109 × 1 0 -31 kg5.485799 × 1 0 -4 amu
Mass of a neutron m n 1.67492 × 1 0 -27 kg1.008665 amu
Mass of a proton m p 1.6726 × 1 0 -27 kg1.007276 amu
Molar volume of ideal gas at STP V 22.414 L/mol
Normal boiling point of water T b 373.15 K100.0°C
Normal freezing point of water T f 273.15 K0.00°C
Planck’s constant h 6.6260693 × 1 0 -34 J·s
Speed of light in a vacuum c 2.997925 × 1 0 8 m/s
970 Reference Tables
Reference Tables
Table R-5 Names and Charges of Polyatomic Ions1-
Acetate, C H 3 CO O -
Amide, N H 2 -
Astatate, At O 3 -
Azide, N 3 -
Benzoate, C 6 H 5 CO O -
Bismuthate, Bi O 3 -
Bromate, Br O 3 -
Chlorate, Cl O 3 -
Chlorite, Cl O 2 -
Cyanide, C N -
Formate, HCO O -
Hydroxide, O H -
Hypobromite, Br O -
Hypochlorite, Cl O -
Hypophosphite, H 2 P O 2 -
Iodate, I O 3 -
Nitrate, N O 3 -
Nitrite, N O 2 -
Perbromate, Br O 4 -
Perchlorate, Cl O 4 -
Periodate, I O 4 -
Permanganate, Mn O 4 -
Perrhenate, Re O 4 -
Thiocyanate, SC N -
Vanadate, V O 3 -
2-
Carbonate, C O 3 2-
Chromate, Cr O 4 2-
Dichromate, C r 2 O 7 2-
Hexachloroplatinate, PtC l 6 2-
Hexafluorosilicate, Si f 6 2-
Molybdate, Mo O 4 2-
Oxalate, C 2 O 4 2-
Peroxide, O 2 2-
Peroxydisulfate, S 2 O 8 2-
Ruthenate, Ru O 4 2-
Selenate, Se O 4 2-
Selenite, Se O 3 2-
Silicate, Si O 3 2-
Sulfate, S O 4 2-
Sulfite, S O 3 2-
Tartrate, C 4 H 4 O 6 2-
Tellurate, Te O 4 2-
Tellurite, Te O 3 2-
Tetraborate, B 4 O 7 2-
Thiosulfate, S 2 O 3 2-
Tungstate, W O 4 2-
3-
Arsenate, As O 4 3-
Arsenite, As O 3 3-
Borate, B O 3 3-
Citrate, C 6 H 5 O 7 3-
Hexacyanoferrate (III), Fe(CN ) 6 3-
Phosphate, P O 4 3-
Phosphite, P O 3 3-
4-
Hexacyanoferrate (II), Fe(CN ) 6 4-
Orthosilicate, Si O 4 4-
Diphosphate, P 2 O 7 4-
1+
Ammonium, N H 4 +
Neptunyl(V), Np O 2 +
Plutonyl(V), Pu O 2 +
Uranyl(V), U O 2 +
Vanadyl(V), V O 2 +
2+
Mercury(I), H g 2 2+
Neptunyl(VI), Np O 2 2+
Plutonyl(VI), Pu O 2 2+
Uranyl(VI), U O 2 2+
Vanadyl(IV), V O 2+
Table R-6 Ionization Constants
SubstanceIonizationConstant
SubstanceIonizationConstant
SubstanceIonizationConstant
HCOOH 1.77 × 1 0 -4 C H 3 COOH 1.75 × 1 0 -5 C H 2 ClCOOH 1.36 × 1 0 -3 CHC l 2 COOH 4.47 × 1 0 -2 CC l 3 COOH 3.02 × 1 0 -1 HOOCCOOH 5.36 × 1 0 -2 HOOCCO O - 1.55 × 1 0 -4 C H 3 C H 2 COOH 1.34 × 1 0 -5 C 6 H 5 COOH 6.25 × 1 0 -5 H 3 As O 4 6.03 × 1 0 -3 H 2 As O 4 - 1.05 × 1 0 -7 H 3 B O 3 5.75 × 1 0 -10 H 2 B O 3 - 1.82 × 1 0 -13
HB O 3 -2 1.58 × 1 0 -14 H 2 C O 3 4.5 × 1 0 -7 HC O 3 - 4.68 × 1 0 -11 HCN 6.17 × 1 0 -10 HF 6.3 × 1 0 -4 HN O 2 5.62 × 1 0 -4 H 3 P O 4 7.08 × 1 0 -3 H 2 P O 4 - 6.31 × 1 0 -8 HP O 4 2- 4.17 × 1 0 -13 H 3 P O 3 5.01 × 1 0 -2 H 2 P O 2 - 2.00 × 1 0 -7 H 3 P O 2 5.89 × 1 0 -2 H 2 S 9.1 × 1 0 -8
H S - 1.00 × 1 0 -19 HS O 4 - 1.02 × 1 0 -2 H 2 S O 3 1.29 × 1 0 -2 HS O 3 - 6.17 × 1 0 -8 HSe O 4 - 2.19 × 1 0 -2 H 2 Se O 3 2.29 × 1 0 -3 HSe O 3 - 4.79 × 1 0 -9 HBrO 2.51 × 1 0 -9 HClO 2.9 × 1 0 -8 HIO 3.16 × 1 0 -11 N H 3 5.62 × 1 0 -10 H 2 NN H 2 7.94 × 1 0 -9 H 2 NOH 1.15 × 1 0 -6
Reference Tables
Reference Tables 971
Tab
le R
-7 P
rop
ert
ies
of
Ele
men
ts
Actin
ium
Ac89
[227
]10
5033
0010
.07
---
499
(3+
)-2.
1314
0.12
040
0--
-3+
Alum
inum
Al13
26.9
8153
966
0.32
2519
2.7
143
577.
5(3
+)-
1.68
10.7
890.
897
294
8.2
3+Am
eric
ium
Am95
[243
]11
7626
0713
.67
---
578
(3+
)-2.
0714
.39
0.11
0--
---
-2+
, 3+
, 4+
Antim
ony
Sb51
121.
760
630.
615
876.
697
140
834
(3+
)+0.
1519
.79
0.20
768
2 ×
1 0 -
5 3+
, 5+
Argo
nAr
1839
.948
-18
9.3
-18
5.8
0.00
1784
9815
21--
-1.
180.
520
6.43
1.5
× 1
0 -4
---
Arse
nic
As33
74.9
2160
817
614
5.72
712
094
7(3
+)+
0.24
24.4
40.
329
32.4
2.1
× 1
0 -4
3+, 5
+
Asta
tine
At85
[210
]30
2--
---
-14
092
0(1
-)+
0.2
6--
-40
---
1-, 5
+
Bariu
mBa
5613
7.32
772
718
703.
5122
250
2.9
(2+
)-2.
927.
120.
204
140
0.03
42+
Berk
eliu
mBk
97[2
47]
986
---
14.7
8--
-60
1(3
+)-
2.01
---
---
---
---
3+, 4
+
Bery
llium
Be4
9.01
2182
1287
2469
1.84
811
289
9.5
(2+
)-1.
977.
895
1.82
529
72
× 1
0 -4
2+Bi
smut
hBi
8320
8.98
040
271.
315
649.
7815
070
3(3
+)+
0.31
711
.145
0.12
215
13
× 1
0 -7
3+, 5
+
Bohr
ium
Bh10
7[2
64]
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
Boro
nB
510
.811
2076
3927
2.46
8580
0.6
(3+
)-0.
8950
.21.
026
480
9 ×
1 0 -
4 3+
Brom
ine
Br35
79.9
04–7
.359
3.11
911
411
39.9
(1-
)+1.
065
10.5
70.
474
29.9
63
× 1
0 -4
1-, 1
+, 3
+, 5
+
Cadm
ium
Cd48
112.
411
321.
0776
78.
6515
186
7.8
(2+
)-0.
4025
6.21
0.23
299
.87
1.5
× 1
0 -5
2+Ca
lciu
mCa
2040
.078
842
1484
1.55
197
589.
8(2
+)-
2.84
8.54
0.64
715
55.
002+
Calif
orni
umCf
98[2
51]
900
---
15.1
---
608
(3+
)-1.
93--
---
---
---
-3+
, 4+
Carb
onC
612
.010
735
2740
272.
267
7710
86.5
(4-
)+0.
132
117
0.70
971
50.
018
4-, 2
+, 4
+
Ceriu
mCe
5814
0.11
679
533
606.
689
---
534.
4(3
+)-
2.34
5.46
0.19
235
00.
006
3+, 4
+
Cesi
umCs
5513
2.90
5451
28.4
671
1.87
926
537
5.7
(1+
)-2.
923
2.09
0.24
265
1.9
× 1
0 -4
1+Ch
lorin
eCl
1735
.453
-10
1.5
-34
0.00
310
012
51.2
(1-
)+1.
358
6.40
0.47
920
.41
0.01
71-
, 1+
, 3+
, 5+
Chro
miu
mCr
2451
.996
119
0726
717.
1412
865
2.9
(3+
)-0.
7421
.00.
449
339
0.01
42+
, 3+
, 6+
Coba
ltCo
2758
.933
214
9529
278.
912
576
0.4
(2+
)-0.
2816
.06
0.42
137
50.
003
2+, 3
+
Copp
erCu
2963
.546
1084
.62
2927
8.92
128
745.
5(2
+)+
0.34
12.9
30.
385
300
0.00
681+
, 2+
Curiu
mCm
96[2
47]
1340
3110
13.5
1--
-58
1(3
+)-
2.06
---
---
---
---
3+, 4
+
Darm
stad
tium
Ds11
0[2
81]
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
Dubn
ium
Db10
5[2
62]
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
Dysp
rosi
umDy
6616
2.5
1407
2567
8.55
1--
-57
3(3
+)-
2.29
11.0
60.
173
280
6 ×
1 0 -
4 2+
, 3+
Eins
tein
ium
Es99
[252
]86
0--
---
---
-61
9(3
+)-
2--
---
---
---
-3+
Erbi
umEr
6816
7.25
914
9728
689.
066
---
589.
3(3
+)-
2.32
19.9
0.16
828
53
× 1
0 -4
3+Eu
ropi
umEu
6315
1.96
482
615
275.
244
---
547.
1(3
+)-
1.99
9.21
0.18
217
51.
8 ×
1 0 -
4 2+
, 3+
Ferm
ium
Fm10
0[2
57]
1527
---
---
---
627
(3+
)-1.
96--
---
---
---
-2+
, 3+
Fluo
rine
F9
18.9
9840
32-
219.
62-
188.
120.
0016
9671
1681
(1-
)+2.
870.
510.
824
6.62
0.05
41-
Fran
cium
Fr87
[223
]--
---
---
-27
038
0(1
+)-
2.92
2--
-65
---
1+G
adol
iniu
mG
d64
157.
2513
1232
507.
901
---
593.
4(3
+)-
2.28
10.0
0.23
630
55.
2 ×
1 0 -
4 3+
Gal
lium
Ga
3169
.723
29.7
622
045.
904
135
578.
8(3
+)-
0.53
5.57
60.
373
254
0.00
191+
, 3+
Ger
man
ium
Ge
3272
.64
938.
328
205.
323
122
762
(4+
)+0.
124
36.9
40.
320
334
1.4
× 1
0 -4
2+, 4
+
Gol
dAu
7919
6.96
6569
1064
2856
19.3
144
890.
1(3
+)+
1.52
12.7
20.
129
324
3 ×
1 0 -
7 1+
, 3+
*[ ]
indi
cate
s m
ass
of lo
nges
t-liv
ed is
otop
e
Major Oxidation States
Abundance in Earth’s Crust
Enthalpy of Vaporization
Specific Heat
Enthalpy of Fusion
Standard Reduction Potential (V)
(for elements from or to oxidation
state indicated)
First Ionization Energy (kJ/mol)
Atomic Radius (pm)
Density (g/ cm 3 ) (gases measured at STP)
Boiling Point (°C)
Melting Point (°C)
Atomic Mass* (amu)
Atomic Number
Symbol
Element
972 Reference Tables
Reference Tables
Tab
le R
-7 P
rop
ert
ies
of
Ele
men
ts (
con
tin
ued
)
Hafn
ium
Hf72
178.
4922
3346
0313
.31
159
658.
5(4
+)-
1.70
27.2
0.14
463
03
× 1
0 -4
4+Ha
ssiu
mHs
108
[277
]-
272.
2--
-0.
0001
785
---
2372
.3--
---
---
-0.
083
5.5
× 1
0 -4
---
Heliu
mHe
24.
0026
02-
269.
7 (2
536
kPa)
-26
8.93
0.00
0178
4731
2372
---
0.02
15.
193
0.08
---
---
Holm
ium
Ho67
164.
9303
214
6127
208.
795
---
581
(3+
)-2.
3317
.00.
165
265
1.2
× 1
0 -4
3+Hy
drog
enH
I1.
0079
4-
259.
14-
252.
870.
0000
899
3713
12(1
+)0
.000
0.12
14.3
040.
900.
151-
, 1+
Indi
umIn
4911
4.81
815
6.6
2072
7.31
167
558.
3(3
+)-
0.33
823.
281
0.23
323
01.
6 ×
1 0 -
5 1+
, 3+
Iodi
neI
5312
6.90
447
113.
718
4.3
4.94
133
1008
.4(1
-)+
0.53
515
.52
0.21
441
.57
4.9
× 1
0 -5
1-, 1
+, 5
+, 7
+
Iridi
umIr
7719
2.21
724
6644
2822
.65
136
880
(4+
)+0.
926
41.1
20.
131
560
4 ×
1 0 -
7 3+
, 4+
, 5+
Iron
Fe26
55.8
4515
3828
617.
874
126
762.
5(3
+)-
0.04
13.8
10.
449
347
6.3
2+, 3
+
Kryp
ton
Kr36
83.7
98-
157.
36-
153.
220.
0037
493
112
1350
.8--
-1.
640.
248
9.08
1.5
× 1
0 -7
---
Lant
hanu
mLa
5713
8.90
5592
034
706.
146
187
538.
1(3
+)-
2.38
6.20
0.19
540
00.
0034
3+La
wre
nciu
mLr
103
[262
]16
27--
---
---
---
-(3
+)-
2--
---
---
---
-3+
Lead
Pb82
207.
232
7.46
1749
11.3
414
671
5.6
(2+
)-0.
1251
4.78
20.
130
179.
50.
001
2+, 4
+
Lith
ium
Li3
6.94
118
0.54
1342
0.53
515
252
0.2
(1+
)-3.
040
3.00
3.58
214
70.
0017
1+Lu
tetiu
mLu
7117
4.96
716
5234
029.
841
160
523.
5(3
+)-
2.3
220.
154
415
5.6
× 1
0 -5
3+M
agne
sium
Mg
1224
.305
650
1090
1.73
816
073
7.7
(2+
)-2.
356
8.48
1.02
312
82.
92+
Man
gane
seM
n25
54.9
3804
512
4620
617.
4712
771
7.3
(2+
)-1.
1812
.91
0.47
922
00.
112+
, 3+
, 4+
, 6+
, 7+
Mei
tner
ium
Mt
109
[268
]--
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
-M
ende
levi
umM
d10
1[2
58]
827
---
---
---
635
(3+
)-1.
7--
---
---
---
-2+
, 3+
Mer
cury
Hg80
200.
59-
38.8
335
6.73
13.6
151
1007
.1(2
+)+
0.85
352.
290.
140
59.1
16.
7 ×
1 0 -
61+
, 2+
Mol
ybde
num
Mo
4295
.94
2623
4639
10.2
813
968
4.3
(6+
)+0.
114
37.4
80.
251
600
1.1
× 1
0 -4
4+, 5
+, 6
+
Neo
dym
ium
Nd
6014
4.24
1024
3100
6.8
---
533.
1(3
+)-
2.32
7.14
0.19
028
50.
0033
2+,3
+
Neo
nN
e10
20.1
797
-24
8.59
-24
6.08
0.00
0899
971
2080
.7--
-0.
328
1.03
01.
71--
---
-N
eptu
nium
Np
93[2
37]
637
4000
20.4
5--
-60
4.5
(4+
)-1.
303.
200.
120
335
---
2+, 3
+, 4
+, 5
+, 6
+
Nic
kel
Ni
2858
.693
414
5529
138.
908
124
737.
1(2
+)-
0.25
717
.04
0.44
437
80.
009
2+, 3
+, 4
+
Nio
bium
Nb
4192
.906
3824
7747
448.
5714
665
2.1
(5+
)-0.
6530
0.26
569
00.
0017
4+, 5
+
Nitr
ogen
N7
14.0
067
-21
0.1
-19
5.79
0.00
1250
675
1402
.3(2
-)-
0.23
0.71
1.04
05.
570.
002
3-, 2
-,
1-, 1
+, 2
+,
3+, 4
+, 5
+
Nob
eliu
mN
o10
2[2
59]
827
---
---
---
642
(2+
)-2.
5--
---
---
---
-2+
, 3+
Osm
ium
Os
7619
0.23
3033
5012
22.6
113
584
0(4
+)+
0.68
757
.85
0.13
063
01.
8 ×
1 0 -
7 4+
, 6+
, 8+
Oxy
gen
08
15.9
994
-21
8.3
-18
2.9
0.00
1429
7313
13.9
(2-
)+1.
230.
440.
918
6.82
46.0
2-, 1
-
Palla
dium
Pd46
106.
4215
54.9
2963
12.0
2313
780
4.4
(2+
)+0.
915
16.7
40.
246
380
6.3
× 1
0 -7
2+, 4
+
Phos
phor
usP
1530
.973
462
44.2
277
1.82
311
010
11.8
(3-
)-0.
063
0.66
0.76
912
.40.
103-
, 3+
, 5+
Plat
inum
Pt78
195.
078
1768
.338
2521
.09
138
870
(4+
)+1.
1522
.17
0.13
349
03.
7 ×
1 0 -
7 2+
, 4+
Plut
oniu
mPu
94[2
44]
639.
432
3019
.816
---
584.
7(4
+)-
1.25
2.82
0.13
032
5--
-3+
, 4+
, 5+
, 6+
Polo
nium
Po84
[209
]25
496
29.
196
168
812.
1(4
+)+
0.73
13--
-10
0--
-2-
, 2+
, 4+
, 6+
*[ ]
indi
cate
s m
ass
of lo
nges
t-liv
ed is
otop
e
Major Oxidation States
Abundance in Earth’s Crust
Enthalpy of Vaporization
Specific Heat
Enthalpy of Fusion
Standard Reduction Potential (V)
(for elements from or to oxidation
state indicated)
First Ionization Energy (kJ/mol)
Atomic Radius (pm)
Density (g/ cm 3 ) (gases measured at STP)
Boiling Point (°C)
Melting Point (°C)
Atomic Mass* (amu)
Atomic Number
Symbol
Element
Reference Tables
Reference Tables 973
Tab
le R
-7 P
rop
ert
ies
of
Ele
men
ts (
con
tin
ued
)Po
tass
ium
K19
39.0
983
63.3
875
90.
856
227
418.
8(1
+)-
2.92
52.
330.
757
76.9
1.50
1+Pr
aseo
dym
ium
Pr59
140.
9076
593
532
906.
64--
-52
7(3
+)-
2.35
6.89
0.19
333
08.
7 ×
1 0 -
43+
, 4+
Prom
ethi
umPm
61[1
45]
1100
3000
7.26
4--
-54
0(3
+)-
2.29
7.7
---
290
---
3+Pr
otac
tiniu
mPa
9123
1.03
588
1568
---
15.3
7--
-56
8(5
+)-
1.19
12.3
4--
-47
0tr
ace
3+, 4
+, 5
+
Radi
umRa
88[2
26]
700
1737
522
050
9.3
(2+
)-2.
916
80.
095
125
trac
e2+
Rado
nRn
86[2
22]
-71
-61
.70.
0097
314
010
37--
-3
0.09
417
---
3+Rh
eniu
mRe
7518
6.20
731
8655
9621
.02
137
760
(7+
)+0.
415
60.4
30.
137
705
2.6
× 1
0 -7
3+, 4
+,
6+, 7
+
Rhod
ium
Rh45
102.
9055
1964
3695
12.4
513
471
9.7
(3+
)+0.
7626
.59
0.24
349
57
× 1
0 -8
3+, 4
+, 5
+
Roen
tgen
ium
Rg11
1[2
72]
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
Rubi
dium
Rb37
85.4
678
39.3
168
81.
532
248
403
(1+
)-2.
924
2.19
0.36
372
0.00
61+
Ruth
eniu
mRu
4410
1.07
2334
4150
12.3
713
471
0.2
(4+
)+0.
6838
.59
0.23
858
01
× 1
0 -7
2+, 3
+,
4+, 5
+
Ruth
erfo
rdiu
mRf
104
[261
]--
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
-Sa
mar
ium
Sm62
150.
3610
7218
037.
353
---
544.
5(3
+)-
2.3
8.62
0.19
717
56
× 1
0 -4
2+, 3
+
Scan
dium
Sc21
44.9
5591
1541
2830
2.98
516
263
3.1
(3+
)-2.
0314
.10.
568
318
0.00
263+
Seab
orgi
umSg
106
[266
]--
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
-Se
leni
umSe
3478
.96
221
685
4.81
911
994
1(1
-)-
0.11
6.69
0.32
195
.48
5 ×
1 0 -
6 2-
, 2+
, 4+
, 6+
Silic
onSi
1428
.058
814
1429
002.
3311
878
6.5
(4-
)-0.
143
50.2
10.
712
359
27.0
2+, 4
+
Silv
erAg
4710
7.86
8296
1.78
2162
10.4
914
473
1(1
+)+
0.79
9111
.28
0.23
525
58
× 1
0 -6
1+So
dium
Na
1122
.989
769
97.7
288
30.
968
186
495.
8(1
+)-
2.71
32.
601.
228
97.7
2.3
1+St
ront
ium
Sr38
87.6
277
713
822.
6321
554
9.5
(2+
)-2.
897.
430.
306
137
0.03
62+
Sulfu
rS
1632
.065
115.
244
4.7
1.96
103
999.
6(2
-)-
0.14
1.72
0.70
845
0.04
22-
, 4+
, 6+
Tant
alum
Ta73
180.
9479
3017
5458
16.6
514
676
1(5
+)-
0.81
36.5
70.
140
735
1.7
× 1
0 -4
4+, 5
+
Tech
netiu
mTc
43[9
8]21
5742
6511
.513
670
2(6
+)+
0.83
33.2
90.
240
550
---
2+, 4
+,
6+, 7
+
Tellu
rium
Te52
127.
6044
9.51
988
6.24
142
869.
3(2
-)-
1.14
17.4
90.
202
114.
11
× 1
0 -7
2-, 2
+,
4+, 6
+
Terb
ium
Tb65
158.
9253
413
5632
308.
219
---
565.
8(3
+)-
2.31
10.1
50.
182
295
1 ×
1 0 -
4 3+
, 4+
Thal
lium
Tl81
204.
3822
304
1473
11.8
517
058
9.4
(1+
)-0.
3363
4.14
0.12
916
55.
3 ×
1 0 -
51+
, 3+
Thor
ium
Th90
232.
0381
1842
4820
11.7
2--
-58
7(4
+)-
1.83
13.8
10.
118
530
6 ×
1 0 -
4 4+
Thul
ium
Tm69
168.
9342
115
4519
509.
321
---
596.
7(3
+)-
2.32
16.8
40.
160
250
5 ×
1 0 -
5 --
-Ti
nSn
5011
8.71
023
1.93
2602
7.31
140
708.
6(4
+)+
0.15
7.17
30.
227
290
2.2
× 1
0 -4
2+, 4
+
Tita
nium
Ti22
47.8
6716
6832
874.
507
147
658.
8(4
+)-
0.86
14.1
50.
523
425
0.66
2+, 3
+, 4
+
Tung
sten
W74
183.
8434
2255
5519
.25
139
770
(6+
)-0.
0952
.31
0.13
280
01.
1 ×
1 0 -
4 4+
, 5+
, 6+
Unu
nbiu
mU
ub11
2[2
85]
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
Unu
nhex
ium
Uuh
116
[291
]--
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
-U
nuno
ctiu
mU
uo11
8[2
94]
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
Unu
npen
tium
Uup
115
[288
]--
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
-U
nunq
uadi
umU
uq11
4[2
89]
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
Unu
ntriu
mU
ut11
3[2
84]
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
---
Ura
nium
U92
238.
0289
111
32.2
3927
19.0
5--
-59
7.6
(4+
)-1.
389.
140.
116
420
1.8
× 1
0 -4
3+, 4
+,
5+, 6
+
Vana
dium
V23
50.9
415
1910
3407
6.11
134
650.
9(5
+)-
0.23
621
.50.
489
453
0.01
92+
, 3+
, 4+
, 5+
Xeno
nXe
5413
1.29
3-
111.
7-
108
0.00
5897
113
111
70.4
(6+
)+2.
122.
270.
158
12.5
7tr
ace
---
Ytte
rbiu
mYb
7017
3.04
824
1196
6.57
---
603.
4(3
+)-
2.22
7.66
0.15
516
02.
8 ×
1 0 -
4 2+
, 3+
Yttr
ium
Y39
88.9
0585
1526
3336
4.47
218
060
0(3
+)-
2.37
11.4
0.29
838
00.
0029
3+Zi
ncZn
3065
.409
419.
5390
77.
1413
490
6.4
(2+
)-0.
7926
7.06
80.
388
119
0.00
792+
Zirc
oniu
mZr
4091
.224
1855
4409
6.51
116
064
0.1
(4+
)-1.
5521
.00
0.27
858
00.
013
4+
*[ ]
indi
cate
s m
ass
of lo
nges
t-liv
ed is
otop
e
974 Reference Tables
Reference Tables
Table R-8 Solubility GuidelinesA substance is considered soluble if more than three grams of the substance dissolves in 100 mL of water. The more common rules are listed below.1. All common salts of the group 1 elements and ammonium ions are soluble.2. All common acetates and nitrates are soluble.3. All binary compounds of group 17 elements (other than F) with metals are soluble except those of silver, mercury(I),
and lead.4. All sulfates are soluble except those of barium, strontium, lead, calcium, silver, and mercury(I).5. Except for those in Rule 1, carbonates, hydroxides, oxides, sulfides, and phoshates are insoluble.
Solubility of Compounds in Water
Aluminum S S — S S — I S S I S I S D
Ammonium S S S S S S S S S — S S S S
Barium S S P S S I S S S S S I I D
Calcium S S P S S S S S S P S P P P
Copper(II) S S — S S — I — S I S I S I
Hydrogen S S — S S — — S S S S S S S
Iron(II) — S P S S — I S S I S I S I
Iron(III) — S — S S I I S S I S P P D
Lead(II) S S — S S I P P S P S I P I
Lithium S S S S S ? S S S S S P S S
Magnesium S S P S S S I S S I S P S D
Manganese(II) S S P S S — I S S I S P S I
Mercury(I) P I I S I P — I S I S I P I
Mercury(II) S S — S S P I P S P S I D I
Potassium S S S S S S S S S S S S S S
Silver P I I S I P — I S P S I P I
Sodium S S S S S S S S S D S S S S
Strontium S S P S S P S S S S S I P S
Tin(II) D S — S S O S D I S I S I
Tin(IV) S S — — S S I D — I S — S I
Zinc S S P S S P P S S P S I S I
S – soluble P – partially soluble I – insoluble D – decomposes
Hydr
oxid
eIo
dide
Nitr
ate
Oxi
de
Perc
hlor
ate
Phos
phat
eSu
lfate
Sufid
e
Chro
mat
e
Chlo
ride
Chlo
rate
Carb
onat
e
Brom
ide
Acet
ate
Reference Tables
Reference Tables 975
Table R-9 Specific Heat Values (J/g·K)Substance c Substance c Substance c
AI F 3 0.8948BaTi O 3 0.79418BeO 1.020Ca C 2 0.9785CaS O 4 0.7320CC l 4 0.85651C H 3 OH 2.55C H 2 OHC H 2 OH 2.413C H 3 C H 2 OH 2.4194CdO 0.3382CuS O 4 ·5 H 2 O 1.12
F e 3 C 0.5898FeW O 4 0.37735HI 0.22795 K 2 C O 3 0.82797MgC O 3 0.8957Mg(OH ) 2 1.321MgS O 4 0.8015MnS 0.5742N a 2 C O 3 1.0595NaF 1.116
NaV O 3 1.540Ni(CO ) 4 1.198Pb l 2 0.1678S F 6 0.6660SiC 0.6699Si O 2 0.7395SrC l 2 0.4769T b 2 O 3 0.3168TiC l 4 0.76535 Y 2 O 3 0.45397
Table R-10 Molal Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation Constants
K fp Freezing Point K bp Boiling PointSubstance (C°kg/mol) (°C) (C°kg/mol) (°C)
A cetic acid 3.90 16.66 3.22 117.90Benzene 5.12 5.533 2.53 80.100Camphor 37.7 178.75 5.611 207.42Cyclohexane 20.0 6.54 2.75 80.725Cyclohexanol 39.3 25.15 --- ---Nitrobenzene 6.852 5.76 5.24 210.8Phenol 7.40 40.90 3.60 181.839Water 1.86 0.000 0.512 100.000
Table R-11 Heat of Formation Values∆ H f
(kJ/mol) (concentration of aqueous solutions is 1M)
Substance ∆H f
Ag(s) 0AgCl(s) -127.0AgCN(s) 146.0A l 2 O 3 -1675.7BaC l 2 (aq) -855.0BaS O 4 -1473.2BeO(s) -609.4BiC l 3 (s) -379.1B i 2 S 3 (s) -143.1B r 2 0CC l 4 (I) -128.2C H 4 (g) -74.6 C 2 H 2 (g) 227.4 C 2 H 4 (g) 52.4 C 2 H 6 (g) -84.0CO(g) -110.5C O 2 (g) -393.5C S 2 (I) 89.0Ca(s) 0CaC O 3 (s) -1206.9CaO(s) -634.9Ca(OH ) 2 (s) -985.2C l 2 (g) 0C o 3 O 4 (s) -891.0CoO(s) -237.9C r 2 O 3 (s) -1139.7
Substance ∆H f
CsCl(s) -443.0C s 2 S O 4 (s) -1443.0Cul(s) -67.8CuS(s) -53.1C u 2 S(s) -79.5CuS O 4 (s) -771.4 F 2 (g) 0FeC l 3 (s) -399.49FeO(s) -272.0FeS(s) -100.0F e 2 O 3 (s) -824.2F e 3 O 4 (s) -1118.4H(g) 218.0 H 2 (g) 0HBr(g) -36.3HCl(g) -92.3HCl(aq) -167.159HCN(aq) 108.9HCHO -108.6HCOOH -425.0HF(g) -273.3Hl(g) 26.5 H 2 O(I) -285.8 H 2 O(g) -241.8 H 2 O 2 (I) -187.8 H 3 P O 2 (I) -595.4
Substance ∆H f
H 3 P O 4 (aq) -1271.7 H 2 S(g) -20.6 H 2 S O 3 (aq) -608.8 H 2 S O 4 (aq) -814.0HgC l 2 (s) -224.3H g 2 C l 2 (s) -265.4H g 2 S O 4 (s) -743.1 l 2 (s) 0K(s) 0KBr(s) -393.8KMn O 4 (s) -837.2KOH -424.6LiBr(s) -351.2LiOH(s) -487.5Mn(s) 0MnC l 2 (aq) -555.0Mn(N O 3 ) 2 (aq) -635.5Mn O 2 (s) -520.0MnS(s) -214.2 N 2 (g) 0N H 3 (g) -45.9N H 4 Br(s) -270.8NO(g) 91.3N O 2 (g) 33.2 N 2 O(g) 81.6Na(s) 0
Substance ∆H f
NaBr(s) -361.1NaCl(s) -411.2NaHC O 3 (s) -950.8NaN O 3 (s) -467.9NaOH(s) -425.8N a 2 C O 3 (s) -1130.7N a 2 S(s) -364.8N a 2 S O 4 (s) -1387.1N H 4 Cl(s) -314.4 O 2 (g) 0 P 4 O 6 (s) -1640.1 P 4 O 10 (s) -2984.0PbB r 2 (s) -278.7PbC l 2 (s) -359.4S F 6 (g) -1220.5S O 2 (g) -296.8S O 3 (g) -454.5SrO(s) -592.0Ti O 2 (s) -944.0Tll(s) -123.8UC l 4 (s) -1019.2UC l 6 (s) -1092.0Zn(s) 0ZnC l 2 (aq) -415.1ZnO(s) -350.5ZnS O 4 (s) -982.8
976 Supplemental Practice Problems
Chapter 2Section 2.1 1. The density of a substance is 48 g/mL. What is the volume of a sample that
is 19.2 g?
2. A 2.00-mL sample of Substance A has a density of 18.4 g/mL, and a 5.00-mL sample of Substance B has a density of 35.5 g/mL. Do you have an equal mass of Substances A and B?
Section 2.2 3. Express the following quantities in scientific notation.
a. 5,453,000 m e. 34,800 s
b. 300.8 kg f. 332,080,000 cm
c. 0.00536 ng g. 0.0002383 ms
d. 0.0120325 km h. 0.3048 mL
4. Solve the following problems. Express your answers in scientific notation.
a. 3 × 1 0 2 m + 5 × 1 0 2 m
b. 8 × 1 0 −5 m + 4 × 1 0 −5 m
c. 6.0 × 1 0 5 m + 2.38 × 1 0 6 m
d. 2.3 × 1 0 -3 L + 5.78 × 1 0 -2 L
e. 2.56 × 1 0 2 g - 1.48 × 1 0 2 g
f. 5.34 × 1 0 -3 L - 3.98 × 1 0 -3 L
g. 7.623 × 1 0 5 nm - 8.32 × 1 0 4 nm
h. 9.052 × 1 0 -2 s - 3.61 × 1 0 -3 s
5. Solve the following problems. Express your answers in scientific notation.
a. (8 × 1 0 3 m) × (1 × 1 0 5 m)
b. (4 × 1 0 2 m) × (2 × 1 0 4 m)
c. (5 × 1 0 -3 m) × (3 × 1 0 4 m)
d. (3 × 1 0 -4 m) × (3 × 1 0 -2 m)
e. (8 × 1 0 4 g) ÷ (4 × 1 0 3 mL)
f. (6 × 1 0 -3 g) ÷ (2 × 1 0 -1 mL)
g. (1.8 × 1 0 -2 g) ÷ (9 × 1 0 -5 mL)
h. (4 × 1 0 -4 g) ÷ (1 × 1 0 3 mL)
6. Perform the following conversions.
a. 96 kg to g e. 188 dL to L
b. 155 mg to g f. 3600 m to km
c. 15 cg to kg g. 24 g to pg
d. 584 µs to s h. 85 cm to nm
7. How many minutes are there in 5 days?
8. A car is traveling at 118 km/h. What is its speed in Mm/h?
Section 2.3 9. Three measurements of 34.5 m, 38.4 m, and 35.3 m are taken. If the accepted value of the measurement is 36.7 m, what is the percent error for each measurement?
10. Three measurements of 12.3 mL, 12.5 mL, and 13.1 mL are taken. The accepted value for each measurement is 12.8 mL. Calculate the percent error for each measurement.
Supplemental Practice Problems
Supplemental Practice Problems 977
11. Determine the number of significant figures in each measurement.
a. 340,438 g e. 1.040 s
b. 87,000 ms f. 0.0483 m
c. 4080 kg g. 0.2080 mL
d. 961,083,110 m h. 0.0000481 g
12. Write the following in three significant figures.
a. 0.0030850 km c. 5808 mL
b. 3.0823 g d. 34.654 mg
13. Write the answers in scientific notation.
a. 0.005832 g c. 0.0005800 km
b. 386,808 ns d. 2086 L
14. Use rounding rules when you complete the following.
a. 34.3 m + 35.8 m + 33.7 m
b. 0.056 kg + 0.0783 kg + 0.0323 kg
c. 309.1 mL + 158.02 mL + 238.1 mL
d. 1.03 mg + 2.58 mg + 4.385 mg
e. 8.376 km - 6.153 km
f. 34.24 s - 12.4 s
g. 804.9 dm - 342.0 dm
h. 6.38 × 1 0 2 m - 1.57 × 1 0 2 m
15. Complete the following calculations. Round off the answers to the correct number of significant figures.
a. 34.3 cm × 12 cm d. 45.5 g ÷ 15.5 mL
b. 0.054 mm × 0.3804 mm e. 35.43 g ÷ 24.84 mL
c. 45.1 km × 13.4 km f. 0.0482 g ÷ 0.003146 mL
Chapter 3Section 3.2 1. A 3.5-kg iron shovel is left outside through the winter. The shovel, now
orange with rust, is rediscovered in the spring. Its mass is 3.7 kg. How much oxygen combined with the iron?
2. When 5.0 g of tin reacts with hydrochloric acid, the mass of the products, tin chloride and hydrogen, totals 8.1 g. How many grams of hydrochloric acid were used?
Section 3.4 3. A compound is analyzed and found to be 50.0% sulfur and 50.0% oxygen. If the total amount of the sulfur oxide compound is 12.5 g, how many grams of sulfur are there?
4. Two unknown compounds are analyzed. Compound I contains 5.63 g of tin and 3.37 g of chlorine, while Compound II contains 2.5 g of tin and 2.98 g of chlorine. Are the compounds the same?
Chapter 4Section 4.3 1. How many protons and electrons are in each of the following atoms?
a. gallium d. calcium
b. silicon e. molybdenum
c. cesium f. titanium
978 Supplemental Practice Problems
Supplemental Practice Problems
2. What is the atomic number of each of the following elements?
a. an atom that contains 37 electrons
b. an atom that contains 72 protons
c. an atom that contains 1 electron
d. an atom that contains 85 protons
3. Use the periodic table to write the name and the symbol for each element identified in Question 2.
4. An isotope of copper contains 29 electrons, 29 protons, and 36 neutrons. What is the mass number of this isotope?
5. An isotope of uranium contains 92 electrons and 144 neutrons. What is the mass number of this isotope?
6. Use the periodic table to write the symbols for each of the following elements. Then, determine the number of electrons, protons, and neutrons each contains.
a. yttrium-88 d. bromine-79
b. arsenic-75 e. gold-197
c. xenon-129 f. helium-4
7. An element has two naturally occurring isotopes: 14 X and 15 X. 14 X has a mass of 14.00307 amu and a relative abundance of 99.63%. 15 X has a mass of 15.00011 amu and a relative abundance of 0.37%. Identify the unknown element.
8. Silver has two naturally occurring isotopes. Ag-107 has an abundance of 51.82% and a mass of 106.9 amu. Ag-109 has a relative abundance of 48.18% and a mass of 108.9 amu. Calculate the atomic mass of silver.
Chapter 5Section 5.1 1. What is the frequency of an electromagnetic wave that has a wavelength of
4.55 × 1 0 −3 m? 1.00 × 1 0 −12 m?
2. Calculate the wavelength of an electromagnetic wave with a frequency of 8.68 × 1 0 16 Hz; 5.0 × 1 0 14 Hz; and 1.00 × 1 0 6 Hz.
3. What is the energy of a quantum of visible light having a frequency of 5.45 × 1 0 14 s −1 ?
4. An X ray has a frequency of 1.28 × 1 0 18 s −1 . What is the energy of a quan-tum of the X ray?
Section 5.3 5. Write the ground-state electron configuration for the following.
a. nickel c. boron
b. cesium d. krypton
6. What element has the following ground-state electron configuration [He]2 s 2 ? [Xe]6 s 2 4 f 14 5 d 10 6 p 1 ?
7. Which element in period 4 has four electrons in its electron-dot structure?
8. Which element in period 2 has six electrons in its electron-dot structure?
9. Draw the electron-dot structure for each element in Question 5.
Supplemental Practice Problems
Supplemental Practice Problems 979
Chapter 6Section 6.2 1. Identify the group, period, and block of an atom with the following elec-
tron configurations.
a. [He]2 s 2 2 p 1 b. [Kr]5 s 2 4 d 5 c. [Xe]6 s 2 5 f 14 6 d 5
2. Write the electron configuration for the element fitting each of the following descriptions.
a. a noble gas in the first period
b. a group 4 element in the fifth period
c. a group 14 element in the sixth period
d. a group 1 element in the seventh period
Section 6.3 3. Using the periodic table, rank each group of elements in order of increasing size.
a. calcium, magnesium, and strontium
b. oxygen, lithium, and fluorine
c. fluorine, cesium, and calcium
d. selenium, chlorine, and tellurium
e. iodine, krypton, and beryllium
Chapter 7Section 7.2 1. Explain the formation of an ionic compound from zinc and chlorine.
2. Explain the formation of an ionic compound from barium and nitrogen.
Section 7.3 3. Write the chemical formula of an ionic compound composed of the follow-ing pairs of ions.
a. calcium and arsenide
b. iron(III) and chloride
c. magnesium and sulfide
d. barium and iodide
e. gallium and phosphide
4. Determine the formula for ionic compounds composed of the following ions.
a. copper(II) and acetate c. calcium and hydroxide
b. ammonium and phosphate d. gold(III) and cyanide
5. Name the following compounds.
a. Co(OH ) 2 c. N a 3 P O 4 e. Sr I 2
b. Ca(Cl O 3 ) 2 d. K 2 C r 2 O 7 f. Hg F 2
Chapter 8Section 8.1 1. Draw the Lewis structure for each of the following molecules.
a. CC l 2 H 2 b. HF c. PC l 3 d. C H 4
Section 8.2 2. Name the following binary compounds.
a. S 4 N 2 c. S F 6 e. Si O 2
b. OC l 2 d. NO f. I F 7
3. Name the following acids: H 3 P O 4 , HBr, HN O 3 .
980 Supplemental Practice Problems
Supplemental Practice Problems
Section 8.3 4. Draw the Lewis structure for each of the following.
a. CO c. N 2 O e. Si O 2
b. C H 2 O d. OC l 2 f. AlB r 3
5. Draw the Lewis resonance structure for C O 3 2− .
6. Draw the Lewis resonance structure for C H 3 C O 2 − .
7. Draw the Lewis structure for NO and I F 4 − .
Section 8.4 8. Determine the molecular geometry, bond angles, and hybrid of each molecule in Question 4.
Section 8.5 9. Determine whether each of the following molecules is polar or nonpolar.
a. C H 2 O b. B F 3 c. Si H 4 d. H 2 S
Chapter 9Section 9.1 Write skeleton equations for the following reactions.
1. Solid barium and oxygen gas react to produce solid barium oxide.
2. Solid iron and aqueous hydrogen sulfate react to produce aqueous iron(III) sulfate and gaseous hydrogen.
Write balanced chemical equations for the following reactions.
3. Liquid bromine reacts with solid phosphorus ( P 4 ) to produce solid diphosphorus pentabromide.
4. Aqueous lead(II) nitrate reacts with aqueous potassium iodide to produce solid lead(II) iodide and aqueous potassium nitrate.
5. Solid carbon reacts with gaseous fluorine to produce gaseous carbon tetrafluoride.
6. Aqueous carbonic acid reacts to produce liquid water and gaseous carbon dioxide.
7. Gaseous hydrogen chloride reacts with gaseous ammonia to produce solid ammonium chloride.
8. Solid copper(II) sulfide reacts with aqueous nitric acid to produce aqueous copper(II) sulfate, liquid water, and nitrogen dioxide gas.
Section 9.2 Classify each of the following reactions into as many types as possible.
9. 2Mo(s) + 3 O 2 (g) → 2Mo O 3 (s)
10. N 2 H 4 (l) + 3 O 2 (g) → 2N O 2 (g) + 2 H 2 O(l)
Write balanced chemical equations for the following decomposition reactions.
11. Aqueous hydrogen chlorite decomposes to produce water and gaseous chlorine(III) oxide.
12. Calcium carbonate(s) decomposes to produce calcium oxide(s) and carbon dioxide(g).
Use the activity series to predict whether each of the following single-replacement reactions will occur.
13. Al(s) + FeC l 3 (aq) → AlC l 3 (aq) + Fe(s)
Supplemental Practice Problems
Supplemental Practice Problems 981
14. B r 2 (l) + 2LiI(aq) → 2LiBr(aq) + I 2 (aq)
15. Cu(s) + MgS O 4 (aq) → Mg(s) + CuS O 4 (aq)
Write chemical equations for the following chemical reactions.
16. Bismuth(III) nitrate(aq) reacts with sodium sulfide(aq), yielding bismuth(III) sulfide(s) plus sodium nitrate(aq).
17. Magnesium chloride(aq) reacts with potassium carbonate(aq), yielding magnesium carbonate(s) plus potassium chloride(aq).
Section 9.3 Write net ionic equations for the following reactions.
18. Aqueous solutions of barium chloride and sodium fluoride are mixed to form a precipitate of barium fluoride.
19. Aqueous solutions of copper(I) nitrate and potassium sulfide are mixed to form insoluble copper(I) sulfide.
20. Hydrobromic acid reacts with aqueous lithium hydroxide.
21. Perchloric acid reacts with aqueous rubidium hydroxide.
22. Nitric acid reacts with aqueous sodium carbonate.
23. Hydrochloric acid reacts with aqueous lithium cyanide.
Chapter 10Section 10.1 1. Determine the number of atoms in 3.75 mol of Fe.
2. Calculate the number of formula units in 12.5 mol of CaC O 3 .
3. How many moles of CaC l 2 contain 1.26 × 1 0 24 formula units of CaC l 2 ?
4. How many moles of Ag contain 4.59 × 1 0 25 atoms of Ag?
Section 10.2 5. Determine the mass in grams of 0.0458 mol of sulfur.
6. Calculate the mass in grams of 2.56 × 1 0 −3 mol of iron.
7. Determine the mass in grams of 125 mol of neon.
8. How many moles of titanium are contained in 71.4 g?
9. How many moles of lead are equivalent to 9.51 × 1 0 3 g of Pb?
10. Determine the number of moles of arsenic in 1.90 g of As.
11. Determine the number of atoms in 4.56 × 1 0 −2 g of sodium.
12. How many atoms of gallium are in 2.85 × 1 0 3 g of gallium?
13. Determine the mass in grams of 5.65 × 1 0 24 atoms of Se.
14. What is the mass in grams of 3.75 × 1 0 21 atoms of Li?
Section 10.3 15. How many moles of each element are in 0.0250 mol of K 2 Cr O 4 ?
16. How many moles of ammonium ions are in 4.50 mol of (N H 4 ) 2 C O 3 ?
17. Determine the molar mass of silver nitrate.
18. Calculate the molar mass of acetic acid (C H 3 COOH).
982 Supplemental Practice Problems
Supplemental Practice Problems
19. Determine the mass of 8.57 mol of sodium dichromate (N a 2 C r 2 O 7 ).
20. Calculate the mass of 42.5 mol of potassium cyanide.
21. Determine the number of moles present in 456 g of Cu(N O 3 ) 2 .
22. Calculate the number of moles in 5.67 g of potassium hydroxide.
23. Calculate the number of each atom in 40.0 g of methanol (C H 3 OH).
24. What mass of sodium hydroxide contains 4.58 × 1 0 23 formula units?
Section 10.4 25. What is the percent by mass of each element in sucrose ( C 12 H 22 O 11 )?
26. Which compound has a greater percent by mass of chromium, K 2 Cr O 4 or K 2 C r 2 O 7 ?
27. Analysis of a compound indicates the percent composition 42.07% Na, 18.89% P, and 39.04% O. Determine its empirical formula.
28. A colorless liquid was found to contain 39.12% C, 8.76% H, and 52.12% O. Determine the empirical formula of the substance.
29. Analysis of a compound used in cosmetics reveals the compound contains 26.76% C, 2.21% H, 71.17% O and has a molar mass of 90.04 g/mol. Determine the molecular formula for this substance.
30. Eucalyptus leaves are the food source for panda bears. Eucalyptol is an oil found in these leaves. Analysis of eucalyptol indicates it has a molar mass of 154 g/mol and contains 77.87% C, 11.76% H, and 10.37% O. Determine the molecular formula of eucalyptol.
31. Beryl is a hard mineral that occurs in a variety of colors. A 50.0-g sample of beryl contains 2.52 g Be, 5.01 g Al, 15.68 g Si, and 26.79 g O. Determine its empirical formula.
32. Analysis of a 15.0-g sample of a compound used to leach gold from low-grade ores is 7.03 g Na, 3.68 g C, and 4.29 g N. Determine the empirical formula for this substance.
Section 10.5 33. Analysis of a hydrate of iron(III) chloride revealed that in a 10.00-g sample of the hydrate, 6.00 g is anhydrous iron(III) chloride and 4.00 g is water. Determine the formula and name of the hydrate.
34. When 25.00 g of a hydrate of nickel(II) chloride was heated, 11.37 g of water was released. Determine the name and formula of the hydrate.
Chapter 11Section 11.1 Interpret the following balanced chemical equations in terms of particles,
moles, and mass.
1. Mg + 2HCl → MgC l 2 + H 2
2. 2Al + 3CuS O 4 → A l 2 (S O 4 ) 3 + 3Cu
3. Cu(N O 3 ) 2 + 2KOH → Cu(OH ) 2 + 2KN O 3
4. Write and balance the equation for the decomposition of aluminum carbonate. Determine the possible mole ratios.
Supplemental Practice Problems
Supplemental Practice Problems 983
5. Write and balance the equation for the formation of magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen from magnesium and water. Determine the possible mole ratios.
Section 11.2 6. Some antacid tablets contain aluminum hydroxide. The aluminum hydroxide reacts with stomach acid according to the equation: Al(OH ) 3 + 3HCl → AlC l 3 + 3 H 2 O. Determine the moles of acid neutralized if a tablet contains 0.200 mol of Al(OH ) 3 .
7. Chromium reacts with oxygen according to the equation: 4Cr + 3 O 2 → 2C r 2 O 3 . Determine the moles of chromium(III) oxide produced when 4.58 mol of chromium is allowed to react.
8. Space vehicles use solid lithium hydroxide to remove exhaled carbon dioxide according to the equation: 2LiOH + C O 2 → L i 2 C O 3 + H 2 O. Determine the mass of carbon dioxide removed if the space vehicle carries 42.0 mol of LiOH.
9. Some of the sulfur dioxide released into the atmosphere is converted to sulfuric acid according to the equation: 2S O 2 + 2 H 2 O + O 2 → 2 H 2 S O 4 . Determine the mass of sulfuric acid formed from 3.20 mol of sulfur dioxide.
10. How many grams of carbon dioxide are produced when 2.50 g of sodium hydrogen carbonate reacts with excess citric acid according to the equa-tion: 3NaHC O 3 + H 3 C 6 H 5 O 7 → N a 3 C 6 H 5 O 7 + 3C O 2 + 3 H 2 O?
11. Aspirin ( C 9 H 8 O 4 ) is produced when salicylic acid ( C 7 H 6 O 3 ) reacts with acetic anhydride ( C 4 H 6 O 3 ) according to the equation: C 7 H 6 O 3 + C 4 H 6 O 3 → C 9 H 8 O 4 + H C 2 H 3 O 2 . Determine the mass of aspi-rin produced when 150.0 g of salicylic acid reacts with an excess of acetic anhydride.
Section 11.3 12. Chlorine reacts with benzene to produce chlorobenzene and hydrogen chloride, C l 2 + C 6 H 6 → C 6 H 5 Cl + HCl. Determine the limiting reactant if 45.0 g of benzene reacts with 45.0 g of chlorine, the mass of the excess reactant after the reaction is complete, and the mass of chlorobenzene produced.
13. Nickel reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce nickel(II) chloride and hydrogen according to the equation: Ni + 2HCl → NiC l 2 + H 2 . If 5.00 g of Ni and 2.50 g of HCl react, determine the limiting reactant, the mass of the excess reactant after the reaction is complete, and the mass of nickel(II) chloride produced.
Section 11.4 14. Tin(IV) iodide is prepared by reacting tin with iodine. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction. Determine the theoretical yield if a 5.00-g sample of tin reacts in an excess of iodine. Determine the percent yield if 25.0 g of Sn I 4 was recovered.
15. Gold is extracted from gold-bearing rock by adding sodium cyanide in the presence of oxygen and water, according to the reaction: 4Au(s) + 8NaCN(aq) + O 2 (g) + 2 H 2 O(l) → 4NaAu(CN ) 2 (aq) + NaOH(aq). Determine the theoretical yield of NaAu(CN ) 2 if 1000.0 g of gold-bearing rock is used, which contains 3.00% gold by mass. Determine the percent yield of NaAu(CN ) 2 if 38.790 g of NaAu(CN ) 2 is recovered.
984 Supplemental Practice Problems
Supplemental Practice Problems
Chapter 12Section 12.1 1. Calculate the ratio of effusion rates for methane (C H 4 ) and nitrogen.
2. Calculate the molar mass of butane. Butane’s rate of diffusion is 3.8 times slower than that of helium.
3. What is the total pressure in a canister that contains oxygen gas at a partial pressure of 804 mm Hg, nitrogen at a partial pressure of 220 mm Hg, and hydrogen at a partial pressure of 445 mm Hg?
4. Calculate the partial pressure of neon in a flask that has a total pressure of 1.87 atm. The flask contains krypton at a partial pressure of 0.77 atm and helium at a partial pressure of 0.62 atm.
Chapter 13Section 13.1 1. The pressure of air in a 2.25-L container is 1.20 atm. What is the new
pressure if the sample is transferred to a 6.50-L container? Temperature is constant.
2. The volume of a sample of hydrogen gas at 0.997 atm is 5.00 L. What will be the new volume if the pressure is decreased to 0.977 atm? Temperature is constant.
3. A gas at 55.0°C occupies a volume of 3.60 L. What volume will it occupy at 30.0°C? Pressure is constant.
4. The volume of a gas is 0.668 L at 66.8°C. At what Celsius temperature will the gas have a volume of 0.942 L, assuming pressure remains constant?
5. The pressure in a bicycle tire is 1.34 atm at 33.0°C. At what temperature will the pressure inside the tire be 1.60 atm? Volume is constant.
6. If a sample of oxygen gas has a pressure of 810 torr at 298 K, what will be its pressure if its temperature is raised to 330 K?
7. Air in a tightly sealed bottle has a pressure of 0.978 atm at 25.5°C. What will be its pressure if the temperature is raised to 46.0°C?
8. Hydrogen gas at a temperature of 22.0°C that is confined in a 5.00-L cylinder exerts a pressure of 4.20 atm. If the gas is released into a 10.0-L reaction vessel at a temperature of 33.6°C, what will be the pressure inside the reaction vessel?
9. A sample of neon gas at a pressure of 1.08 atm fills a flask with a volume of 250 mL at a temperature of 24.0°C. If the gas is transferred to another flask at 37.2°C and a pressure of 2.25 atm, what is the volume of the new flask?
Section 13.2 10. What volume of beaker contains exactly 2.23 × 1 0 -2 mol of nitrogen gas at STP?
11. How many moles of air are in a 6.06-L tire at STP?
12. How many moles of oxygen are in a 5.5-L canister at STP?
13. What mass of helium is in a 2.00-L balloon at STP?
14. What volume will 2.3 kg of nitrogen gas occupy at STP?
Supplemental Practice Problems
Supplemental Practice Problems 985
15. Calculate the number of moles of gas that occupy a 3.45-L container at a pressure of 150 kPa and a temperature of 45.6°C.
16. What is the pressure in torr that a 0.44-g sample of carbon dioxide gas will exert at a temperature of 46.2°C when it occupies a volume of 5.00 L?
17. What is the molar mass of a gas that has a density of 1.02 g/L at 0.990 atm pressure and 37°C?
18. Calculate the grams of oxygen gas present in a 2.50-L sample kept at 1.66 atm pressure and a temperature of 10.0°C.
Section 13.3 19. What volume of oxygen gas is needed to completely combust 0.202 L of butane gas ( C 4 H 10 )?
20. Determine the volume of methane gas (C H 4 ) needed to react completely with 0.660 L of O 2 gas to form methanol (C H 3 OH).
21. Calculate the mass of hydrogen peroxide needed to obtain 0.460 L of oxygen gas at STP. 2 H 2 O 2 (aq) → 2 H 2 O(l) + O 2 (g)
22. When potassium chlorate is heated in the presence of a catalyst such as manganese dioxide, it decomposes to form solid potassium chloride and oxygen gas: 2KCl O 3 (s) → 2KCl(s) + 3 O 2 (g). How many liters of oxygen will be produced at STP if 1.25 kg of potassium chlorate decomposes completely?
Chapter 14Section 14.2 1. What is the percent by mass of a sample of ocean water that is found to
contain 1.36 g of magnesium ions per 1000 g?
2. What is the percent by mass of iced tea containing 0.75 g of aspartame in 250 g of water?
3. A bottle of hydrogen peroxide is labeled 3%. If you pour out 50 mL of hydrogen peroxide solution, what volume is hydrogen peroxide?
4. If 50 mL of pure acetone is mixed with 450 mL of water, what is the per-cent volume?
5. Calculate the molarity of 1270 g of K 3 P O 4 in 4.0 L aqueous solution.
6. What is the molarity of 90.0 g of N H 4 Cl in 2.25 L aqueous solution?
7. Which is more concentrated, 25 g of NaCl dissolved in 500 mL of water or a 10% solution of NaCl (percent by mass)?
8. Calculate the mass of NaOH required to prepare a 0.343M solution dissolved in 2500 mL of water.
9. Calculate the volume required to dissolve 11.2 g of CuS O 4 to prepare a 0.140M solution.
10. How would you prepare 500 mL of a solution that has a new concentration of 4.5M if the stock solution is 11.6M?
11. Caustic soda is 19.1M NaOH and is diluted for household use. What is the household concentration if 10 mL of the concentrated solution is diluted to 400 mL?
986 Supplemental Practice Problems
Supplemental Practice Problems
12. What is the molality of a solution containing 63.0 g of HN O 3 in 0.500 kg of water?
13. What is the molality of an acetic acid solution containing 0.500 mol of H C 2 H 3 O 2 in 0.800 kg of water?
14. What mass of ethanol ( C 2 H 5 OH) will be required to prepare a 2.00m solution in 8.00 kg of water?
15. Determine the mole fraction of nitrogen in a gas mixture containing 0.215 mol N 2 , 0.345 mol O 2 , 0.023 mol C O 2 , and 0.014 mol S O 2 . What is the mole fraction of N 2 ?
16. A necklace contains 4.85 g of gold, 1.25 g of silver, and 2.40 g of copper. What is the mole fraction of each metal?
Section 14.3 17. Calculate the mass of gas dissolved at 150.0 kPa, if 0.35 g of the gas dis-solves in 2.0 L of water at 30.0 kPa.
18. At which depth, 10 m or 40 m, will a scuba diver have more nitrogen dissolved in the bloodstream?
Section 14.4 19. Calculate the freezing point and boiling point of a solution containing 6.42 g of sucrose ( C 12 H 22 O 11 ) in 100.0 g of water.
20. Calculate the freezing point and boiling point of a solution containing 23.7 g of copper(II) sulfate in 250.0 g of water.
21. Calculate the freezing point and boiling point of a solution containing 0.15 mol of the molecular compound naphthalene in 175 g of benzene ( C 6 H 6 ).
Chapter 15Section 15.1 1. What is the equivalent in joules of 126 Calories?
2. Convert 455 kilojoules to kilocalories.
3. How much heat is required to warm 122 g of water by 23.0°C?
4. The temperature of 55.6 grams of a material decreases by 14.8°C when it loses 3080 J of heat. What is its specific heat?
5. What is the specific heat of a metal if the temperature of a 12.5-g sample increases from 19.5°C to 33.6°C when it absorbs 37.7 J of heat?
Section 15.2 6. A 75.0-g sample of a metal is placed in boiling water until its temperature is 100.0°C. A calorimeter contains 100.00 g of water at a temperature of 24.4°C. The metal sample is removed from the boiling water and immediately placed in water in the calorimeter. The final temperature of the metal and water in the calorimeter is 34.9°C. Assuming that the calo-rimeter provides perfect insulation, what is the specific heat of the metal?
Section 15.3 7. Use Table 15.4 to determine how much heat is released when 1.00 mol of gaseous methanol condenses to a liquid.
8. Use Table 15.4 to determine how much heat must be supplied to melt 4.60 g of ethanol.
Supplemental Practice Problems
Supplemental Practice Problems 987
Section 15.4 9. Calculate ∆ H rxn for the reaction 2C(s) + 2 H 2 (g) → C 2 H 4 (g), given the following thermochemical equations:
2C O 2 (g) + 2 H 2 O(l) → C 2 H 4 (g) + 3 O 2 (g) ∆H = 1411 kJ
C(s) + O 2 (g) → C O 2 (g) ∆H = −393.5 kJ
2 H 2 (g) + O 2 (g) → 2 H 2 O(l) ∆H = −572 kJ
10. Calculate ∆ H rxn for the reaction HCl(g) + N H 3 (g) → N H 4 Cl(s), given the following thermochemical equations:
H 2 (g) + C l 2 (g) → 2HCl(g) ∆H = −184 kJ
N 2 (g) + 3 H 2 (g) → 2N H 3 (g) ∆H = −92 kJ
N 2 (g) + 4 H 2 (g) + C l 2 (g) → 2N H 4 Cl(s) ∆H = −628 kJ
Use standard enthalpies of formation from Table 15.5 and Table R-11 to calculate ∆ H° rxn for each of the following reactions.
11. 2HF(g) → H 2 (g) + F 2 (g)
12. 2 H 2 S(g) + 3 O 2 (g) → 2 H 2 O(l) + 2S O 2 (g)
Section 15.5 Predict the sign of ∆ S system for each reaction or process.
13. FeS(s) → F e 2+ (aq) + S 2− (aq)
14. S O 2 (g) + H 2 O(l) → H 2 S O 3 (aq)
Determine if each of the following processes or reactions is spontaneous or nonspontaneous.
15. ∆ H system = 15.6 kJ, T = 415 K, ∆ S system = 45 J/K
16. ∆ H system = 35.6 kJ, T = 415 K, ∆ S system = 45 J/K
Chapter 16Section 16.1 1. In the reaction A → 2B, suppose that [A] changes from 1.20 mol/L
at time = 0 to 0.60 mol/L at time = 3.00 min and that [B] = 0.00 mol/L at time = 0.
a. What is the average rate at which A is consumed in mol/(L∙min)?
b. What is the average rate at which B is produced in mol/(L∙min)?
Section 16.3 2. What are the overall reaction orders in Practice Problems 19 to 22 on page 577?
3. If halving [A] in the reaction A → B causes the initial rate to decrease to one-fourth its original value, what is the probable rate law for the reaction?
4. Use the data below and the method of initial rates to determine the rate law for the reaction 2NO(g) + O 2 (g) → 2N O 2 (g).
Formation of N O 2 Data
TrialInitial [NO]
(M)Initial [ O 2 ]
(M)Initial Rate (mol/(L·s))
1 0.030 0.020 0.0041
2 0.060 0.020 0.0164
3 0.030 0.040 0.0082
988 Supplemental Practice Problems
Supplemental Practice Problems
Section 16.4 5. The rate law for the reaction in which 1 mol of cyclobutane ( C 4 H 8 ) decomposes to 2 mol of ethylene ( C 2 H 4 ) at 1273 K is Rate = (87 s −1 )[ C 4 H 8 ]. What is the instantaneous rate of this reaction when
a. [ C 4 H 8 ] = 0.0100 mol/L?
b. [ C 4 H 8 ] = 0.200 mol/L?
Chapter 17Section 17.1 Write equilibrium constant expressions for the following equilibria.
1. N 2 (g) + O 2 (g) 2NO
2. 3 O 2 (g) 2 O 3 (g)
3. P 4 (g) + 6 H 2 (g) 4P H 3 (g)
4. CC l 4 (g) + HF(g) CFC l 2 (g) + HCl(g)
5. 4N H 3 (g) + 5 O 2 (g) 4NO(g) + 6 H 2 O(g)
Write equilibrium constant expressions for the following equilibria.
6. N H 4 Cl(s) N H 3 (g) + HCl(g)
7. S O 3 (g) + H 2 O(l) H 2 S O 4 (l)
8. 2N a 2 O 2 (s) + 2C O 2 (g) 2N a 2 C O 3 (s) + O 2 (g)
Calculate K eq for the following equilibria.
9. H 2 (g) + I 2 (g) 2HI(g)
[ H 2 ] = 0.0109, [ I 2 ] = 0.00290, [HI] = 0.0460
10. I 2 (s) I 2 (g)
[ I 2 (g)] = 0.0665
Section 17.3 11. At a certain temperature, K eq = 0.0211 for the equilibrium PC l 5 (g) PC l 3 (g) + C l 2 (g).
a. What is [C l 2 ] in an equilibrium mixture containing 0.865 mol/L PC l 5 and 0.135 mol/L PC l 3 ?
b. What is [PC l 5 ] in an equilibrium mixture containing 0.100 mol/L PC l 3 and 0.200 mol/L C l 2 ?
12. Use the K sp value for zinc carbonate given in Table 17.4 to calculate its molar solubility at 298 K.
13. Use the K sp value for iron(II) hydroxide given in Table 17.4 to calculate its molar solubility at 298 K.
14. Use the K sp value for silver carbonate given in Table 17.4 to calculate [A g + ] in a saturated solution at 298 K.
15. Use the K sp value for calcium phosphate given in Table 17.4 to calculate [C a 2+ ] in a saturated solution at 298 K.
16. Does a precipitate form when equal volumes of 0.0040M MgC l 2 and 0.0020M K 2 C O 3 are mixed? If so, identify the precipitate.
17. Does a precipitate form when equal volumes of 1.2 × 1 0 -4 M AlC l 3 and 2.0 × 1 0 -3 M NaOH are mixed? If so, identify the precipitate.
Supplemental Practice Problems
Supplemental Practice Problems 989
Chapter 18Section 18.1 1. Write the balanced formula equation for the reaction between zinc and
nitric acid.
2. Write the balanced formula equation for the reaction between magnesium carbonate and sulfuric acid.
3. Identify the base in the reaction H 2 O(l) + C H 3 N H 2 (aq) → O H - (aq) + C H 3 N H 3 + (aq).
4. Identify the conjugate base described in the reaction in Practice Problems 1 and 2.
5. Write the steps in the complete ionization of hydrosulfuric acid.
6. Write the steps in the complete ionization of carbonic acid.
Section 18.2 7. Write the acid ionization equation and ionization constant expression for formic acid (HCOOH).
8. Write the acid ionization equation and ionization constant expression for the hydrogen carbonate ion (HC O 3− ).
9. Write the base ionization constant expression for ammonia.
10. Write the base ionization expression for aniline ( C 6 H 5 N H 2 ).
Section 18.3 11. Is a solution in which [ H + ] = 1.0 × 1 0 −5 M acidic, basic, or neutral?
12. Is a solution in which [O H - ] = 1.0 × 1 0 −11 M acidic, basic, or neutral?
13. What is the pH of a solution in which [ H + ] = 4.5 × 1 0 −4 M?
14. Calculate the pH and pOH of a solution in which [O H - ] = 8.8 × 1 0 −3 M.
15. Calculate the pH and pOH of a solution in which [ H + ] = 2.7 × 1 0 −6 M.
16. What is [ H + ] in a solution having a pH of 2.92?
17. What is [O H - ] in a solution having a pH of 13.56?
18. What is the pH of a 0.00067M H 2 S O 4 solution?
19. What is the pH of a 0.000034M NaOH solution?
20. The pH of a 0.200M HBrO solution is 4.67. What is the acid’s K a ?
21. The pH of a 0.030M C 2 H 5 COOH solution is 3.20. What is the acid’s K a ?
Section 18.4 22. Write the formula equation for the reaction between hydriodic acid and beryllium hydroxide.
23. Write the formula equation for the reaction between perchloric acid and lithium hydroxide.
24. In a titration, 15.73 mL of 0.2346M HI solution neutralizes 20.00 mL of a LiOH solution. What is the molarity of the LiOH?
25. What is the molarity of a caustic soda (NaOH) solution if 35.00 mL of solution is neutralized by 68.30 mL of 1.250M HCl?
990 Supplemental Practice Problems
Supplemental Practice Problems
26. Write the chemical equation for the hydrolysis reaction that occurs when sodium hydrogen carbonate is dissolved in water. Is the resulting solution acidic, basic, or neutral?
27. Write the chemical equation for any hydrolysis reaction that occurs when cesium chloride is dissolved in water. Is the resulting solution acidic, basic, or neutral?
Chapter 19Section 19.1 Identify the following information for each problem. What element is
oxidized? Reduced? What is the oxidizing agent? Reducing agent?
1. 2P + 3C l 2 → 2PC l 3
2. C + H 2 O → CO + H 2
3. Cl O 3 − + As O 2 − → As O 4 3− + C l −
4. Determine the oxidation number for each element in the following compounds.
a. N a 2 Se O 3
b. HAuC l 4
c. H 3 B O 3
5. Determine the oxidation number for the following compounds or ions.
a. P 4 O 8
b. N a 2 O 2 (Hint: This is like H 2 O 2 .)
c. As O 4 −3
Section 19.2 6. How many electrons will be lost or gained in each of the following half-reactions? Identify whether each is an oxidation or reduction.
a. Cr → C r 3+
b. O 2 → O 2−
c. F e +2 → F e 3+
7. Balance the following reaction by the oxidation number method: Mn O 4 − + C H 3 OH → Mn O 2 + HCHO (acidic). (Hint: Assign the oxida-tion of hydrogen and oxygen as usual, and solve for the oxidation number of carbon.)
8. Balance the following reaction by the oxidation number method: Zn + HN O 3 → ZnO + N O 2 + N H 3
9. Use the oxidation number method to balance these net ionic equations.
a. Se O 3 2− + I − → Se + I 2 (acidic solution)
b. Ni O 2 + Se O 3 2− → Ni(OH ) 2 + S O 3 2− (acidic solution)
Use the half-reaction method to balance the following redox equations.
10. Zn(s) + HCl(aq) → ZnC l 2 (aq) → H 2 (g)
11. Mn O 4 − (aq) + H 2 S O 3 (aq) → M n 2+ (aq) + HS O 4 − (aq) + H 2 O(l) (acidic solution)
12. N O 2 (aq) + O H − (aq) → N O 2 − (aq) + N O 3 − (aq) + H 2 O(l) (basic solution)
13. H S − (aq) + I O 3 − (aq) → I − (aq) + S(s) + H 2 O(l) (acidic solution)
Supplemental Practice Problems
Supplemental Practice Problems 991
Chapter 20Section 20.1 1. Calculate the cell potential for each of the following.
a. C o 2+ (aq) + Al(s) → Co(s) + A l 3+ (aq)
b. H g 2+ (aq) + Cu(s) → C u 2+ (aq) + Hg(s)
c. Zn(s) + B r 2 (l) → B r 1− (aq) + Z n 2+ (aq)
2. Calculate the cell potential to determine whether the reaction will occur spontaneously or not spontaneously. For each reaction that is not spontaneous, correct the reactants or products so that a reaction would occur spontaneously.
a. N i 2+ (aq) + Al(s) → Ni(s) + A l 3+ (aq)
b. A g + (aq) + H 2 (g) → Ag(s) + H + (aq)
c. F e 2+ (aq) + Cu(s) → Fe(s) + C u 2+ (aq)
Chapter 21Section 21.2 1. Draw the structure of the following branched alkanes.
a. 2,2,4-trimethylheptane
b. 4-isopropyl-2-methylnonane
2. Draw the structure of each of the following cycloalkanes.
a. 1-ethyl-2-methylcyclobutane
b. 1,3-dibutylcyclohexane
Section 21.3 3. Draw the structure of each of the following alkenes.
a. 1,4-hexadiene c. 4-propyl-1-octene
b. 2,3-dimethyl-2-butene d. 2,3-diethylcyclohexene
Chapter 22Section 22.1 1. Draw the structures of the following alkyl halides.
a. chloroethane d. 1,3-dibromocyclohexane
b. chloromethane e. 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane
c. 1-fluoropentane
Chapter 24Section 24.2 1. Write balanced equations for each of the following decay processes.
a. alpha emission of 96 244 Cm c. beta emission of 83
210 Bi
b. positron emission of 33 70 As d. electron capture by 51
116 Sb
2. 20 47 Ca → β + ?
3. 95 240 Am + ? → 97
243 Bk + n
4. How much time has passed if 1/8 of an original sample of radon-222 is left? Use Table 24.5 for half-life information.
5. If a basement air sample contains 3.64 μg of radon-222, how much radon will remain after 19 days?
6. Cobalt-60, with a half-life of 5 years, is used in cancer radiation treatments. If a hospital purchases 30.0 g, how much would be left after 15 years?
992 Solutions to Selected Practice Problems
Chapter 1No practice problems
Chapter 2 1. No; the density of aluminum is 2.7 g/c m 3 ; the density
of the cube is 20g
_ 5c m 3
= 4 g/c m 3 .
3. volume = mass
_ density
= 147 g
_ 7.00 g/mL
= 21.0 mL
volume = 20.0 mL + 21.0 mL = 41.0 mL
11. a. 7 × 1 0 2 e. 5.4 × 1 0 -3
b. 3.8 × 1 0 4 f. 6.87 × 1 0 -6
c. 4.5 × 1 0 6 g. 7.6 × 1 0 -8
d. 6.85 × 1 0 11 h. 8 × 1 0 -10
13. a. 7 × 1 0 −5 c. 2 × 1 0 2
b. 3 × 1 0 8 d. 5 × 1 0 -12
15. a. (4 × 1) × 1 0 2 + 8 = 4 × 1 0 10
b. (2 × 3) × 1 0 -4 + 2 = 6 × 1 0 -2
c. (6 ÷ 2) × 1 0 2 - 1 = 3 × 1 0 1
d. (8 ÷ 4) × 1 0 4 - 1 = 2 × 1 0 3
17. a. 16 g salt
__ 100 g solution
; 100 g solution
__ 16 g salt
b. 1.25 g
_ 1 mL
; 1 mL _
1.25 g
c. 25 m _
1 s ;
1s _
25 m
19. a. 360 s × 1000 ms
_ 1 s
= 360,000 ms
b. 4800 g × 1 kg
_ 1000 g
= 4.8 kg
c. 5600 dm × 1 m _
10 dm = 560 m
d. 72 g × 1000 mg
_ 1 g
= 72,000 mg
e. 2.45 × 1 0 2 ms × 1 s _
1000 ms = 0.245 s
f. 5 μm × 1 mm _
1000 μm × 1 m
_ 1000 mm
× 1 km _
1000 m
= 5 × 1 0 −9 km
g. 6.800 × 1 0 3 cm × 1 m _
100 cm × 1 km
_ 1000 m
= 6.800 × 1 0 -2 km
h. 2.5 × 1 0 1 kg × 1 Mg
__ 1000 kg
= 0.025 Mg
21. 65 mi _
1 h × 1 km
_ 0.62 mi
= 105 km/h
23. mass = (volume)(density) = (185 mL)(1.02 g/mL)
mass = 189 g vinegar
(189 g vinegar) ( 5.00 g acetic acid
__ 100 g vinegar
) = 9.45 g acetic acid
33. 0.11 _
1.59 × 100 = 6.92%
0.10 _
1.59 × 100 = 6.29%
0.12 _
1.59 × 100 = 7.55%
Note: The answers are reported in three significant
figures because student error is the difference between
the actual value (1.59 g/c m 3 ) and the measured value.
35. a. 4 b. 7 c. 5 d. 3
37. two significant figures: 1.0 × 1 0 1 , 1.0 × 1 0 2 , 1.0 × 1 0 3
three significant figures: 1.00 × 1 0 1 , 1.00 × 1 0 2 ,
1.00 × 1 0 3
four significant figures: 1.000 × 1 0 1 , 1.000 × 1 0 2 ,
1.000 × 1 0 3
39. a. 5.482 × 1 0 -4 g c. 3.087 × 1 0 8 mm
b. 1.368 × 1 0 5 kg d. 2.014 mL
41. a. 4.32 × 1 0 3 cm - 1.6 × 1 0 6 mm
= 4.32 × 1 0 3 cm - 16 × 1 0 6 cm
= 4.32 × 1 0 3 cm - 16,000 × 1 0 3 cm
= −15,995.68 × 1 0 3 cm = -16.0 × 1 0 6 cm
b. 2.12 × 1 0 7 mm + 1.8 × 1 0 3 cm
= 2.12 × 1 0 7 mm + 1.8 × 1 0 4 mm
= 2120 × 1 0 4 mm + 1.8 × 1 0 4 mm
= 2121.8 × 1 0 4 mm = 2.12 × 1 0 7 mm
43. a. 2.0 m/s c. 2.00 m/s
b. 3.00 m/s d. 2.9 m/s
Chapter 3 5. amount of bromine that reacted = 100.0 - 8.5 = 91.5 g
amount of compound formed = 100.0 + 10.3 - 8.5
= 101.8 g
7. mas s reactants = mas s products
mas s sodium + mas s chlorine = mas s sodium chloride
mas s sodium = 15.6 g
mas s sodium chloride = 39.7 g
Substituting and solving for mas s chlorine yields
15.6 g + mas s chlorine = 39.7 g
mas s chlorine = 39.7 g - 15.6 g = 24.1 g used in the
reaction.
Because the sodium reacts with excess chlorine,
all of the sodium is used in the reaction; that is,
15.6 g of sodium are used in the reaction.
9. 157.5 g - 106.5 g = 51.0 g
Yes. Mass of reactants equals mass of products.
19. percent by mass hydrogen = mass hydrogen
_ mass compound × 100
percent by mass hydrogen = 12.4 g
_ 78.0 g
× 100 = 15.9%
Solutions to Selected Practice Problems
Solutions to Selected Practice Problems 993
21. mas s xy = 3.50 g + 10.5 g = 14.0 g
percent by mas s x = mas s x
_ mas s xy × 100
percent by mas s x = 3.50 g
_ 14.0 g
× 100 = 25.0%
percent by mas s y = mas s y
_ mas s xy × 100
percent by mas s y = 10.5 g
_ 14.0 g
× 100 = 75.0%
23. No, you cannot be sure. Having the same mass per-
centage of a single element does not guarantee that
the composition of each compound is the same.
Chapter 4 13. dysprosium 15. Yes. 9
17. 25 protons, 25 electrons, 30 neutrons, manganese
19. N-14 is more abundant because the atomic mass is
closer to 14 than 15.
Chapter 5 1. c = λν
ν = c / λ
ν = 3.00 × 1 0 8 m/s
__ 4.90 × 1 0 -7 m
= 6.12 × 1 0 14 Hz
3. 3.00 × 1 0 8 m/s
5. a. E photon = λν = (6.626 × 1 0 -34 J·s)(6.32 × 1 0 20 s -1 )
= 4.19 × 1 0 -13 J
b. E photon = λν = (6.626 × 1 0 -34 J·s)(9.50 × 1 0 13 s -1 )
= 6.29 × 1 0 -20 J
c. E photon = λν = (6.626 × 1 0 -34 J·s)(1.05 × 1 0 16 s -1 )
= 6.96 × 1 0 -18 J
7. E photon = hc / λ
E photon = (6.626 × 1 0 -34 J·s)(3.00 × 1 0 8 m/s)
___ 1.25 × 1 0 -1 m
= 1.59 × 1 0 -24 J
21. a. bromine (35 electrons): [Ar]4 s 2 3 d 10 4 p 5
b. strontium (38 electrons): [Kr]5 s 2
c. antimony (51 electrons): [Kr]5 s 2 4 d 10 5 p 3
d. rhenium (75 electrons): [Xe]6 s 2 4 f 14 5 d 5
e. terbium (65 electrons): [Xe]6 s 2 4 f 9
f. titanium (22 electrons): [Ar]4 s 2 3 d 2
23. Sulfur (15 electrons) has the electron configuration
[Ne]3 s 2 3 p 4 . Therefore, 6 electrons are in orbitals
related to the third energy level of the sulfur atom.
25. [Xe]6 s 2 ; barium
27. aluminum; 3 electrons
Chapter 6 9. a. Sc, Y, La, Ac c. Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
b. N, P, As, Sb, Bi
17. B. The atomic radius increases when going down a
group so helium is the smallest and radon is the biggest.
19. a. the element in period 2, group 1
b. the element in period 5, group 2
c. the element in period 6, group 15
d. the element in period 4, group 18
Chapter 7 7. Three Na atoms each lose 1 e-, forming 1+ ions. One
N atom gains 3 e-, forming a 3- ion. The ions attract,
forming Na3N.
3 Na ions ( 1+
_ Na ion
) + 1 N ion ( 3-
_ N ion
)
= 3(1+) + 1(3-) = 0
The overall charge on one formula unit of N a 3 N is zero.
9. One Sr atom loses 2 e-, forming a 2+ ion. Two
F atoms each gain 1 e-, forming 1- ions. The ions
attract, forming Sr F 2 .
1 Sr ion ( 2+
_ Sr ion
) + 2 F ions ( 1-
_ F ion
)
= 1(2+) + 2(1-) = 0
The overall charge on one formula unit of Sr F 2 is zero.
11. Three group 1 atoms lose 1 e-, forming 1+ ions.
One group 15 atom gains 3 e-, forming a 3- ion. The
ions attract, forming X 3 Y, where X represents a group
1 atom and Y represents a group 15 atom.
19. KI 21. AlB r 3
23. The general formula is X Y 2 , where X represents the
group 2 element and Y represents the group 17 element.
25. Ca(Cl O 3 ) 2
27. MgC O 3 ; answers will vary
29. calcium chloride 31. copper(II) nitrate
33. ammonium perchlorate
Chapter 8 1.
H H H H —
H
H
P P++ + →
——
3. H H — Cl+ →Cl
994 Solutions to Selected Practice Problems
Solutions to Selected Practice Problems
5.
H H H H —
H
H
H Si Si — H
— —
++ + + →
15. sulfur dioxide
17. carbon tetrachloride
19. hydroiodic acid
21. chlorous acid
23. hydrosulfuric acid
25. AgCl 27. Cl F 3
29. strontium acetate is ionic, not molecular: Sr( C 2 H 3 O 2 ) 2
37.
HH
H
B — —
— 39.
C=C
H H
H H
—
— —
—
41. 1+
NH H
H
H
43. N
O O
1-
NO
1-
O
45. O
OO
OO O
47. ClF
F
F
49.
S
F
F
F
FF
F
57. bent, 104.5°, s p 3 59. tetrahedral, 109°, s p 3
Chapter 9 1. H 2 (g) + B r 2 (g) → HBr(g)
3. KCl O 3 (s) → KCl(s) + O 2 (g)
5. C S 2 (l) + 3 O 2 (g) → C O 2 (g) + 2S O 2 (g)
15. H 2 O(l) + N 2 O 5 (g) → 2HN O 3 (aq); synthesis
17. H 2 S O 4 (aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → N a 2 S O 4 (aq) + 2 H 2 O(l)
19. Ni(OH ) 2 (s) → NiO(s) + H 2 O(l)
21. Yes. K is above Zn in the metal activity series.
2K(s) + ZnC l 2 (aq) → Zn(s) + 2KCl(aq)
23. No. Fe is below Na in the metal activity series.
25. LiI(aq) + AgN O 3 (aq) → AgI(s) + LiN O 3 (aq)
27. N a 2 C 2 O 4 (aq) + Pb(N O 3 ) 2 (aq) →
Pb C 2 O 4 (s) + 2NaN O 3 (aq)
35. chemical equation: KI(aq) + AgN O 3 (aq) →
KN O 3 (aq) + AgI(s)
complete ionic equation:
K + (aq) + I - (aq) + A g + (aq) + N O 3 - (aq) →
K + (aq) + N O 3 - (aq) + AgI(s)
net ionic equation: I - (aq) + A g + (aq) → AgI(s)
37. chemical equation: AlC l 3 (aq) + 3NaOH(aq) →
Al(OH ) 3 (s) + 3NaCl(aq)
complete ionic equation:
A l 3+ (aq) + 3C l - (aq) + 3N a + (aq) + 3O H 2 (aq) →
Al(OH ) 3 (s) + 3 Na + (aq) + 3C l - (aq)
net ionic equation: A l 3+ (aq) + 3O H - (aq) →
Al(OH ) 3 (s)
39. chemical equation: 5N a 2 C O 3 (aq) + 2MnC l 5 (aq) →
10NaCl(aq) + M n 2 (C O 3 ) 5 (s)
complete ionic equation:
10N a + (aq) + 5C O 3 2- (aq) + 2M n 5+ (aq) + 10C l - (aq) →
10N a + (aq) + 10C l - (aq) + M n 2 (C O 3 ) 5 (s)
net ionic equation: 5C O 3 2- (aq) + 2M n 5+ (aq) →
M n 2 (C O 3 ) 5 (s)
net ionic equation: 2 H + (aq) + 2O H - (aq) →
2 H 2 O(l) or H + (aq) + O H - (aq) → H 2 O(l)
41. chemical equation: 2HCl(aq) + Ca(OH ) 2 (aq) →
2 H 2 O(l) + CaC l 2 (aq)
complete ionic equation:
2 H + (aq) + 2C l - (aq) + C a 2+ (aq) + 2O H - (aq) →
2 H 2 O(l) + C a 2+ (aq) + 2C l - (aq)
net ionic equation: H + (aq) + O H - (aq) → H 2 O(l)
43. chemical equation: H 2 S(aq) + 1 Ca(OH ) 2 (aq) →
2 H 2 O(l) + CaS(aq)
complete ionic equation:
2 H + (aq) + S 2- (aq) + C a 2+ (aq) + 2O H - (aq) →
2 H 2 O(l) + C a 2+ (aq) + S 2- (aq)
net ionic equation: H + (aq) + O H - (aq) → H 2 O(l)
45. chemical equation: 2HCl O 4 (aq) + K 2 C O 3 (aq) →
H 2 O(l) + C O 2 (g) + 2KCl O 4 (aq)
complete ionic equation:
2 H + (aq) + 2Cl O 4 - (aq) + 2 K + (aq) + C O 3 2- (aq) →
H 2 O(l) + C O 2 (g) + 2 K + (aq) + 2Cl O 4 - (aq)
net ionic equation: 2 H + (aq) + C O 3 2- (aq) →
H 2 O(l) + C O 2 (g)
47. chemical equation: 2HBr(aq) + (N H 4 ) 2 C O 3 (aq) →
H 2 O(l) + C O 2 (g) + 2N H 4 Br(aq)
Solutions to Selected Practice Problems
Solutions to Selected Practice Problems 995
complete ionic equation:
2 H + (aq) + 2B r - (aq) + 2N H 4 + (aq) + C O 3 2- (aq) →
H 2 O(l) + C O 2 (g) + 2N H 4 + (aq) + 2B r - (aq)
net ionic equation: 2 H + (aq) + C O 3 2- (aq) →
H 2 O(l) + C O 2 (g)
49. chemical equation: 2KI(aq) + Pb(N O 3 ) 2 (aq) →
2KN O 3 (aq) + Pb I 2 (s)
complete ionic equation:
2 K + (aq) + 2 I - (aq) + P b 2+ (aq) + 2N O 3 - (aq) →
2 K + (aq) + 2N O 3 - (aq) + Pb I 2 (s)
net ionic equation: P b 2+ (aq) + 2 I - (aq) → Pb I 2 (s)
Chapter 10 1. 2.50 mol Zn ×
6.02 × 1 0 23 atoms __
1 mol
= 1.51 × 1 0 24 atoms of Zn
3. 3.25 mol AgN O 3 × 6.02 × 1 0 23 formula units
__ 1 mol
= 1.96 × 1 0 24 formula units of AgN O 3
5. a. 5.75 × 1 0 24 atoms Al × 1 mol __
6.02 × 1 0 23 atoms
= 9.55 mol Al
b. 2.50 × 1 0 20 atoms Fe × 1 mol __
6.02 × 1 0 23 atoms
= 4.15 × 1 0 -4 mol Fe
15. a. 3.57 mol Al × 26.98 g Al
_ 1 mol Al
= 96.3 g Al
b. 42.6 mol Si × 28.09 g Si
_ 1 mol Si
= 1.20 × 1 0 3 g Si
17. a. 25.5 g Ag × 1 mol Ag
_ 107.9 g Ag
= 0.236 mol Ag
b. 300.0 g S × 1 mol S
_ 32.07 g S
= 9.355 mol S
19. a. 55.2 g Li × 1 mol Li
_ 6.94 g Li
× 6.02 × 1 0 23 atoms
__ 1 mol
= 4.79 × 1 0 24 atoms Li
b. 0.230 g Pb × 1 mol Pb
_ 6.94 g Pb
× 6.02 × 1 0 23 atoms
__ 1 mol
= 6.68 × 1 0 20 atoms Pb
c. 11.5 g Hg × 1 mol Hg
_ 200.6 g Hg
× 6.02 × 1 0 23 atoms
__ 1 mol
= 3.45 × 1 0 22 atoms Hg
21. a. 4.56 × 1 0 3 g Si × 1 mol Si
_ 28.09 g Si
× 6.02 × 1 0 23 atoms
__ 1 mol
= 9.77 × 1 0 25 atoms Si
b. 0.120 kg Ti × 1000 g Ti
_ 1 kg Ti
× 1 mol Ti
_ 47.87 g Ti
× 6.02 × 1 0 23 atoms
__ 1 mol
= 1.51 × 1 0 24 atoms Ti
29. 2.50 mol ZnC l 2 × 2 mol C l -
_ 1 mol ZnC l 2
= 5.00 mol C l -
31. 3.00 mol F e 2 ( SO 4 ) 3 × 3 mol S O 4 2-
__ 1 mol F e 2 (S O 4 ) 3
= 9.00 mol S O 4 2-
33. 1.15 × 1 0 1 mol H 2 O × 2 mol H
_ 1 mol H 2 O
= 23.0 mol H
= 2.30 × 1 0 1 mol H
35. a. 2 mol C × 12.01 g C
_ 1 mol C
= 24.02 g
6 mol H × 1.008 g H
_ 1 mol H
= 6.048 g
1 mol O × 16.00 g O
_ 1 mol O
= 16.00 g
molar mass C 2 H 5 OH = 46.07 g/mol
b. 1 mol H × 1.008 g H
_ 1 mol H
= 1.008 g
1 mol C × 12.01 g C
_ 1 mol C
= 12.01 g
1 mol N × 14.01 g N
_ 1 mol N
= 14.01 g
molar mass HCN = 27.03 g/mol
c. 1 mol C × 12.01 g C
_ 1 mol C
= 12.01 g
4 mol Cl × 35.45 g Cl
_ 1 mol Cl
= 141.80 g
molar mass CC l 4 = 153.81 g/mol
37. Step 1: Find the molar mass of H 2 S O 4 .
2 mol H × 1.008 g H
_ 1 mol H
= 2.016 g
1 mol S × 32.07 g S
_ 1 mol S
= 32.07 g
4 mol O × 16.00 g O
_ 1 mol O
= 64.00 g
molar mass H 2 S O 4 = 98.09 g/mol
Step 2: Make mole → mass conversion.
3.25 mol H 2 S O 4 × 98.09 g H 2 S O 4
__ 1 mol H 2 S O 4
= 319 g H 2 S O 4
39. Potassium permanganate has a formula of KMn O 4 .
Step 1: Find the molar mass of KMn O 4 .
1 mol K × 39.10 g K
_ 1 mol K
= 39.10 g
1 mol Mn × 54.94 g Mn
_ 1 mol Mn
= 54.94 g
4 mol O × 16.00 g O
_ 1 mol O
= 64.00 g
molar mass KMn O 4 = 158.04 g/mol
Step 2: Make mole → mass conversion.
2.55 mol KMn O 4 × 158.04 g KMn O 4
__ 1 mol KMn O 4
= 403 g KMn O 4
996 Solutions to Selected Practice Problems
Solutions to Selected Practice Problems
41. a. ionic compound
Step 1: Find the molar mass of F e 2 O 3 .
2 mol Fe × 55.85 g Fe
_ 1 mol Fe
= 111.70 g
3 mol O × 16.00 g O
_ 1 mol O
= 48.00 g
molar mass F e 2 O 3 = 159.70 g/mol
Step 2: Make mass → mole conversion.
2500 g F e 2 O 3 × 1 mol F e 2 O 3
__ 159.70 g F e 2 O 3
= 15.7 × 10 1 mol F e 2 O 3
b. ionic compound
Step 1: Find the molar mass of PbC l 4 .
1 mol Pb × 207.2 g Pb
_ 1 mol Pb
= 207.2 g
4 mol Cl × 35.45 g Cl
_ 1 mol Cl
= 141.80 g
molar mass PbC l 4 = 349.0 g/mol
Step 2: Make mass → mole conversion.
254 g PbC l 4 × 1 mol PbC l 4
__ 349.0 g PbC l 4
= 0.728 mol PbC l 4
43. a. Step 1: Find the molar mass of N a 2 S O 3
2 mol Na × 22.99 g Na
_ 1 mol Na
= 45.98 g
1 mol S × 32.07 g S
_ 1 mol S
= 32.07 g
3 mol O × 16.00 g O
_ 1 mol O
= 48.00 g
molar mass N a 2 S O 3 = 126.05 g/mol
Step 2: Make mass → mole conversion.
2.25 g N a 2 S O 3 × 1 mol N a 2 S O 3
__ 126.05 g N a 2 S O 3
= 0.0179 mol N a 2 S O 3
Step 3: Make mole → formula unit conversion.
0.0179 mol N a 2 S O 3 × 6.02 × 1 0 23 formula units
__ 1 mol N a 2 S O 3
= 1.08 × 1 0 22 formula units N a 2 S O 3
Step 4: Determine the number of N a + ions.
1.08 × 1 0 22 formula units N a 2 S O 3 ×
2 N a + ions __
1 formula unit N a 2 S O 3 = 2.16 × 1 0 22 N a + ions
b. 1.08 × 1 0 22 formula units N a 2 S O 3 ×
1 S O 3 2- ion
__ 1 formula unit N a 2 S O 3
= 1.08 × 1 0 22 S O 3 2- ions
c. 126.08 g N a 2 S O 3
__ 1 mol N a 2 S O 3
× 1 mol N a 2 S O 3
___ 6.02 × 1 0 23 formula unit N a 2 S O 3
= 2.09 × 1 0 -22 g N a 2 S O 3 /formula unit
45. Step 1: Find the number of moles of NaCl.
4.59 × 1 0 24 formula units NaCl ×
1 mol NaCl
___ 6.02 × 1 0 23 formula unit NaCl
= 7.62 mol NaC l 2
Step 2: Find the molar mass of NaCl.
1 mol Na × 22.99 g Na
_ 1 mol Na
= 22.99 g
1 mol Cl × 35.45 g Cl
_ 1 mol Cl
= 35.45 g
molar mass NaCl = 58.44 g/mol
Step 3: Make mole → mass conversion.
7.62 mol NaCl × 58.44 g NaCl
_ 1 mol NaCl
= 445 g NaCl
55. Steps 1 and 2: Assume 1 mole; calculate molar mass of
H 2 S O 3 .
2 mol H × 1.008 g H
_ 1 mol H
= 2.016 g
1 mol S × 32.06 g S
_ 1 mol S
= 32.06 g
3 mol O × 16.00 g O
_ 1 mol O
= 48.00 g
molar mass H 2 S O 3 = 82.08 g/mol
Step 3: Determine percent by mass of S.
percent S = 32.06 g S
__ 82.08 g H 2 S O 3
× 100 = 39.06% S
Repeat steps 1 and 2 for H 2 S 2 O 8 . Assume 1 mole;
calculate molar mass of H 2 S 2 O 8 .
2 mol H × 1.008 g H
_ 1 mol H
= 2.016 g
2 mol S × 32.06 g S
_ 1 mol S
= 64.12 g
8 mol O × 16.00 g O
_ 1 mol O
= 128.00 g
molar mass H 2 S 2 O 8 = 194.14 g/mol
Step 3: Determine percent by mass of S.
percent S = 64.12 g S
__ 194.14 g H 2 S 2 O 8
× 100 = 33.03% S
H 2 S O 3 has a larger percent by mass of S.
57. a. sodium, sulfur, and oxygen; N a 2 S O 4
b. ionic
c. Steps 1 and 2: Assume 1 mole; calculate molar
mass of N a 2 S O 4 .
2 mol Na × 22.99 g Na
_ 1 mol Na
= 45.98 g
1 mol S × 32.07 g S
_ 1 mol S
= 32.07 g
4 mol O × 16.00 g O
_ 1 mol O
= 64.00 g
molar mass N a 2 S O 4 = 142.05 g/mol
Solutions to Selected Practice Problems
Solutions to Selected Practice Problems 997
Step 3: Determine percent by mass of each element.
percent Na = 45.98 g Na
__ 142.05 g N a 2 S O 4
× 100 = 32.37% Na
percent S = 32.07 g S
__ 142.05 g N a 2 S O 4
× 100 = 22.58% S
percent O = 64.00 g O
__ 142.05 g N a 2 S O 4
× 100 = 45.05% O
59. Step 1: Assume 100 g sample; calculate moles of each
element.
35.98 g Al × 1 mol Al
_ 26.98 g Al
= 1.334 mol Al
64.02 g S × 1 mol S
_ 32.06 g S
= 1.996 mol S
Step 2: Calculate mole ratios.1.334 mol Al_1.334 mol Al
=1.000 mol Al_1.000 mol Al
=1 mol Al_1 mol Al
1.996 mol S _
1.334 mol Al =
1.500 mol S _
1.000 mol Al =
1.5 mol S _
1 mol Al
The simplest ratio is 1 mol Al: 1.5 mol S.
Step 3: Convert decimal fraction to whole number.
In this case, multiply by 2 because 1.5 × 2 = 3.
Therefore, the empirical formula is A l 2 S 3 .
61. Step 1: Assume 100 g sample; calculate moles of each
element.
60.00 g C ×1 mol C_
12.01 g C= 5.00 mol C
4.44 g H × 1 mol H
_ 1.008 g H
= 4.40 mol H
35.56 g O ×1 mol O_
16.00 g O= 2.22 mol O
Step 2: Calculate mole ratios.
5.00 mol C_2.22 mol O
=2.25 mol C_1.00 mol O
=2.25 mol C_
1 mol O
4.40 mol H _
2.22 mol O =
1.98 mol H _
1.00 mol O =
2 mol H _
1 mol O
2.22 mol O_2.22 mol O
=1.00 mol O_1.00 mol O
=1 mol O_1 mol O
The simplest ratio is 2.25 mol C: 2 mol H: 1 mol O.
Step 3: Convert decimal fraction to whole number.
In this case, multiply by 4 because 2.25 × 4 = 9.
Therefore, the empirical formula is C 9 H 8 O 4 .
63. Step 1: Assume 100 g sample; calculate moles of each
element.
46.68 g N × 1 mol N
_ 14.01 g N
= 3.332 mol N
53.32 g O ×1 mol O_
16.00 g O= 3.333 mol O
Step 2: Calculate mole ratios.
3.332 mol N_3.332 mol N
=1.000 mol N_1.000 mol N
=1 mol N_1 mol N
3.333 mol O _
3.332 mol N =
1.000 mol O _
1.000 mol N =
1 mol O _
1 mol N
The simplest ratio is 1 mol N: 1 mol O.
The empirical formula is NO.
Step 3: Calculate the molar mass of the empirical
formula.
1 mol N × 14.01 g N
_ 1 mol N
= 14.01 g
1 mol O × 16.00 g O
_ 1 mol O
= 16.00 g
molar mass NO = 30.01 g/mol
Step 4: Determine whole number multiplier.
60.01 g/mol
_ 30.01 g/mol
= 2.000
The molecular formula is N 2 O 2 .
65. Step 1: Assume 100 g sample; calculate moles of each
element.
65.45 g C × 1 mol C
_ 12.01 g C
= 5.450 mol C
5.45 g H × 1 mol H
_ 1.008 g H
= 5.41 mol H
29.09 g O × 1 mol O
_ 16.00 g O
= 1.818 mol O
Step 2: Calculate mole ratios.
5.450 mol C _
1.818 mol O =
3.000 mol C _
1.000 mol O =
3 mol C _
1 mol O
5.41 mol H _
1.818 mol O =
2.97 mol H _
1.00 mol O =
3 mol H _
1 mol O
1.818 mol O _
1.818 mol O =
1.000 mol O _
1.000 mol O =
1 mol O _
1 mol O
The simplest ratio is 3 mol C: 3 mol H: 1 mol O.
Therefore, the empirical formula is C 3 H 3 O.
Step 3: Calculate the molar mass of the empirical
formula.
3 mol C × 12.01 g C
_ 1 mol C
= 36.03 g
3 mol H × 1.008 g H
_ 1 mol H
= 3.024 g
1 mol O × 16.00 g O
_ 1 mol O
= 16.00 g
molar mass C 3 H 3 O = 55.05 g/mol
Step 4: Determine whole number multiplier.
110.00 g/mol
__ 55.05 g/mol
= 1.998, or 2
The molecular formula is C 6 H 6 O 2 .
75. Step 1: Calculate the mass of CoC l 2 remaining.
0.0712 mol CoC l 2 × 129.83 g CoC l 2
__ 1 mol CoC l 2
= 9.24 g CoC l 2
Step 2: Calculate the mass of water driven off.
mass of hydrated compound - mass of anhydrous
compound remaining
= 11.75 g CoC l 2 ·x H 2 O - 9.24 g CoC l 2 = 2.51 g H 2 O
998 Solutions to Selected Practice Problems
Solutions to Selected Practice Problems
Step 3: Calculate moles of each component.
9.24 g CoC l 2 × 1 mol CoC l 2
__ 129.83 g CoC l 2
= 0.0712 mol CoC l 2
2.51 g H 2 O × 1 mol H 2 O
_ 18.02 g H 2 O
= 0.139 mol H 2 O
Step 4: Calculate mole ratios.
0.0712 mol CoC l 2
__ 0.0712 mol CoC l 2
= 1.00 mol CoC l 2
__ 1.00 mol CoC l 2
= 1 mol CoC l 2
_ 1 mol CoC l 2
0.139 mol H 2 O
__ 0.0712 mol CoC l 2
= 1.95 mol H 2 O
__ 1.00 mol CoC l 2
= 2 mol H 2 O
_ 1 mol CoC l 2
The formula of the hydrate is CoC l 2 ·2 H 2 O. Its name
is cobalt(II) chloride dehydrate.
Chapter 11 1. a. 1 molecule N 2 + 3 molecules H 2 →
2 molecules N H 3
1 mole N 2 + 3 moles H 2 → 2 moles N H 3
28.02 g N 2 + 6.06 g H 2 → 34.08 g N H 3
b. 1 molecule HCl + 1 formula unit KOH → 1 formula unit KCl + 1 molecule H 2 O
1 mole HCl + 1 mole KOH → 1 mole KCl + 1 mole H 2 O
36.46 g HCl + 56.11 g KOH → 74.55 g KCl + 18.02 g H 2 O
c. 2 atoms Mg + 1 molecule O 2 → 2 formula units MgO
2 moles Mg + 1 mole O 2 → 2 moles MgO
48.62 g Mg + 32.00 g O 2 → 80.62 g MgO
3. a. 4 mol Al _
3 mol O 2
3 mol O 2 _
2 mol A l 2 O 3
2 mol A l 2 O 3 _
4 mol Al
3 mol O 2
_ 4 mol Al
2 mol A l 2 O 3
_ 3 mol O 2
4 mol Al
_ 2 mol A l 2 O 3
b. 3 mol Fe _
4 mol H 2 O
3 mol Fe _
4 mol H 2
3 mol Fe _
1 mol F e 3 O 4
4 mol H 2 O
_ 3 mol Fe
4 mol H 2
_ 3 mol Fe
1 mol F e 3 O 4
_ 3 mol Fe
1 mol F e 3 O 4
_ 4 mol H 2
1 mol F e 3 O 4
_ 4 mol H 2 O
4 mol H 2 O
_ 4 mol H 2
4 mol H 2
_ 1 mol F e 3 O 4
4 mol H 2 O
_ 1 mol F e 3 O 4
4 mol H 2
_ 4 mol H 2 O
c. 2 mol HgO
_ 2 mol Hg
1 mol O 2
_ 2 mol Hg
1 mol O 2
_ 2 mol HgO
2 mol Hg
_ 2 mol HgO
2 mol Hg
_ 1 mol O 2
2 mol HgO
_ 1 mol O 2
11. a. 2C H 4 (g) + S 8 (s) → 2C S 2 (l) + 4 H 2 S(g)
b. 1.50 mol S 8 × 2 mol C S 2
_ 1 mol S 8
= 3.00 mol C S 2
c. 1.50 mol S 8 × 4 mol H 2 S
_ 1 mol S 8
= 6.00 mol H 2 S
13. Step 1: Balance the chemical equation.
2NaCl(s) → 2Na(s) + C l 2 (g)
Step 2: Make mole → mole conversion.
2.50 mol NaCl × 1 mol C l 2
_ 2 mol NaCl
= 1.25 mol C l 2
Step 3: Make mole → mass conversion.
1.25 mol C l 2 × 70.9 g C l 2
_ 1 mol C l 2
= 88.6 g C l 2
15. 2Na N 3 (s) → 2Na(s) + 3 N 2 (g)
Step 1: Make mass → mole conversion.
100.0 g Na N 3 × 1 mol Na N 3
_ 65.02 g Na N 3
= 1.538 mol Na N 3
Step 2: Make mole → mole conversion.
1.538 mol Na N 3 × 3 mol N 2
_ 2 mol Na N 3
= 2.307 mol N 2
Step 3: Make mole → mass conversion.
2.307 mol N 2 × 28.02 g N 2
_ 1 mol N 2
= 64.64 g N 2
23. Step 1: Make mass → mole conversion.
100.0 g Na × 1 mol Na
_ 22.99 g Na
= 4.350 mol Na
100.0 g F e 2 O 3 × 1 mol F e 2 O 3
__ 159.7 g F e 2 O 3
= 0.6261 mol F e 2 O 3
Step 2: Make mole ratio comparison.
0.6261 mol F e 2 O 3
__ 4.350 mol Na
compared to 1 mol F e 2 O 3
_ 6 mol Na
0.1439 compared to 0.1667
a. The actual ratio is less than the needed ratio, so
iron(III) oxide is the limiting reactant.
b. Sodium is the excess reactant.
c. Step 1: Make mole → mole conversion.
0.6261 mol F e 2 O 3 × 2 mol Fe
_ 1 mol F e 2 O 3
= 1.252 mol Fe
Step 2: Make mole → mass conversion.
1.252 mol Fe × 55.85 g Fe
_ 1 mol Fe
= 69.92 g Fe
d. Step 1: Make mole → mole conversion.
0.6261 mol F e 2 O 3 × 6 mol Na
_ 1 mol F e 2 O 3
= 3.757 mol Na needed
Step 2: Make mole → mass conversion.
3.757 mol Na × 22.9 g Na
_ 1 mol Na
= 86.37 g Na needed
100.0 g Na given - 86.37 g Na needed
= 13.6 g Na in excess
29. a. Step 1: Write the balanced chemical equation.
Zn(s) + I 2 (s) → Zn I 2 (s)
Step 2: Make mass → mole conversion.
125.0 g Zn × 1 mol Zn
_ 65.38 g Zn
= 1.912 mol Zn
Solutions to Selected Practice Problems
Solutions to Selected Practice Problems 999
Step 3: Make mole → mole conversion.
1.912 mol Zn × 1 mol Zn I 2
_ 1 mol Zn
= 1.912 mol Zn I 2
Step 4: Make mole → mass conversion.
1.912 mol Zn I 2 × 319.2 g Zn I 2
_ 1 mol Zn I 2
= 610.3 g Zn I 2
610.3 g of Zn I 2 is the theoretical yield.
b. % yield = 515.6 g Zn I 2
___ 610.3 g Zn I 2
× 100
= 84.48% yield of Zn I 2
Chapter 12
1. Rat e nitrogen
_ Rat e neon
= √
20.2 g/mol
_ 28.0 g/mol
= √ 0.721 = 0.849
3. Rearrange Graham’s law to solve for Rat e A .
Rat e A = Rat e B × √
molar mas s B
_ molar mas s A
Rat e B = 3.6 mol/min
molar mas s B
_ molar mas s A
= 0.5
Rat e A = 3.6 mol/min × √ 0.5 = 3.6 mol/min × 0.71 = 2.5 mol/min
5. P total = 5.00 kPa + 4.56 kPa + 3.02 kPa + 1.20 kPa = 13.78 kPa
7. N 2 = 590 mm Hg; O 2 = 160 mm Hg; Ar = 8 mm Hg
Chapter 13 1. V 2 =
V 1 P 1 _
P 2 =
(300.0 mL)(99.0 kPa) __
188 kPa = 158 mL
3. P 2 = 1.08 atm + (1.08 atm × 0.25) = 1.35 atm
V 2 = V 1 P 1
_ P 2
= (145.7 mL)(1.08 atm)
__ 1.35 atm
= 117 mL
5. T 1 = 89°C + 273 = 362 K
T 2 = T 1 V 2
_ V 1
= (362 K)(1.12 L)
__ 0.67 L
= 605 K
605 - 273 = 332°C = 330°C
7. V 2 = 0.67 L - (0.67 L × 0.45) = 0.37 L
T 2 = T 1 V 2
_ V 1
= (350 K)(0.37 L)
__ 0.67 L
= 190 K
9. T 2 = 36.5°C + 273 = 309.5 K
T 1 = T 2 P 1
_ P 2
= (309.5 K)(1.12 atm)
__ 2.56 atm
= 135 K
135 K - 273 = -138°C
11. T 1 = 22.0°C + 273 = 295 K
T 2 = 100.0°C + 273 = 373 K
V 1 = V 2 T 1 P 2
_ T 2 P 1
= (0.224 mL)(295 K)(1.23 atm)
___ (373 K)(1.02 atm)
= 0.214 mL
13. T 1 = 0.00°C + 273 = 273 K
T 2 = 30.0°C + 273 = 303 K
V 2
_ V 1
= P 1 T 2
_ P 2 T 1
= (1.00 atm)(303 K)
__ (1.20 atm)(273 K)
= 0.92
This is a ratio, so there are no units. The final volume
is less than the original volume, so the piston will
move down.
21. 1.0 L × 1 mol
_ 22.4 L
= 0.045 mol
0.045 mol × 44.0 g
_ 1 mol
= 2.0 g
23. 0.416 g × 1 mol
_ 83.80 g
= 0.00496 mol
0.00496 mol × 22.4 L
_ 1 mol
= 0.111 L
25. 0.860 g - 0.205 g = 0.655 g He remaining
Set up the problem as a ratio.
V _
0.655 g =
19.2 L _
0.860 g
Solve for V.
V = (19.2 L)(0.655 g)
__ 0.860 g
= 14.6 L
27. V = nRT
_ P
=
(0.323 mol) (0.0821 L·atm
_ mol·K
) (265 K)
___ 0.900 atm
= 7.81 L
29. n = PV
_ RT
= (3.81 atm)(0.44 L)
__ (0.0821
L·atm _
mol·K ) (298 K)
= 6.9 × 1 0 -3 mol
39. 2 H 2 (g) + O 2 (g) → 2 H 2 O(g)
5.00 L O 2 × 2 volumes H 2
__ 1 volume O 2
= 10.0 L H 2
41. N 2 + O 2 = N 2 O
2 N 2 + O 2 = 2 N 2 O
34 L N 2 O × 1 volume O 2
__ 2 volumes N 2
= 17 L O 2
43. 2.38 kg × 1000 g
_ 1 kg
× 1 mol CaC O 3
__ 100.09 g
× 1 mol C O 2
__ 1 mol CaC O 3
× 22.4 L
_ 1 mol
= 533 L C O 2
45. Molecular mass of sodium bicarbonate = 83.9 g/mol
28 g NaHC O 3 × 1 mol NaHC O 3
__ 83.9 g
= 0.33 mol NaHC O 3
For each mole of sodium bicarbonate, one mole of
C O 2 is produced, so 0.33 mol NaHC O 3 will produce
0.33 mol C O 2 .
For an ideal gas, molar volume is 22.4 L at 273 K and
1 atm.
T = 20°C + 273 = 293 K
0.33 mol C O 2 × 22.4 L
_ 1 mol
× 293 K
_ 273 K
= 7.9 L of C O 2
1000 Solutions to Selected Practice Problems
Solutions to Selected Practice Problems
Chapter 14 9. 600.0 mL H 2 O × 1.0 g/mL = 600.0 g H 2 O
20.0 g NaHC O 3
___ 600.0 g H 2 O + 20.0 g NaHC O 3
× 100 = 3%
11. 1500.0 g - 54.3 g = 1445.7 g solvent
13. 35 mL __
155 mL + 35 mL × 100 = 18%
15. 15% = 18 mL
__ x mL solution
× 100 = 120 mL
17. mol KBr = 1.55 g × 1 mol
_ 119.0 g
= 0.0130 mol KBr
molarity = mol KBr
__ 1.60 L solution
= 0.0130 mol
_ 1.60 L
= 8.13 × 1 0 -3 M
19. 0.25M = x mol Ca(OH ) 2
__ 1.5 L solution
x = 0.38 mol Ca(OH ) 2
0.38 mol Ca(OH ) 2 × 74.08 g
_ 1 mol
= 28 g Ca(OH ) 2
21. mol CaC l 2 = 500.0 mL × 1 L _
1000 mL × 0.20M
= 500.0 mL × 1 L _
1000 mL ×
0.20 mol _
1 L = 0.10 mol
mass CaC l 2 = 0.10 mol CaC l 2 × 110.98 g
_ 1 mol
=11 g
23. 100 mL × 1 L _
1000 mL ×
0.15 mol ethanol __
1 L solution ×
46 g ethanol __
1 mol ethanol
× 1 mL ethanol
__ 0.7893 g ethanol
= 0.87 mL
25. (5.0M) V 1 = (0.25M)(100.0 mL)
V 1 = (0.25M)(100.0 mL)
__ 5.0M
= 5.0 mL
27. mol N a 2 S O 4 = 10.0 g N a 2 S O 4 × 1 mol __
142.04 g N a 2 S O 4
= 0.0704 mol N a 2 S O 4
molality = 0.0704 mol N a 2 S O 4
__ 1.0000 kg H 2 O
= 0.0704m
29. 22.8% = mass NaOH
__ mass NaOH + mass H 2 O
× 100
Assume 100.0 g sample.
Then, mass NaOH = 22.8 g
mass H 2 O = 100.0 g - (mass NaOH) = 77.2 g
mol NaOH = 22.8 g × 1 mol
_ 40.00 g
= 0.570 mol NaOH
mol H 2 O = 77.2 g × 1 mol
_ 18.02 g
= 4.28 mol H 2 O
mol fraction NaOH = mol NaOH
__ mol NaOH + mol H 2 O
= 0.570 mol NaOH
___ 0.570 mol NaOH + 4.28 mol H 2 O
= 0.570
_ 4.85
= 0.118
The mole fraction of NaOH is 0.118.
37. S 2 = 1.5 g
_ 1.0 L
= 1.5 g/L
P 2 = P 1 × S 2
_ S 1
= 10.0 atm × 1.5 g/L
_ 0.66 g/L
= 23 atm
45. ∆ T b = 0.512°C/m × 0.625m = 0.320°C
T b = 100°C + 0.320°C = 100.320°C
∆ T f = 1.86°C/m × 0.625m = 1.16°C
T f = 0.0°C − 1.16°C = −1.16°C
47. K f = ∆ T f
_ m
= 0.080°C
_ 0.045 m
= 1.8°C/m
It is most likely water because the calculated value is
closest to 1.86°C/m.
Chapter 15 1. 142 Calories = 142 kcal
142 kcal × 1000 cal
_ 1 kcal
= 142,000 cal
3. Unit X = 0.1 cal
1 cal = 4.184 J
X = (0.1 cal)(4.184 J/cal) = 0.4184 J
1 cal = 0.001 Calorie
X = (0.1 cal)(1 Cal/1000 cal) = 0.0001 Calorie
5. q = c × m × ∆T
5696 J = c × 155 g × 15.0°C
c = 2.45 J/(g·°C)
The specific heat is very close to the value for ethanol.
13. q = c × m × ∆T
5650 J = 4.184 J/(g·°C) × m × 26.6°C
m = 50.8 g
15. q = c × m × ∆T
9750 J = 4.184 J/(g·ºC) × 335 g × ∆T
∆T = 6.96°C
Because the water lost heat, let ∆T = −6.96°C.
∆T = −6.96°C = T f − 65.5°C
T f = 58.5°C
23. 25.7 g C H 3 OH × 1 mol C H 3 OH
__ 32.04 g C H 3 OH
× 3.22 kJ
__ 1 mol C H 3 OH
= 2.58 kJ
25. 12,880 kJ = m × 1 mol C H 4
_ 16.04 g C H 4
× 891 kJ
_ 1 mol C H 4
m = 12,880 kJ × 16.04 g C H 4
_ 1 mol C H 4
× 1 mol C H 4
_ 891 kJ
Solutions to Selected Practice Problems
Solutions to Selected Practice Problems 1001
m = 232 g C H 4
33. a. 4Al(s) + 3 O 2 (g) → 2A l 2 O 3 (s) ∆H = -3352 kJ
b. ∆H for Equation b = -x kJ
Add Equation a to Equation b reversed and tripled.
4Al(s) + 3 O 2 (g) → 2A l 2 O 3 (s) ∆H = -3352 kJ
3Mn O 2 (s) → 3Mn(s) + 3 O 2 (g) ∆H = 3x kJ
4Al(s) + 3Mn O 2 (s) → 2A l 2 O 3 (s) + 3Mn(s)
-1789 kJ = 3x kJ + (-3352 kJ)
3x kJ = -1789 kJ + 3352 kJ = +1563 kJ
x = 1563 kJ
_ 3 = +521 kJ
Because the direction of Equation b was changed,
∆H for Equation b = -521 kJ.
35. ∆ H rxn 0 = [4(33.18 kJ) + 6(-285.83 kJ)] -
4(-46.11) kJ = -1397.82
37. Reverse Equation a and change the sign of ∆ H f 0 to
obtain Equation c.
Add equation b.
c. NO(g) → Ω N 2 (g) + Ω O 2 (g) ∆ H f 0 = -91.3 kJ
b. Ω N 2 (g) + O 2 (g) → N O 2 (g) ∆ H f 0 = ?
Add the equations.
NO(g) + Ω O 2 (g) → N O 2 (g)
∆ H rxn 0 = -58.1 kJ = ∆ H f
0 (c) + ∆ H f 0 (b)
−58.1 kJ = -91.3 kJ + ∆ H f 0 (b)
∆ H f 0 (b) = -58.1 kJ + 91.3 kJ = 33.2 kJ
45. The states of the two reactants are the same on both
sides of the equation, so it is impossible from the
equation alone to predict the sign of ∆ S system .
47. Calculate T when ∆ G system = 0.
-36.8 J/K × 1 kJ
_ 1000 J
= -0.0368 kJ/K
∆ G system = ∆ H system - T∆ S system
-144 kJ - (T × (−0.0368 kJ/K)) = -144 kJ +
0.0368T kJ/K = 0
T = 144 kJ
_ 0.0368 kJ/K
= 3910 K
At any temperature above 3910 K, the reaction is
spontaneous.
Chapter 16 1. H 2 is consumed. Average reaction rate expression
should be negative.
Average reaction rate =
- [ H 2 ] at time t 2 - [ H 2 ] at time t 1
___ t 2 − t 1
= - ∆[ H 2 ]
_ ∆t
Average reaction rate = - 0.020M - 0.030M
__ 4.00 s - 0.00 s
= - -0.010M
_ 4.00 s
= 0.0025 mol/(L·s)
3. HCl is formed so the average rate expression should
be positive.
Average reaction rate =
[HCl] at time t 2 - [HCl] at time t 1
___ t 2 - t 1
= 0.0050 mol/(L·s)
[HCl ] at time t 2 =
(0.0050 mol/(L·s))( t 2 - t 1 ) + [HCl ] at time t 1
= (0.0050 mol/L·s)(4.00 s - 0.00 s) + 0.00 s
= 0.020M
19. Rate = k[A ] 3
21. Examining trials 1 and 2, doubling [A] has no effect
on the rate; therefore, the reaction is zero order in A.
Examining trials 2 and 3, doubling [B] doubles the
rate; therefore, the reaction is first order in B. Rate =
k[A ] 0 [B] = k[B]
31. [NO] = 0.00500M
[ H 2 ] = 0.00200M
k = 2.90 × 1 0 2 L 2 /(mo l 2 ·s)
Rate = k [NO ] 2 [ H 2 ]
= [2.90 × 1 0 2 L 2 /(mo l 2 ·s)](0.00500M ) 2 (0.00200M)
= [2.90 × 1 0 2 L 2 /(mo l 2 ·s)](0.00500 mol/k ) 2
(0.00200 mol/L)
= 1.45 × 1 0 -5 mol/(L·s)
33. Rate = k [NO ] 2 [ H 2 ]
[NO] = √
Rate _
k[ H 2 ] = √
9.00 × 1 0 -5 mol/(L × s)
___ (2.90 × 1 0 2 )(0.00300mol/L)
= 1.02 × 1 0 -2 M
Chapter 17 1. a. K eq =
[N O 2 ] 2 _
[ N 2 O 4 ] d. K eq =
[NO ] 4 [ H 2 O ] 6 __
[N H 3 ] 4 [ O 2 ] 5
b. K eq = [ H 2 ] 2 [ S 2 ]
_ [ H 2 S ] 2
e. K eq = [C S 2 ][ H 2 ] 4
_ [C H 4 ][ H 2 S ] 2
c. K eq = [C H 4 ][ H 2 O]
_ [CO][ H 2 ] 3
3. a. K eq = [ C 10 H 8 (g)] d. K eq = [CO(g)][ H 2 (g)]
__ [ H 2 O(g)]
b. K eq = [ H 2 O(g)] e. K eq = [C O 2 (g)]
_ [CO(g)]
c. K eq = [C O 2 (g)]
5. K eq = [N O 2 ] 2
_ [ N 2 O 4 ]
= 0.062 7 2
_ 0.0185
= 0.213
7. [CO][C l 2 ]
_ [COC l 2 ]
= 8.2 × 1 0 -2
1002 Solutions to Selected Practice Problems
Solutions to Selected Practice Problems
(0.150)(0.150)
__ [COC l 2 ]
= 8.2 × 1 0 -2
[COC l 2 ] = (0.150)(0.150)
__ 8.2 × 1 0 -2
= 0.28M
19. According to the stoichiometry of the equation, the
concentration of B is 0.450M; C and D are 1.00 -
0.450 = 0.550M.
K eq = (0.550)(0.550)
__ (0.450)(0.450)
= 1.49
21. K sp = [P b 2+ ][C O 3 2- ] = 7.40 × 1 0 -14
(s)(s) = 7.40 × 1 0 -14
s = √ 7.40 × 1 0 -14 = 2.72 × 1 0 -7 M
s = 2.72 × 1 0 -7 mol/L × 267.2 g/mol
= 7.27 × 1 0 -5 g/L
23. K sp = [A g + ] 3 [P O 4 3- ] = 2.6 × 1 0 -18
[P O 4 3- ] = s, [A g + ] = 3s
(3s ) 3 (s) = (27 s 3 )(s) = 27 s 4 = 2.6 × 1 0 −18
s = 4
√
2.6 × 1 0 -18
_ 27
= 1.8 × 1 0 -5 mol/L
25. a. Pb F 2 (s) P b 2+ (aq) + 2 F - (aq)
Q sp = [P b 2+ ][ F - ] 2 = (0.050M)(0.015M ) 2
= 1.12 × 1 0 -5
K sp = 3.3 × 1 0 -8
Q sp > K sp, so a precipitate of Pb F 2 will form.
b. A g 2 S O 4 (s) 2A g + (aq) + S O 4 2- (aq)
Q sp = [A g + ] 2 [S O 4 2- ] = (0.0050M ) 2 (0.125M)
= 3.1 × 1 0 -6
K sp = 1.2 × 1 0 -5
Q sp < K sp , so a precipitate will not form.
Chapter 18 1. a. 2Al(s) + 3 H 2 S O 4 (aq) → A l 2 (S O 4 ) 3 (aq) + 3 H 2 (g)
b. CaC O 3 (s) + 2HBr(aq) →
CaB r 2 (aq) + H 2 O(l) + C O 2 (g)
3. Acid Conjugate
baseBase Conjugate
acid
a. N H 4 + N H 3 O H - H 2 O
b. HBr B r - H 2 O H 3 O +
c. H 2 O O H - C O 3 2- HC O 3 -
13. H 2 Se O 3 (aq) + H 2 O(l) HSe O 3 - (aq) + H 3 O + (aq)
HSe O 3 - (aq) + H 2 O(l) Se O 3 2- (aq) + H 3 O + (aq)
15. a. C 6 H 13 N H 2 (aq) + H 2 O(l)
C 6 H 13 N H 3 - (aq ) + O H − (aq)
K b = [ C 6 H 13 N H 3 + ][O H - ]
__ [ C 6 H 13 N H 2 ]
b. C 3 H 7 N H 2 (aq) + H 2 O(l)
C 3 H 7 N H 3 - (aq) + O H - (aq)
K b = [ C 3 H 7 N H 3 + ][O H - ]
__ [ C 3 H 7 N H 2 ]
c. C O 3 2- (aq) + H 2 O(l) HC O 3 - (aq) + O H - (aq)
K b = [HC O 3 - ][O H - ]
__ [C O 3 2- ]
d. HS O 3 - (aq) + H 2 O(l) H 2 S O 3 (aq) + O H - (aq)
K b = [ H 2 S O 3 - ][O H - ]
__ [HS O 3 - ]
23. At 298 K, [ H + ] = [O H − ] = 1.0 × 1 0 −7 M
Mol H + = 1.0 × 1 0 −7 mol
__ 1 L
× 1 L _
1000 mL × 300 mL =
3.0 × 1 0 −8 mol
3.0 × 1 0 −8 mol H + ions × 6.02 × 1 0 23 H + ions
__ 1 mol
=
1.8 × 1 0 16 H + ions
Number of H + = number of O H − = 1.8 × 1 0 16 ions
25. a. [ H + ] = 0.0055M b. [ H + ] = 0.000084M
pH = −log [ H + ] pH = −log [ H + ]
pH = −log 0.0055 pH = −log 0.000084
pH = 2.26 pH = 4.08
27. a. [O H − ] = 1.0 × 1 0 −6 M
pOH = −log [O H − ]
pOH = −log(1.0 × 1 0 −6 )
pOH = 6.00
pH = 14.00 − pOH = 14.00 − 6.00 = 8.00
b. [O H − ] = 6.5 × 1 0 −4 M
pOH = −log [O H − ]
pOH = −log(6.5 × 1 0 −4 )
pOH = 3.19
pH = 14.00 − pOH = 14.00 − 3.19 = 10.81
c. [ H + ] = 3.6 × 1 0 −9 M
pH = −log [ H + ]
pH = −log(3.6 × 1 0 −9 )
pH = 8.44
pOH = 14.00 − pH = 14.00 − 8.44 = 5.56
d. [ H + ] = 2.5 × 1 0 −2 M
pH = −log(−2.5 × 1 0 −2 )
pH = 1.60
pOH = 14.00 − pH = 14.00 − 1.60 = 12.40
29. [HCl] = [ H + ] = 1.0 × 1 0 −3 mol
__ 5.0 L
= 0.00020M =
2.0 × 1 0 −4 M
pH = −log(2.0 × 1 0 −4 ) = −(−3.70) = 3.70
pOH = 14.00 − 3.70 = 10.30
Solutions to Selected Practice Problems
Solutions to Selected Practice Problems 1003
31. [O H − ] = antilog (−pOH)
[O H − ] = antilog (−5.60) = 2.5 × 1 0 −6 M
pH = 14.00 − 5.60 = 8.40
[ H + ] = antilog (−8.40) = 4.0 × 1 0 −9 M
33. a. pH = 14.00 − pOH
pH = 14.00 − 10.70 = 3.30
[ H + ] = antilog (−pH)
[ H + ] = antilog (−3.30) = 5.0 × 1 0 −4 M
[ C 6 H 5 CO O − ] = [ H + ] = 5.0 × 1 0 −4 M
[ C 6 H 5 COOH] = 0.0040M − 5.0 × 1 0 −4 M =
0.0035M
K a = [ H + ][ C 6 H 5 CO O − ]
__ [ C 6 H 5 COOH]
= (5.0 × 1 0 −4 )(5.0 × 1 0 −4 )
__ (3.5 × 1 0 −3 )
K a = 7.1 × 1 0 −5
b. pH = 14.00 − pOH
pH = 14.00 − 11.00 = 3.00
[ H + ] = antilog (−pH)
[ H + ] = antilog (−3.00) = 1.0 × 1 0 −3 M
[CN O − ] = [ H + ] = 1.0 × 1 0 −3 M
[HCNO] = 0.100 − 1.0 × 1 0 −3 M = 0.099M
K a = [ H + ][CN O − ]
__ [HCNO]
= (1.0 × 1 0 −3 )(1.0 × 1 0 −3 )
__ (0.099)
K a = 1.0 × 1 0 −5
c. pH = 14.00 − pOH
pH = 14.00 − 11.18 = 2.82
[ H + ] = antilog (−pH)
[ H + ] = antilog (−2.82) = 1.5 × 1 0 −3 M
[ C 3 H 7 CO O − ] = [ H + ] = 1.5 × 1 0 −3 M
[ C 3 H 7 COOH] = 0.150M − 1.5 × 1 0 −3 M = 0.149M
K a = [ H + ][ C 3 H 7 CO O − ]
__ [ C 3 H 7 COOH]
= (1.5 × 1 0 −3 )(1.5 × 1 0 −3 )
__ (0.149)
K a = 1.5 × 1 0 −5
45. 49.90 mL HCl × 1 L _
1000 mL ×
0.5900 mol HCl __
1 L HCl =
2.944 × 1 0 −2 mol HCl
2.944 × 1 0 −2 mol HCl × 1 mol N H 3
_ 1 mol HCl
= 2.944 ×
1 0 −2 mol N H 3
M N H 3 = 2.944 × 1 0 −2 mol N H 3
__ 0.02500 L N H 3
= 1.178M
47. a. N H 4 + (aq) + H 2 O(l) N H 3 (aq) + H 3 O + (aq)
The solution is acidic.
b. S O 4 2− (aq) + H 2 O(l) HS O 4 − (aq) + O H − (aq)
The solution is neutral.
c. C H 3 CO O − (aq) + H 2 O(l)
C H 3 COOH(aq) + O H − (aq)
The solution is basic.
d. C O 3 2− (aq) + H 2 O(l) HC O 3 − (aq) + O H − (aq)
The solution is basic.
Chapter 19 1. a. reduction c. oxidation
b. oxidation d. reduction
3. A g + is the oxidizing agent, Fe is the reducing agent;
A g + is reduced, Fe is oxidized
5. a. +7 b. +5 c. +3
7. a. -3 b. -3 c. -2
15. 3(+2)
2(–3)
HCl + HNO3 → HOCl + NO + H2O+1 -1 +1 +5 -2 +1 -2 +1 +2 -2 +1 -2
3HCl + 2HN O 3 → 3HOCl + 2NO + H 2 O
17. 4(+3)(2)
3(–4)(2)
NH3(g) + NO2(g) → N2(g) + H2O(l)-3 +1 +4 -2 0 +1 -2
8N H 3 (g) + 6N O 2 (g) → 7 N 2 (g) + 12 H 2 O(l)
19. 3(+2)
2(–3)
H2S(g) + NO3-(aq) → S(s) + NO(g)
+1 -2 +5 -2 +2 -20
2 H + (aq) + 3 H 2 S(g) + 2N O 3 - (aq) →
3S(s) + 2NO(g) + 4 H 2 O(l)
21. +2
(–1)
Zn + 2NO3- + 4H+
→ Zn2+ + 2NO2 + 2H2O+4 -2+5 -2 +20
Zn + 2N O 3 - + 4 H + → Z n 2+ + 2N O 2 + 2 H 2 O
23. 2 I - (aq) → I 2 (s) + 2 e - (oxidation)
14 H + (aq) + 6 e - + C r 2 O 7 2- (aq) →
2C r 3+ (aq) + 7 H 2 O(l) (reduction)
Multiply oxidation half-reaction by 3 and add to
reduction half-reaction.
14 H + (aq) + 6 e - + Cr O 7 2- (aq) + 6 I - (aq) →
3 I 2 (s) + 2C r 3+ (aq) + 7 H 2 O(l) + 6 e -
14 H + (aq) + Cr O 7 2- (aq) + 6 I - (aq) →
3 I 2 (s) + 2C r 3+ (aq) + 7 H 2 O(l)
25. 6O H - (aq) + N 2 O(g) →
2N O 2 - (aq) + 4 e - + 3 H 2 O(l) (oxidation)
Cl O - (aq) + 2 e - + H 2 O(l) →
C l - (aq) + 2O H - (aq) (reduction)
1004 Solutions to Selected Practice Problems
Solutions to Selected Practice Problems
Multiply reduction half-reaction by 2 and add to oxi-
dation half-reaction.
6O H - (aq) + N 2 O(g) + 2Cl O - (aq) + 4 e - + 2 H 2 O(l) →
2N O 2 - (aq) + 4 e - + 3 H 2 O(l) + 2C l - (aq) + 4O H - (aq)
N 2 O(g) + 2Cl O - (aq) + 2O H - (aq) →
2N O 2 - (aq) + 2C l - (aq) + H 2 O(l)
Chapter 20 1. P t 2+ (aq) + Sn(s) → Pt(s) + S n 2+ (aq)
E cell 0
= +1.18 V - (-0.1375 V)
E cell 0
= +1.32 V
Sn|S n 2+ ||P t 2+ |Pt
3. H g 2+ (aq) + Cr(s) → Hg(l) + C r 2+ (aq)
E cell 0
= +0.851 V - (-0.913 V)
E cell 0
= +1.764 V
Cr|C r 2+ ||H g 2+ |Hg
5. E cell 0
= +0.3419 V - (-0.1375 V)
E cell 0
= +0.4794 V
E cell 0
> 0 spontaneous
7. E cell 0
= 0.920 V - (+1.507 V)
E cell 0
= -0.587 V
E cell 0
< 0 not spontaneous
9. Al|A l 3+ ||H g 2+ |H g 2 2+
2Al(s) + 6H g 2+ (aq) → 2A l 3+ (aq) + 3H g 2 2+ (aq)
E cell 0
= 0.920 V - (-1.662 V) = +2.582 V
The reaction is spontaneous.
Chapter 21 9. a. CH3
CH3CHCHCH2CH(CH2)4CH3
—
C3H7
—
CH3
—
b. C2H5 C2H5
CH3CH2CHCHCHCH2CH2CH3
— —
C2H5
—
11. a. C2H5
C3H7
b. CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
17. a. 4-methyl-2-pentene b. 2,2,6-trimethyl-3-octene
31. a. propylbenzene
b. 1-ethyl-2-methylbenzene
c. 1-ethyl-2,3-dimethylbenzene
Chapter 22 1. 2,3-difluorobutane
3. 1,3-dibromo-2-chlorobenzene
Chapter 23No practice problems
Chapter 24 7. 90
229 Th → 2
4 He + 88
225 Ra
Alpha decay
9. For one half-life, amount remaining = (initial
amount) ( 1 _ 2 )
n
= (10.0 mg) ( 1 _ 2 )
1 = 5.00 mg.
For two half-lives, amount remaining = (initial
amount) ( 1 _ 2 )
n
= (10.0 mg) ( 1 _ 2 )
2 = 2.50 mg.
For three half-lives, amount remaining = (initial
amount) ( 1 _ 2 )
n
= (10.0 mg) ( 1 _ 2 )
3 = 1.25 mg.
11. Sample A will have 16.2 grams remaining after two
half-lives, or 10.54 years. For Sample B, amount
remaining = (initial amount) ( 1 _ 2 )
t _
T = (58.4 g) ( 1 _
2 )
10.54y
_ 12.32y
≈ 32.3 g
For Sample C, amount remaining =
(initial amount ) t _
T = (37.6 g) ( 1 _
2 )
10.54y
_ 28.79y
≈ 29.2 g
19. 13
27 Al + n → 11
24 Na + 2 4 He
21. Let T = target and I = unstable isotope. Then,
n + T = I and I = β + 48 110 Cd
Balancing the second equation gives:
47 110 Ag = β + 48
110 Cd
The first equation must then be: n + T = 47 110 Ag
Balancing this equation gives: n + 47 109 Ag = 47
110 Ag
The target, then, was silver-109, and the unstable
isotope was silver-110.
Glossary/Glosario 1005
AEnglish Español
a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . back (BAK)
ay . . . . . . . . . . . . . day (DAY)
ah . . . . . . . . . . . . . father (FAH thur)
ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . flower (FLOW ur)
ar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . car (CAR)
e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . less (LES)
ee . . . . . . . . . . . . . leaf (LEEF)
ih . . . . . . . . . . . . . . trip (TRIHP)
i (i+con+e). . . . . . idea, life (i DEE uh, life)
oh . . . . . . . . . . . . . go (GOH)
aw . . . . . . . . . . . . . soft (SAWFT)
or . . . . . . . . . . . . . orbit (OR but)
oy . . . . . . . . . . . . . coin (COYN)
oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . foot (FOOT)
ew . . . . . . . . . . . . . food (FEWD)
yoo . . . . . . . . . . . . pure (PYOOR)
yew . . . . . . . . . . . . few (FYEW)
uh . . . . . . . . . . . . . comma (CAHM uh)
u (+con) . . . . . . . . rub (RUB)
sh . . . . . . . . . . . . . shelf (SHELF)
ch . . . . . . . . . . . . . nature (NAY chur)
g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gift (GIHFT)
j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gem (JEM)
ing . . . . . . . . . . . . sing (SING)
zh . . . . . . . . . . . . . vision (VIHZH un)
k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cake (KAYK)
s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . seed, cent (SEED, SENT)
z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zone, raise (ZOHN, RAYZ)
absolute zero (p. 445) Zero on the Kelvin scale which repre-sents the lowest possible theoretical temperature; atoms are all in the lowest possible energy state.
accuracy (p. 47) Refers to how close a measured value is to an accepted value.
acid-base indicator (p. 662) A chemical dye whose color is affected by acidic and basic solutions.
acidic solution (p. 636) Contains more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions.
acid ionization constant (p. 647) The value of the equilib-rium constant expression for the ionization of a weak acid.
actinide series (p. 180) In the periodic table, the f-block ele-ments from period 7 that follow the element actinium.
activated complex (p. 564) A short-lived, unstable arrange-ment of atoms that can break apart and re-form the reac-tants or can form products; also sometimes referred to as the transition state.
activation energy (p. 564) The minimum amount of energy required by reacting particles in order to form the acti-vated complex and lead to a reaction.
active site (p. 830) The pocket or crevice to which a sub-strate binds in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction.
cero absoluto (pág. 445) Equivale a cero grados en la escala de Kelvin y representa la temperatura teórica más fría posible; a esta temperatura todos los átomos se encuen-tran en el menor estado energético posible.
exactitud (pág. 47) Se refiere a la cercanía entre un valor medido y el valor aceptado.
indicador ácido-base (pág. 662) tinción química cuyo color cambia al entrar en contacto con soluciones ácidas y básicas.
solución ácida (pág. 636) Solución que contiene más iones hidrógeno que iones hidróxido.
constante ácida de ionización (pág. 647) Valor de la expre-sión de la constante de equilibrio para la ionización de un ácido débil.
serie de actínidos (pág. 180) Elementos del bloque F del período 7 de la tabla periódica que aparecen después del elemento actinio.
complejo activado (pág. 564) Complejo efímero e inestable de átomos que se puede romper para volver a formar los reactivos o para formar los productos; a veces también se le llama estado de transición.
energía de activación (pág. 564) La cantidad mínima de energía que requieren las partículas de una reacción para formar el complejo activado y producir la reacción.
sitio activo (pág. 830) Saliente o hendidura a la que se enlaza un sustrato durante una reacción catalizada por enzimas.
A multilingual science glossary at glencoe.com includes Arabic, Bengali, Chinese, English, Haitian Creole, Hmong, Korean, Portuguese, Russian, Tagalog, Urdu, and Vietnamese.
Pronunciation KeyUse the following key to help you sound out words in the glossary.
Como usar el glosario en espanol:
1. Busca el termino en ingles que desees encontrar.
2. El termino en espanol, junto con la defi nicion,
se encuentran en la columna de la derecha.
1006 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
actual yield (p. 385) The amount of product produced when a chemical reaction is carried out.
addition polymerization (p. 811) Occurs when all the atoms present in the monomers are retained in the polymer product.
addition reaction (p. 804) A reaction that occurs when other atoms bond to each of two atoms bonded by double or triple covalent bonds.
alcohol (p. 792) An organic compound in which a hydroxyl group replaces a hydrogen atom of a hydrocarbon.
aldehyde (p. 796) An organic compound containing the structure in which a carbonyl group at the end of a car-bon chain is bonded to a carbon atom on one side and a hydrogen atom on the other side.
aliphatic compounds (a luh FA tihk • KAHM pownd) (p. 771) Nonaromatic hydrocarbons, such as the alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes.
alkali metals (p. 177) Group 1 elements, except for hydro-gen, they are reactive and usually exist as compounds with other elements.
alkaline earth metals (p. 177) Group 2 elements in the mod-ern periodic table and are highly reactive.
alkane (p. 750) Hydrocarbon that contains only single bonds between atoms.
alkene (p. 759) An unsaturated hydrocarbon, such as eth-ene ( C 2 H 4 ), with one or more double covalent bonds between carbon atoms in a chain.
alkyl halide (p. 787) An organic compound containing a halogen atom covalently bonded to an aliphatic carbon atom.
alkyne (p. 763) An unsaturated hydrocarbon, such as ethyne ( C 2 H 2 ), with one or more triple bonds between carbon atoms in a chain.
allotrope (p. 422) One of two or more forms of an element with different structures and properties when they are in the same state—solid, liquid, or gas.
alloy (p. 227) A mixture of elements that has metallic prop-erties; most commonly forms when the elements are either similar in size (substitutional alloy) or the atoms of one element are much smaller than the atoms of the other (interstitial alloy).
alpha particle (p. 123) A particle with two protons and two neutrons, with a 2+ charge; is equivalent to a helium-4 nucleus, can be represented as α; and is emitted during radioactive decay.
alpha radiation (p. 123) Radiation that is made up of alpha particles; is deflected toward a negatively charged plate when radiation from a radioactive source is directed between two electrically charged plates.
amide (AM ide) (p. 800) An organic compound in which the -H group of a carboxylic acid is replaced by a nitro-gen atom bonded to other atoms.
amines (A meen) (p. 795) Organic compounds that con-tain nitrogen atoms bonded to carbon atoms in aliphatic chains or aromatic rings and have the general formula RN H 2 .
amino acid (p. 826) An organic molecule that has both an amino group (-N H 2 ) and a carboxyl group (-COOH).
rendimiento real (pág. 385) Cantidad de producto que se obtiene al realizar una reacción química.
polimerización de adición (pág. 811) Ocurre cuando todos los átomos presentes en los monómeros forman parte del producto polimérico.
reacción de adición (pág. 804) Reacción que ocurre cuando dos átomos unidos entre sí por enlaces covalentes dobles o triples se unen con otros átomos.
alcohol (pág. 792) Compuesto orgánico en el que un grupo hidroxilo reemplaza a un átomo de hidrógeno de un hidrocarburo.
aldehído (pág. 796) Compuesto orgánico que contiene una estructura en la que un grupo carbonilo, situado al final de una cadena de carbonos, se une a un átomo de carbono por un lado y a un átomo de hidrógeno por el lado opuesto.
compuestos alifáticos (pág. 771) Hidrocarburos no aromáti-cos como los alcanos, los alquenos y los alquinos.
metales alcalinos (pág. 177) Incluyen los elementos del grupo 1, a excepción del hidrógeno. Son reactivos y gene-ralmente existen como compuestos con otros elementos.
metales alcalinotérreos (pág. 177) Elementos altamente reactivos del grupo 2 de la tabla periódica moderna.
alcano (pág. 750) Hidrocarburo que sólo contiene enlaces sencillos entre sus átomos.
alqueno (pág. 759) Hidrocarburo no saturado, como el eteno ( C 2 H 4 ), que tiene uno o más enlaces covalentes dobles entre los átomos de carbono en una cadena.
haluro de alquilo (pág. 787) Compuesto orgánico que con-tiene un átomo de halógeno enlazado covalentemente a un átomo de carbono alifático.
alquino (pág. 763) Hidrocarburo no saturado, como el ace-tileno ( C 2 H 2 ), que tiene uno o más enlaces triples entre los átomos de carbono en una cadena.
alótropos (pág. 422) Formas de un elemento que tienen estructura y propiedades distintas cuando están en el mismo estado: sólido, líquido o gaseoso.
aleación (pág. 227) Mezcla de elementos que posee propie-dades metálicas; en general se forman cuando los elemen-tos tienen un tamaño similar (aleación de sustitución) o cuando los átomos de un elemento son mucho más pequeños que los átomos del otro (aleación intersticial).
partícula alfa (pág. 123) Partícula con dos protones y dos neutrones que tiene una carga 2+ ; equivale a un núcleo de helio 4, se puede representar como α y es emitida durante la desintegración radiactiva.
radiación alfa (pág. 123) Radiación compuesta de partículas alfa; si la radiación proveniente de una fuente radiactiva es dirigida hacia dos placas cargadas eléctricamente, este tipo de radiación se desvía hacia la placa con carga negativa.
amida (pág. 800) Compuesto orgánico en el que el grupo -H de un ácido carboxílico es sustituido por un átomo de nitrógeno unido a otros átomos.
aminas (pág. 795) Compuestos orgánicos que contienen átomos de nitrógeno unidos a átomos de carbono en cadenas alifáticas o anillos aromáticos; su fórmula gene-ral es RN H 2 .
amino ácido (pág. 826) Molécula orgánica que posee un grupo amino (-N H 2 ) y un grupo carboxilo (-COOH).
actual yield/rendimiento real amino acid/amino ácido
Glossary/Glosario 1007
Glossary/Glosario
amorphous solid (p. 424) A solid in which particles are not arranged in a regular, repeating pattern that often is formed when molten material cools too quickly to form crystals.
amphoteric (AM foh TAR ihk) (p. 639) Describes water and other substances that can act as both acids and bases.
amplitude (p. 137) The height of a wave from the origin to a crest, or from the origin to a trough.
anabolism (ah NAB oh lih zum) (p. 844) Refers to the metabolic reactions through which cells use energy and small building blocks to build large, complex molecules needed to carry out cell functions and for cell structures.
anion (AN i ahn) (p. 209) An ion that has a negative charge.
anode (p. 710) In an electrochemical cell, the electrode where oxidation takes place.
applied research (p. 17) A type of scientific investigation that is undertaken to solve a specific problem.
aqueous solution (p. 299) A solution in which the solvent is water.
aromatic compounds (p. 771) Organic compounds that con-tain one or more benzene rings as part of their molecular structure.
Arrhenius model (ah REE nee us • MAH dul) (p. 637)A model of acids and bases; states that an acid is a sub-stance that contains hydrogen and ionizes to produce hydrogen ions in aqueous solution and a base is a sub-stance that contains a hydroxide group and dissociates to produce a hydroxide ion in aqueous solution.
aryl halide (p. 788) An organic compound that contains a halogen atom bonded to a benzene ring or another aro-matic group
asymmetric carbon (p. 768) A carbon atom that has four different atoms or groups of atoms attached to it; occurs in chiral compounds.
atmosphere (p. 407) The unit that is often used to report air pressure.
atom (p. 106) The smallest particle of an element that retains all the properties of that element; is electrically neutral, spherically shaped, and composed of electrons, protons, and neutrons.
atomic emission spectrum (p. 144) A set of frequencies of electromagnetic waves given off by atoms of an element; consists of a series of fine lines of individual colors.
atomic mass (p. 119) The weighted average mass of the iso-topes of that element.
atomic mass unit (amu) (p. 119) One-twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom.
atomic number (p. 115) The number of protons in an atom.
atomic orbital (p. 152) A three-dimensional region around the nucleus of an atom that describes an electron’s prob-able location.
ATP (p. 845) Adenosine triphosphate—a nucleotide that functions as the universal energy-storage molecule in living cells.
sólido amorfo (pág. 424) Sólido cuyas partículas no están ordenadas de modo que formen un patrón regular repe-titivo; a menudo se forma cuando el material fundido se enfría demasiado rápido como para formar cristales.
anfotérico (pág. 639) Término que describe al agua y otras sustancias que pueden actuar como ácidos y bases.
amplitud (pág. 137) Altura de una onda desde el origen hasta una cresta o desde el origen hasta un valle.
anabolismo (pág. 844) Reacciones metabólicas en las que las células usan energía y pequeñas unidades básicas para formar las moléculas grandes y complejas que requieren para realizar sus funciones celulares y para construir sus estructuras.
anión (pág. 209) Ion con carga negativa.
ánodo (pág. 710) Electrodo donde sucede la oxidación en una celda electroquímica.
investigación aplicada (pág. 17) Tipo de investigación cientí-fica que se realiza para resolver un problema concreto.
solución acuosa (pág. 299) Solución en la que el agua fun-ciona como disolvente.
compuestos aromáticos (pág. 771) Compuestos orgánicos que contienen uno o más anillos de benceno como parte de su estructura molecular.
modelo de Arrhenius (pág. 637) Modelo de ácidos y bases; establece que un ácido es una sustancia que contiene hidrógeno y se ioniza para producir iones hidrógeno en solución acuosa, y que una base es una sustancia que contiene un grupo hidróxido y se disocia para producir un ion hidróxido en solución acuosa.
haluro de arilo (pág. 788) Compuesto orgánico que con-tiene un átomo de halógeno unido a un anillo de ben-ceno u otro grupo aromático.
carbono asimétrico (pág. 768) Átomo de carbono que está unido a cuatro átomos o grupos de átomos diferentes; se hallan en compuestos quirales.
atmósfera (pág. 407) Unidad que a menudo se usa para reportar la presión atmosférica.
átomo (pág. 106) La partícula más pequeña de un elemento que retiene todas las propiedades de ese elemento; es eléctricamente neutro, de forma esférica y está com-puesto de electrones, protones y neutrones.
espectro de emisión atómica (pág. 144) Conjunto de fre-cuencias de ondas electromagnéticas que emiten los áto-mos de un elemento; consta de una serie de líneas finas de distintos colores.
masa atómica (pág. 119) La masa promedio ponderada de los isótopos de un elemento.
unidad de masa atómica (uma) (pág. 119) La doceava parte de la masa de un átomo de carbono 12.
número atómico (pág. 115) El número de protones en un átomo.
orbital atómico (pág. 152) Región tridimensional alrededor del núcleo de un átomo que describe la ubicación proba-ble de un electrón.
ATP (pág. 845) Trifosfato de adenosina; nucleótido que sirve como la molécula universal de almacenamiento de energía en las células vivas.
amorphous solid/sólido amorfo ATP/ATP
1008 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
aufbau principle (p. 156) States that each electron occupies the lowest energy orbital available.
Avogadro’s number (p. 321) The number 6.0221367 × 1 0 23 ,which is the number of representative particles in a mole, and can be rounded to three significant digits 6.02 × 1 0 23 .
Avogadro’s principle (p. 452) States that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of particles.
principio de aufbau (pág. 156) Establece que cada electrón ocupa el orbital de energía más bajo disponible.
número de Avogadro (pág. 321) Equivale al número 6.0221367 × 1 0 23 ; es el número de partículas representa-tivas en un mol; se puede redondear a tres dígitos signifi-cativos: 6.02 × 1 0 23 .
principio de Avogadro (pág. 452) Establece que los volúmenes iguales de gases, a la misma temperatura y presión, contienen igual número de partículas.
band of stability (p. 866) The region on a graph within which all stable nuclei are found when plotting the num-ber of neutrons versus the number of protons.
barometer (p. 407) An instrument that is used to measure atmospheric pressure.
base ionization constant (p. 649) The value of the equilib-rium constant expression for the ionization of a base.
base unit (p. 33) A defined unit in a system of measurement that is based on an object or event in the physical world and is independent of other units.
basic solution (p. 636) Contains more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions.
battery (p. 718) One or more electrochemical cells in a single package that generates electrical current.
beta particle (p. 123) A high-speed electron with a 1− charge that is emitted during radioactive decay.
beta radiation (p. 123) Radiation that is made up of beta particles; is deflected toward a positively charged plate when radiation from a radioactive source is directed between two electrically charged plates.
boiling point (p. 427) The temperature at which a liquid’s vapor pressure is equal to the external or atmospheric pressure.
boiling-point elevation (p. 500) The temperature difference between a solution’s boiling point and a pure solvent’s boiling point.
Boyle’s law (p. 442) States that the volume of a fixed amount of gas held at a constant temperature varies inversely with the pressure.
breeder reactor (p. 882) A nuclear reactor that is able to produce more fuel than it uses.
Brønsted-Lowry model (p. 638) A model of acids and bases in which an acid is a hydrogen-ion donor and a base is a hydrogen-ion acceptor.
Brownian motion (p. 477) The erratic, random, movements of colloid particles that results from collisions of particles of the dispersion medium with the dispersed particles.
buffer (p. 666) A solution that resists changes in pH when limited amounts of acid or base are added.
buffer capacity (p. 667) The amount of acid or base a buffer solution can absorb without a significant change in pH.
banda de estabilidad (pág. 866) Región de una gráfica en la que se hallan todos los núcleos estables cuando se grafica el número de neutrones contra el número de protones.
barómetro (pág. 407) Instrumento que se utiliza para medir la presión atmosférica.
constante de ionización básica (pág. 649) El valor de la expresión de la constante de equilibrio para la ionización de una base.
unidad básica (pág. 33) Unidad definida en un sistema de medidas; está basada en un objeto o evento del mundo físico y es independiente de otras unidades.
solución básica (pág. 636) Solución que contiene más iones hidróxido que iones hidrógeno.
batería (pág. 718) Una o más celdas electroquímicas con-tenidas en una sola unidad que genera corriente eléctrica.
partícula beta (pág. 123) Electrón de alta velocidad con una carga 1− que es emitido durante la desintegración radiactiva.
radiación beta (pág. 123) Radiación compuesta de partículas beta; si la radiación proveniente de una fuente radiactiva es dirigida hacia dos placas cargadas eléctricamente, este tipo de radiación se desvía hacia la placa con carga positiva.
punto de ebullición (pág. 427) Temperatura a la cual la pre-sión de vapor de un líquido es igual a la presión externa o atmosférica.
elevación del punto de ebullición (pág. 500) Diferencia de temperatura entre el punto de ebullición de una solución y el punto de ebullición de un disolvente puro.
ley de Boyle (pág. 442) Establece que el volumen de una cantidad dada de gas a temperatura constante varía inversamente según la presión.
reactor generador (pág. 882) Reactor nuclear capaz de pro-ducir más combustible del que utiliza.
modelo de Brønsted-Lowry (pág. 638) Modelo de áci-dos y bases en el que un ácido es un donante de iones hidrógeno y una base es un receptor de iones hidrógeno.
movimiento browniano (pág. 477) Movimientos erráticos, aleatorios de las partículas coloidales, producidos por el choque entre las partículas del medio de dispersión con las partículas dispersas.
amortiguador (pág. 666) Solución que resiste los cambios de pH cuando se agregan cantidades moderadas del ácido o la base.
capacidad amortiguadora (pág. 667) Cantidad de ácido o base que una solución amortiguadora puede absorber sin sufrir un cambio significativo en el pH.
B
aufbau principle/principio de aufbau buffer capacity/capacidad amortiguadora
Glossary/Glosario 1009
Glossary/Glosario
calorie (p. 518) The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of pure water by one degree Celsius.
calorimeter (p. 523) An insulated device that is used to measure the amount of heat released or absorbed during a physical or chemical process.
carbohydrates (p. 832) Compounds that contain multiple hydroxyl groups, plus an aldehyde or a ketone functional group, and function in living things to provide immedi-ate and stored energy.
carbonyl group (p. 796) Arrangement in which an oxygen atom is double-bonded to a carbon atom.
carboxyl group (p. 798) Consists of a carbonyl group bonded to a hydroxyl group.
carboxylic acid (p. 798) An organic compound that contains a carboxyl group and is polar and reactive.
catabolism (kuh TAB oh lih zum) (p. 844) Refers to meta-bolic reactions that break down complex biological mol-ecules for the purpose of forming smaller building blocks and extracting energy.
catalyst (p. 571) A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction by lowering activation energies but is not itself consumed in the reaction.
cathode (p. 710) In an electrochemical cell, the electrode where reduction takes place.
cathode ray (p. 108) Radiation that originates from the cathode and travels to the anode of a cathode-ray tube.
cation (KAT i ahn) (p. 207) An ion that has a positive charge.
cellular respiration (p. 846) The process in which glucose is broken down in the presence of oxygen gas to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy.
Charles’s law (p. 445) States that the volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its kelvin temperature at constant pressure.
chemical bond (p. 206) The force that holds two atoms together; may form by the attraction of a positive ion for a negative ion or by sharing electrons.
chemical change (p. 77) A process involving one or more substances changing into new substances; also called a chemical reaction.
chemical equation (p. 285) A statement using chemical formulas to describe the identities and relative amounts of the reactants and products involved in the chemical reaction.
chemical equilibrium (p. 596) The state in which forward and reverse reactions balance each other because they occur at equal rates.
chemical potential energy (p. 517) The energy stored in a substance because of its composition; most is released or absorbed as heat during chemical reactions or processes.
chemical property (p. 74) The ability or inability of a sub-stance to combine with or change into one or more new substances.
caloría (pág. 518) Cantidad de calor que se requiere para elevar un grado centígrado la temperatura de un gramo de agua pura.
calorímetro (pág. 523) Dispositivo aislado que sirve para medir la cantidad de calor liberada o absorbida durante un proceso físico o químico.
carbohidratos (pág. 832) Compuestos que contienen múlti-ples grupos hidroxilo, además de un grupo funcional aldehído o cetona, cuya función en los seres vivos es pro-porcionar energía inmediata o almacenada.
grupo carbonilo (pág. 796) Grupo formado por un átomo de oxígeno unido por un enlace doble a un átomo de carbono.
grupo carboxilo (pág. 798) Consiste en un grupo carbonilo unido a un grupo hidroxilo.
ácido carboxílico (pág. 798) Compuesto orgánico que con-tiene un grupo carboxilo; es polar y reactivo.
catabolismo (pág. 844) Reacciones metabólicas en las que se desdoblan moléculas biológicas complejas para obtener unidades básicas más pequeñas y energía.
catalizador (pág. 571) Sustancia que aumenta la velocidad de una reacción química al reducir su energía de activación; el catalizador no es consumido durante la reacción.
cátodo (pág. 710) Electrodo donde sucede la reducción en una celda electroquímica.
rayo catódico (pág. 108) Radiación que se origina en el cátodo y viaja hacia el ánodo de un tubo de rayos catódicos.
catión (pág. 207) Ion con carga positiva.
respiración celular (pág. 846) Proceso en el cual la glucosa es desdoblada en presencia del gas oxígeno para producir dióxido de carbono, agua y energía.
Ley de Charles (pág. 445) Establece que el volumen de una masa dada de gas es directamente proporcional a su tem-peratura Kelvin a presión constante.
enlace químico (pág. 206) La fuerza que mantiene a dos áto-mos unidos; puede formarse por la atracción de un ion positivo por un ion negativo compartiendo electrones.
cambio químico (pág. 77) Proceso que involucra una o más sustancias que se transforman en sustancias nuevas; tam-bién se conoce como reacción química.
ecuación química (pág. 285) Expresión que utiliza fórmu-las químicas para describir las identidades y cantidades relativas de los reactivos y productos presentes en una reacción química.
equilibrio químico (pág. 596) Estado en el que se equilibran mutuamente las reacciones en sentido directo e inverso de una reacción química debido a que suceden a tasas iguales.
energía potencial química (pág. 517) La energía almacenada en una sustancia debido a su composición; la mayoría es liberada o absorbida como calor durante reacciones o procesos químicos.
propiedad química (pág. 74) La capacidad de una sustancia de combinarse con una o más sustancias nuevas o de transformarse en una o más sustancias nuevas.
Ccalorie/caloría chemical property/propiedad química
1010 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
chemical reaction (p. 282) The process by which the atoms of one or more substances are rearranged to form differ-ent substances; occurrence can be indicated by changes in temperature, color, odor, and physical state.
chemistry (p. 4) The study of matter and the changes that it undergoes.
chirality (p. 767) A property of a compound to exist in both left (l-) and right (d-) forms; occurs whenever a com-pound contains an asymmetric carbon.
chromatography (p. 83) A technique that is used to separate the components of a mixture based on the tendency of each component to travel or be drawn across the surface of another material.
coefficient (p. 285) In a chemical equation, the number written in front of a reactant or product; in a balanced equation describes the lowest whole-number ratio of the amounts of all reactants and products.
colligative property (kol LIHG uh tihv • PRAH pur tee) (p. 498) A physical property of a solution that depends on the number, but not the identity, of the dissolved sol-ute particles.
collision theory (p. 563) States that atoms, ions, and mol-ecules must collide in order to react.
colloids (p. 477) A heterogeneous mixture of intermediate-sized particles (between atomic-size of solution particles and the size of suspension particles).
combined gas law (p. 449) A single law combining Boyle’s, Charles’s, and Gay-Lussac’s laws that states the relation-ship among pressure, volume, and temperature of a fixed amount of gas.
combustion reaction (p. 290) A chemical reaction that occurs when a substance reacts with oxygen, releasing energy in the form of heat and light.
common ion (p. 620) An ion that is common to two or more ionic compounds.
common ion effect (p. 620) The lowering of the solubility of a substance by the presence of a common ion.
complete ionic equation (p. 301) An ionic equation that shows all the particles in a solution as they realistically exist.
complex reaction (p. 580) A chemical reaction that consists of two or more elementary steps.
compound (p. 85) A chemical combination of two or more different elements; can be broken down into simpler sub-stances by chemical means and has properties different from those of its component elements.
concentration (p. 480) A measure of how much solute is dissolved in a specific amount of solvent or solution.
conclusion (p. 15) A judgment based on the information obtained.
condensation (p. 428) The energy-releasing process by which a gas or vapor becomes a liquid.
condensation polymerization (p. 811) Occurs when mono-mers containing at least two functional groups combine with the loss of a small by-product, usually water.
reacción química (pág. 282) Proceso por el cual los átomos de una o más sustancias se reordenan para formar sus-tancias diferentes; su pueden identificar cuando suceden cambios en temperatura, color, olor o estado físico.
química (pág. 4) El estudio de la materia y los cambios que ésta experimenta.
quiralidad (pág. 767) Propiedad de un compuesto para existir en forma levógira (i-) o dextrógira (d-); ocurre cuando un compuesto contiene un carbono asimétrico.
cromatografía (pág. 83) Técnica que sirve para separar los componentes de una mezcla según la tendencia de cada componente a desplazarse o ser atraído a lo largo de la superficie de otro material.
coeficiente (pág. 285) Número que precede a un reactivo o un producto en una ecuación química; en una ecuación equilibrada, indica la razón más pequeña expresada en números enteros de las cantidades de reactivos y produc-tos en dicha reacción.
propiedad coligativa (pág. 498) Propiedad física de una solución que depende del número, pero no de la identi-dad, de las partículas de soluto disueltas.
teoría de colisión (pág. 563) Establece que los átomos, iones y moléculas deben chocar para reaccionar.
coloides (pág. 477) Mezcla heterogénea de partículas de tamaño intermedio (entre el tamaño atómico de partícu-las en solución y el de partículas en suspensión).
ley combinada de los gases (pág. 449) Ley que combina las leyes de Boyle, Charles y de Gay-Lussac; indica la relación entre la presión, el volumen y la temperatura de una cantidad constante de gas.
reacción de combustión (pág. 290) Reacción química que ocurre al reaccionar una sustancia con el oxígeno, libe-rando energía en forma de calor y luz.
ion común (pág. 620) Ion común a dos o más compuestos iónicos.
efecto del ion común (pág. 620) Disminución de la solu-bilidad de una sustancia debida a la presencia de un ion común.
ecuación iónica total (pág. 301) Ecuación iónica que mues-tra cómo existen realmente todas las partículas en una solución.
reacción compleja (pág. 580) Reacción química que consiste en dos o más pasos elementales.
compuesto (pág. 85) Combinación química de dos o más elementos diferentes; puede ser separado en sustancias más sencillas por medios químicos y exhibe propiedades que difieren de los elementos que lo componen.
concentración (pág. 480) Medida de la cantidad de soluto que se disuelve en una cantidad dada de disolvente o solución.
conclusión (pág. 15) Juicio basado en la información obtenida.
condensación (pág. 428) El proceso de liberación de energía mediante el cual un gas o vapor se convierte en líquido.
polimerización por condensación (pág. 811) Ocurre cuando monómeros que contienen al menos dos grupos funcio-nales se combinan y pierden un producto secundario pequeño, generalmente agua.
chemical reaction/reacción química condensation polymerization/polimerización por condensación
Glossary/Glosario 1011
Glossary/Glosario
condensation reaction (p. 801) Occurs when two smaller organic molecules combine to form a more complex molecule, accompanied by the loss of a small molecule such as water.
conjugate acid (p. 638) The species produced when a base accepts a hydrogen ion from an acid.
conjugate acid-base pair (p. 638) Consists of two substances related to each other by the donating and accepting of a single hydrogen ion.
conjugate base (p. 638) The species produced when an acid donates a hydrogen ion to a base.
control (p. 14) In an experiment, the standard that is used for comparison.
conversion factor (p. 44) A ratio of equivalent values used to express the same quantity in different units; is always equal to 1 and changes the units of a quantity without changing its value.
coordinate covalent bond (p. 259) Forms when one atom donates a pair of electrons to be shared with an atom or ion that needs two electrons to become stable.
corrosion (p. 724) The loss of metal that results from an oxi-dation-reduction reaction of the metal with substances in the environment.
covalent bond (p. 241) A chemical bond that results from the sharing of valence electrons.
cracking (p. 748) The process by which heavier fractions of petroleum are converted to gasoline by breaking their large molecules into smaller molecules.
critical mass (p. 880) The minimum mass of a sample of fissionable material necessary to sustain a nuclear chain reaction.
crystal lattice (p. 214) A three-dimensional geometric arrangement of particles in which each positive ion is surrounded by negative ions and each negative ion is surrounded by positive ions; vary in shape due to sizes and relative numbers of the ions bonded.
crystalline solid (p. 420) A solid whose atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in an orderly, geometric, three-dimensional structure.
crystallization (p. 83) A separation technique that produces pure solid particles of a substance from a solution that contains the dissolved substance.
cyclic hydrocarbon (p. 755) An organic compound that con-tains a hydrocarbon ring.
cycloalkane (p. 755) Cyclic hydrocarbons that contain single bonds only and can have rings with three, four, five, six, or more carbon atoms.
reacción de condensación (pág. 801) Ocurre cuando dos moléculas orgánicas pequeñas se combinan para formar una molécula más compleja; esta reacción es acompañada de la pérdida de una molécula pequeña como el agua.
ácido conjugado (pág. 638) Especie que se produce cuando una base acepta un ion hidrógeno de un ácido.
par ácido-base conjugado (pág. 638) Consiste en dos sus-tancias que se relacionan entre sí mediante la donación y aceptación de un solo ion hidrógeno.
base conjugada (pág. 638) Especie que se produce cuando un ácido dona un ion hidrógeno a una base.
control (pág. 14) Estándar de comparación en un experi-mento.
factor de conversión (pág. 44) Razón de valores equivalentes que sirve para expresar una misma cantidad en unidades diferentes; siempre es igual a 1 y cambia las unidades de una cantidad sin cambiar su valor.
enlace covalente coordinado (pág. 259) Se forma cuando un átomo dona un par de electrones para compartirlos con un átomo o un ion que requieren dos electrones para adquirir estabilidad.
corrosión (pág. 724) Pérdida de metal producida por una reacción de óxido-reducción del metal con sustancias en el ambiente.
enlace covalente (pág. 241) Enlace químico que se produce al compartir electrones de valencia.
cracking (pág. 748) Proceso por el cual las fracciones más pesadas de petróleo son convertidas en gasolina al romper las moléculas grandes en moléculas más pequeñas.
masa crítica (pág. 880) La masa mínima de una muestra de material fisionable que se necesita para sostener una reacción nuclear en cadena.
red cristalina (pág. 214) Ordenamiento geométrico tri-dimensional de partículas en el que cada ion positivo queda rodeado de iones negativos y cada ion negativo queda rodeado de iones positivos; su forma varía según el tamaño y número de iones enlazados.
sólido cristalino (pág. 420) Sólido cuyos átomos, iones o moléculas forman una estructura tridimensional, orde-nada y geométrica.
cristalización (pág. 83) Técnica de separación que produce partículas sólidas puras de una sustancia a partir de una solución que contiene dicha sustancia en solución.
hidrocarburo cíclico (pág. 755) Compuesto orgánico que contiene un anillo de hidrocarburos.
cicloalcano (pág. 755) Hidrocarburos cíclicos que sólo con-tienen enlaces simples; pueden formar anillos con tres, cuatro, cinco, seis o más átomos de carbono.
condensation reaction/reacción de condensación Dalton’s atomic theory/teoría atómica de Dalton
DDalton’s atomic theory (p. 104) States that matter is com-
posed of extremely small particles called atoms; atoms are invisible and indestructable; atoms of a given ele-ment are identical in size, mass, and chemical proper-ties; atoms of a specific element are different from those of another element; different atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds; in a chemical reaction, atoms are separated, combined, or rearranged.
teoría atómica de Dalton (pág. 104) Establece que la mate-ria se compone de partículas extremadamente peque-ñas denominadas átomos; los átomos son invisibles e indestructibles; los átomos de un elemento dado son idénticos en tamaño, masa y propiedades químicas; los átomos de un elemento específico difieren de los de otros elementos; átomos diferentes se combinan en razones simples de números enteros para formar compuestos; los átomos se separan, se combinan o se reordenan durante una reacción química.
1012 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
Dalton’s law of partial pressures (p. 408) States that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures of all the gases in the mixture.
de Broglie equation (p. 150) Predicts that all moving par-ticles have wave characteristics and relates each particle’s wavelength to its frequency, its mass, and Planck’s con-stant.
decomposition reaction (p. 292) A chemical reaction that occurs when a single compound breaks down into two or more elements or new compounds.
dehydration reaction (p. 803) An elimination reaction in which the atoms removed form water.
dehydrogenation reaction (p. 803) A reaction that elimi-nates two hydrogen atoms, which form a hydrogen mol-ecule of gas.
delocalized electrons (p. 225) The electrons involved in metallic bonding that are free to move easily from one atom to the next throughout the metal and are not attached to a particular atom.
denaturation (p. 829) The process in which a protein’s natu-ral, intricate three-dimensional structure is disrupted.
denatured alcohol (p. 793) Ethanol to which noxious sub-stances have been added in order to make it unfit to drink.
density (p. 36) The amount of mass per unit volume; a physical property.
dependent variable (p. 14) In an experiment, the variable whose value depends on the independent variable.
deposition (p. 429) The energy-releasing process by which a substance changes from a gas or vapor to a solid without first becoming a liquid.
derived unit (p. 35) A unit defined by a combination of base units.
diffusion (p. 404) The movement of one material through another from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
dimensional analysis (p. 44) A systematic approach to prob-lem solving that uses conversion factors to move from one unit to another.
dipole-dipole forces (p. 412) The attractions between oppo-sitely charged regions of polar molecules.
disaccharide (p. 833) Forms when two monosaccharides bond together.
dispersion forces (p. 412) The weak forces resulting from temporary shifts in the density of electrons in electron clouds.
disaccharide (p. 82) A technique that can be used to physi-cally separate most homogeneous mixtures based on the differences in the boiling points of the substances.
double-replacement reaction (p. 296) A chemical reaction that involves the exchange of ions between two com-pounds and produces either a precipitate, a gas, or water.
dry cell (p. 718) An electrochemical cell that contains a moist electrolytic paste inside a zinc shell.
ley de Dalton de las presiones parciales (pág. 408) Establece que la presión total de una mezcla de gases es igual a la suma de las presiones de todos los gases en la mezcla.
ecuación de deBroglie (pág. 150) Predice que todas las partículas móviles tienen características ondulatorias y relaciona la longitud de onda de cada partícula con su frecuencia, su masa y la constante de Planck.
reacción de descomposición (pág. 292) Reacción química que ocurre cuando un solo compuesto se divide en dos o más elementos o nuevos compuestos.
reacción de deshidratación (pág. 803) Una reacción de elimi-nación en la que los átomos que se pierden forman agua.
reacción de deshidrogenación (pág. 803) Reacción orgánica en la que se pierden dos átomos de hidrógeno, los cuales se unen y forman una molécula de hidrógeno.
electrones deslocalizados (pág. 225) Los electrones que forman un enlace metálico; estos electrones pasan fácil-mente de un átomo a otro a través del metal y no están unidos a ningún átomo en particular.
desnaturalización (pág. 829) Proceso que afecta la estruc-tura tridimensional, compleja y natural de una proteína.
alcohol desnaturalizado (pág. 793) Etanol al cual se añaden sustancias nocivas para evitar que se pueda beber.
densidad (pág. 36) La cantidad de masa por unidad de volumen; una propiedad física.
variable dependiente (pág. 14) Es la variable de un experi-mento cuyo valor depende de la variable independiente.
depositación (pág. 429) Proceso de liberación de energía por el cual una sustancia cambia de gas o vapor a sólido sin antes convertirse en un líquido.
unidad derivada (pág. 35) Unidad definida por una combi-nación de unidades básicas.
difusión (pág. 404) El movimiento de un material a través de otro en dirección al área de menor concentración.
análisis dimensional (pág. 44) Un enfoque sistemático para resolver un problema en el que se usan factores de con-versión para pasar de una unidad a otra.
fuerzas dipolo-dipolo (pág. 412) La atracción entre regiones con cargas opuestas de moléculas polares.
disacárido (pág. 833) Se forma a partir de la unión de dos monosacáridos.
fuerzas de dispersión (pág. 412) Fuerzas débiles causadas por los cambios temporales en la densidad de electrones en las nubes electrónicas.
destilación (pág. 82) Técnica que se usa para separar física-mente la mayoría de las mezclas homogéneas según las diferencias en los puntos de ebullición de las sustancias.
reacción de sustitución doble (pág. 296) Reacción química en la que dos compuestos intercambian iones positivos, produciendo un precipitado, un gas o agua.
pila seca (pág. 718) Celda electroquímica que contiene una pasta electrolítica húmeda dentro de un armazón de zinc.
elastic collision/choque elásticoDalton’s law of partial pressures/ley de Dalton de las presiones parciales
elastic collision (p. 403) Collision in which no kinetic energy is lost; kinetic energy can be transferred between the colliding particles, but the total kinetic energy of the two particles remains the same.
choque elástico (pág. 403) Colisión en que no se pierde energía cinética; la energía cinética es transferida entre las partículas en choque, pero la energía cinética total de las dos partículas permanece igual.
E
Glossary/Glosario 1013
Glossary/Glosario
end point/punto finalelectrochemical cell/celda electroquímica
electrochemical cell (p. 709) An apparatus that uses a redox reaction to produce electrical energy or uses electrical energy to cause a chemical reaction.
electrolysis (p. 728) The process that uses electrical energy to bring about a chemical reaction.
electrolyte (p. 215) An ionic compound whose aqueous solution conducts an electric current.
electrolytic cell (p. 728) An electrochemical cell in which electrolysis occurs.
electromagnetic radiation (p. 137) A form of energy exhib-iting wavelike behavior as it travels through space; can be described by wavelength, frequency, amplitude, and speed.
electromagnetic spectrum (p. 139) Includes all forms of electromagnetic radiation; the types of radiation differ in their frequencies and wavelengths.
electron (p. 108) A negatively charged, fast-moving particle with an extremely small mass that is found in all forms of matter and moves through the empty space surrounding an atom’s nucleus.
electron capture (p. 868) A radioactive decay process that occurs when an atom’s nucleus draws in a surrounding electron, which combines with a proton to form a neu-tron, resulting in an X-ray photon being emitted.
electron configuration (p. 156) The arrangement of elec-trons in an atom, which is prescribed by three rules—the aufbau principle, the Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund’s rule.
electron-dot structure (p. 161) Consists of an element’s symbol, representing the atomic nucleus and inner-level electrons, that is surrounded by dots, representing the atom’s valence electrons.
electron sea model (p. 225) Proposes that all metal atoms in a metallic solid contribute their valence electrons to form a “sea” of electrons, and can explain properties of metal-lic solids such as malleability, conduction, and ductility.
electronegativity (p. 194) Indicates the relative ability of an element’s atoms to attract electrons in a chemical bond.
element (p. 84) A pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by physical or chemical means.
elimination reaction (p. 802) A reaction of organic com-pounds that occurs when a combination of atoms is removed from two adjacent carbon atoms forming an additional bond between the atoms.
empirical formula (p. 344) A formula that shows the small-est whole-number mole ratio of the elements of a com-pound, and may or may not be the same as the actual molecular formula.
endothermic (p. 247) A chemical reaction or process in which a greater amount of energy is required to break the existing bonds in the reactants than is released when the new bonds form in the product molecules.
end point (p. 663) The point at which the indicator that is used in a titration changes color.
celda electroquímica (pág. 709) Aparato que usa una reac-ción redox para producir energía eléctrica o que utiliza energía eléctrica para causar una reacción química.
electrólisis (pág. 728) Proceso que emplea energía eléctrica para producir una reacción química.
electrolito (pág. 215) Compuesto iónico cuya solución acuosa conduce una corriente eléctrica.
celda electrolítica (pág. 728) Celda electroquímica en donde ocurre la electrólisis.
radiación electromagnética (pág. 137) Forma de energía que exhibe un comportamiento ondulatorio al viajar por el espacio; se puede describir por su longitud de onda, su frecuencia, su amplitud y su rapidez.
espectro electromagnético (pág. 139) Incluye toda forma de radiación electromagnética; los distintos tipos de radiación difirien en sus frecuencias y sus longitudes de onda.
electrón (pág. 108) Partícula móvil rápida, de carga negativa y con una masa extremadamente pequeña. que se encuen-tra en todas las formas de materia y que se mueve a través del espacio vacío que rodea el núcleo de un átomo.
captura electrónica (pág. 868) Proceso de desintegración radiactiva que ocurre cuando el núcleo de un átomo atrae un electrón circundante, que luego se combina con un protón para formar un neutrón, provocando la emi-sión de un fotón de rayos X.
configuración electrónica (pág. 156) El ordenamiento de los electrones en un átomo; está determinado por tres reglas: el principio de Aufbau, el principio de exclusión de Pauli y la regla de Hund.
estructura de puntos de electrones (pág. 161) Consiste en el símbolo del elemento, que representa al núcleo atómico y los electrones de los niveles internos, rodeado por puntos que representan los electrones de valencia del átomo.
modelo del mar de electrones (pág. 225) Propone que todos los átomos de metal en un sólido metálico contribuyen con sus electrones de valencia para formar un “mar” de electrones.
electronegatividad (pág. 194) Indica la capacidad relativa de los átomos de un elemento para atraer electrones en un enlace químico.
elemento (pág. 84) Sustancia pura que no puede separarse en sustancias más sencillas por medios físicos ni quími-cos.
reacción de eliminación (pág. 802) Reacción de compuestos orgánicos que ocurre cuando se pierden un conjunto de átomos en dos átomos adyacentes de carbono, al for-marse un enlace entre dichos átomos de carbono.
fórmula empírica (pág. 344) Fórmula que muestra la pro-porción molar más pequeña expresada en números ente-ros de los elementos de un compuesto; puede ser distinta de la fórmula molecular real.
endotérmica (pág. 247) Reacción o proceso químico que requiere una mayor cantidad de energía para romper los enlaces existentes en los reactivos, que la que se se libera al formarse los enlaces nuevos en las moléculas del producto.
punto final (pág. 663) Punto en el que el indicador que se utiliza en una titulación cambia de color.
1014 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
energy (p. 516) The capacity to do work or produce heat; exists as potential energy, which is stored in an object due to its composition or position, and kinetic energy, which is the energy of motion.
energy sublevels (p. 153) The energy levels contained within a principal energy level.
enthalpy (p. 527) The heat content of a system at constant pressure.
enthalpy (heat) of combustion (p. 529) The enthalpy change for the complete burning of one mole of a given sub-stance.
enthalpy (heat) of reaction (p. 527) The change in enthalpy for a reaction—the difference between the enthalpy of the substances that exist at the end of the reaction and the enthalpy of the substances present at the start
entropy (p. 543) A measure of the number of possible ways that the energy of a system can be distributed; related to the freedom of the system’s particles to move and the number of ways they can be arranged.
enzyme (p. 829) A biological catalyst.equilibrium constant (p. 599) K eq is the numerical value that
describes the ratio of product concentrations to reactant concentrations, with each raised to the power corre-sponding to its coefficient in the balanced equation.
equivalence point (p. 661) The point at which the moles of H + ions from the acid equals moles of O H - ions from the base.
error (p. 48) The difference between an experimental value and an accepted value
ester (p. 799) An organic compound with a carboxyl group in which the hydrogen of the hydroxyl group is replaced by an alkyl group; may be volatile and sweet-smelling and is polar.
ether (p. 794) An organic compound that contains an oxy-gen atom bonded to two carbon atoms.
evaporation (p. 426) The process in which vaporization occurs only at the surface of a liquid.
excess reactant (p. 379) A reactant that remains after a chemical reaction stops.
exothermic (p. 247) A chemical reaction or process in which more energy is released than is required to break bonds in the initial reactants.
experiment (p. 14) A set of controlled observations that test a hypothesis.
extensive property (p. 73) A physical property, such as mass, length, and volume, that is dependent upon the amount of substance present.
energía (pág. 516) Capacidad de realizar trabajo o producir calor; existe como energía potencial (almacenada en un objeto debido a su composición o posición) o como energía cinética (energía del movimiento).
subniveles de energía (pág. 153) Los niveles de energía den-tro de un nivel principal de energía.
entalpía (pág. 527) El contenido de calor en un sistema a presión constante.
entalpía (calor) de combustión (pág. 529) El cambio de entalpía causado por la combustión completa de un mol de una sustancia dada.
entalpía (calor) de reacción (pág. 527) El cambio en la entalpía que ocurre en una reacción; es decir, la diferen-cia entre la entalpía de las sustancias que existen al final de la reacción y la entalpía de las sustancias presentes al comienzo de la misma.
entropía (pág. 543) Una medida de las formas posibles en que se puede distribuir la energía de un sistema; está relacionada con la libertad de movimiento de las partícu-las del sistema y el número de maneras en que éstas se pueden ordenar.
enzima (pág. 829) Catalizador biológico.constante de equilibrio (pág. 599) K eq es el valor numérico
que describe la razón de las concentraciones de los pro-ductos con respecto a las concentraciones de los reac-tivos, cada una de ellas elevada a la potencia correspon-diente a su coeficiente en la ecuación equilibrada.
punto de equivalencia (pág. 661) Punto en el cual los moles de iones H + del ácido equivalen a los moles de iones O H - de la base.
error (pág. 48) La diferencia entre el valor experimental y el valor aceptado.
éster (pág. 799) Compuesto orgánico con un grupo car-boxilo en el que el hidrógeno del grupo de hidroxilo es reemplazado por un grupo alquilo; es polar y puede ser volátil y de olor dulce.
éter (pág. 794) Compuesto orgánico que contiene un átomo de oxígeno unido a dos átomos de carbono.
evaporación (pág. 426) Proceso en el cual la vaporización ocurre sólo en la superficie de un líquido.
reactivo en exceso (pág. 379) Reactivo que sobra luego de finalizar una reacción química.
exotérmica (pág. 247) Reacción o proceso químico en el que se libera más energía que la requerida para romper los enlaces en los reactivos iniciales.
experimento (pág. 14) Conjunto de observaciones controla-das que se realizan para probar una hipótesis.
propiedad extensiva (pág. 73) Propiedades físicas, como la masa, la longitud y el volumen, que dependen de la can-tidad de sustancia presente.
fatty acid/ácido grasoenergy/energía
fatty acid (p. 835) A long-chain carboxylic acid that usually has between 12 and 24 carbon atoms and can be satu-rated (no double bonds), or unsaturated (one or more double bonds).
ácido graso (pág. 835) Ácido carboxílico de cadena larga que tiene generalmente entre 12 y 24 átomos de carbono; puede ser saturado (sin enlaces dobles) o insaturado o no saturado (con uno o más enlaces dobles).
F
Glossary/Glosario 1015
Glossary/Glosario
group/grupofermentation/fermentación
fermentation (p. 847) The process in which glucose is bro-ken down in the absence of oxygen, producing either ethanol, carbon dioxide, and energy (alcoholic fermenta-tion) or lactic acid and energy (lactic acid fermentation).
filtration (p. 82) A technique that uses a porous barrier to separate a solid from a liquid.
formula unit (p. 218) The simplest ratio of ions represented in an ionic compound.
fractional distillation (p. 747) The process by which petro-leum can be separated into simpler components, called fractions, as they condense at different temperatures.
free energy (p. 546) The energy available to do work—the difference between the change in enthalpy and the prod-uct of the entropy change and the kelvin temperature.
freezing point (p. 428) The temperature at which a liquid is converted into a crystalline solid.
freezing-point depression (p. 502) The difference in temper-ature between a solution’s freezing point and the freezing point of its pure solvent.
frequency (p. 137) The number of waves that pass a given point per second.
fuel cell (p. 722) A voltaic cell in which the oxidation of a fuel, such as hydrogen gas, is used to produce electric energy.
functional group (p. 786) An atom or group of atoms that always reacts in a certain way in an organic molecule.
fermentación (pág. 847) Proceso en el cual la glucosa es desdoblada en ausencia de oxígeno produciendo etanol, dióxido de carbono y energía (fermentación alcohólica) o ácido láctico y energía (fermentación del ácido láctico).
filtración (pág. 82) Técnica que utiliza una barrera porosa para separar un sólido de un líquido.
fórmula unitaria (pág. 218) La razón más simple de iones representados en un compuesto iónico.
destilación fraccionaria (pág. 747) Proceso mediante el cual se separa el petróleo en componentes más simples llama-dos fracciones, las cuales se condensan a temperaturas diferentes.
energía libre (pág. 546) Energía disponible para hacer tra-bajo: la diferencia entre el cambio en la entalpía y el pro-ducto del cambio de entropía por la temperatura kelvin.
punto de congelación (pág. 428) La temperatura a la cual un líquido se convierte en un sólido cristalino.
depresión del punto de congelación (pág. 502) Diferencia de temperatura entre el punto de congelación de una solu-ción y el punto de congelación de su disolvente puro.
frecuencia (pág. 137) Número de ondas que pasan por un punto dado en un segundo.
celda de combustible (pág. 722) Celda voltaica en la cual la oxidación de un combustible, como el gas hidrógeno, se utiliza para producir energía eléctrica.
grupo funcional (pág. 786) Átomo o grupo de átomos que siempre reaccionan de cierta manera en una molécula orgánica.
Ggalvanization (p. 727) The process in which an iron object
is dipped into molten zinc or electroplated with zinc to make the iron more resistant to corrosion.
gamma rays (p. 124) High-energy radiation that has no electrical charge and no mass, is not deflected by electric or magnetic fields, usually accompanies alpha and beta radiation, and accounts for most of the energy lost dur-ing radioactive decay.
gas (p. 72) A form of matter that flows to conform to the shape of its container, fills the container’s entire volume, and is easily compressed.
Gay-Lussac’s law (p. 447) States that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas varies directly with the kelvin temperature when the volume remains constant.
geometric isomers (p. 766) A category of stereoisomers that results from different arrangements of groups around a double bond.
Graham’s law of effusion (p. 404) States that the rate of effu-sion for a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molar mass.
graph (p. 55) A visual display of data.ground state (p. 146) The lowest allowable energy state of
an atom.group (p. 177) A vertical column of elements in the peri-
odic table arranged in order of increasing atomic num-ber; also called a family.
galvanizado (pág. 727) Proceso en el cual un objeto de hierro en sumergido o galvanizado en zinc para aumen-tar la resistencia del hierro a la corrosión.
rayos gamma (pág. 124) Radiación de alta energía sin carga eléctrica ni masa; no es desviada por campos eléctricos ni magnéticos; acompaña generalmente a la radiación alfa y beta; representa la mayor parte de la energía perdida durante la desintegración radiactiva.
gas (pág. 72) Forma de la materia que fluye para adaptarse a la forma de su contenedor, llena el volumen entero del recipiente y se comprime fácilmente.
ley de Gay-Lussac (pág. 447) Establece que la presión de una masa dada de gas varía directamente con la temperatura en grados Kelvin cuando el volumen permanece cons-tante.
isómeros geométricos (pág. 766) Categoría de este-reoisómeros originada por los diversos ordenamientos posibles de grupos alrededor de un enlace doble.
ley de efusión de Graham (pág. 404) Establece que la tasa de efusión de un gas es inversamente proporcional a la raíz cuadrada de su masa molar.
gráfica (pág. 55) Representación visual de datos.estado base (pág. 146) Estado de energía más bajo posible
de un átomo.grupo (pág. 177) Columna vertical de los elementos en la
tabla periódica ordenados en sentido creciente según su número atómico; llamado también familia.
1016 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
half-cells (p. 710) The two parts of an electrochemical cell in which the separate oxidation and reduction reactions occur.
half-life (p. 870) The time required for one-half of a radio-isotope’s nuclei to decay into its products.
half-reaction (p. 693) One of two parts of a redox reac-tion—the oxidation half, which shows the number of electrons lost when a species is oxidized, or the reduction half, which shows the number of electrons gained when a species is reduced.
halocarbon (p. 787) Any organic compound containing a halogen substituent.
halogen (p. 180) A highly reactive group 17 element.
halogenation (p. 790) A process by which hydrogen atoms are replaced by halogen atoms.
heat (p. 518) A form of energy that flows from a warmer object to a cooler object.
heat of solution (p. 492) The overall energy change that occurs during the solution formation process.
Heisenberg uncertainty principle (p. 151) States that it is not possible to know precisely both the velocity and the posi-tion of a particle at the same time.
Henry’s law (p. 496) States that at a given temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas above the liquid.
Hess’s law (p. 534) States that if two or more thermochemi-cal equations can be added to produce a final equation for a reaction, then the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual reactions is the enthalpy change for the final reaction.
heterogeneous catalyst (p. 573) A catalyst that exists in a different physical state than the reaction it catalyzes.
heterogeneous equilibrium (p. 602) A state of equilibrium that occurs when the reactants and products of a reaction are present in more than one physical state.
heterogeneous mixture (p. 81) One that does not have a uniform composition and in which the individual sub-stances remain distinct.
homogeneous catalyst (p. 573) A catalyst that exists in the same physical state as the reaction it catalyzes.
homogeneous equilibrium (p. 600) A state of equilibrium that occurs when all the reactants and products of a reac-tion are in the same physical state.
homogeneous mixture (p. 81) One that has a uniform com-position throughout and always has a single phase; also called a solution.
homologous series (p. 751) Describes a series of compounds that differ from one another by a repeating unit.
Hund’s rule (p. 157) States that single electrons with the same spin must occupy each equal-energy orbital before additional electrons with opposite spins can occupy the same orbitals.
semiceldas (pág. 710) Las dos partes de una celda electro-química en las que ocurren las reacciones separadas de oxidación y reducción.
vida media (pág. 870) Tiempo requerido para que la mitad de los núcleos de un radioisótopo se desintegren en sus productos.
semirreacción (pág. 693) Una de dos partes de una reac-ción redox: la correspondiente a la oxidación muestra el número de electrones que se pierden al oxidarse una espe-cie y la correspondiente a la reducción muestra el número de electrones que se ganan al reducirse una especie.
halocarbono (pág. 787) Cualquier compuesto orgánico que contiene un sustituyente halógeno.
halógeno (pág. 180) Elemento sumamente reactivo del grupo 17.
halogenación (pág. 790) Proceso mediante el cual se reem-plazan átomos de hidrógeno por átomos de halógeno.
calor (pág. 518) Forma de energía que fluye hacia cuerpos más fríos.
calor de solución (pág. 492) El cambio global de energía que ocurre durante el proceso de formación de una solución.
principio de incertidumbre de Heisenberg (pág. 151) Establece que no es posible saber con precisión y al mismo tiempo la velocidad y la posición de una partícula.
ley de Henry (pág. 496) Establece que a una temperatura dada, la solubilidad de un gas en un líquido es directa-mente proporcional a la presión del gas sobre el líquido.
ley de Hess (pág. 534) Establece que si para producir la ecua-ción final para una reacción se pueden sumar dos o más ecuaciones termoquímicas, entonces la suma de los cam-bios de entalpía para las reacciones individuales equivale al cambio de entalpía de la reacción final.
catalizador heterogéneo (pág. 573) Catalizador que existe en un estado físico diferente al de la reacción que cataliza.
equilibrio heterogéneo (pág. 602) Estado de equilibrio que ocurre cuando los reactivos y los productos de una reac-ción están presentes en más de un estado físico.
mezcla heterogénea (pág. 81) Aquella que no tiene una composición uniforme y en la que las sustancias indi-viduales permanecen separadas.
catalizador homogéneo (pág. 573) Catalizador que existe en el mismo estado físico de la reacción que cataliza.
equilibrio homogéneo (pág. 600) Estado de equilibrio que ocurre cuando todos los reactivos y productos de una reacción están en el mismo estado físico.
mezcla homogénea (pág. 81) Aquella que tiene una com-posición uniforme y siempre tiene una sola fase; también llamada solución.
serie homóloga (pág. 751) Describe una serie de compues-tos que difieren entre sí por una unidad repetitiva.
regla de Hund (pág. 157) Establece que los electrones indi-viduales con igual rotación deben ocupar cada uno orbi-tales distintos con la misma energía, antes de que elec-trones adicionales con rotación opuesta puedan ocupar los mismos orbitales.
Hhalf-cells/semiceldas Hund’s rule/regla de Hund
Glossary/Glosario 1017
Glossary/Glosario
hybridization (p. 262) A process in which atomic orbitals are mixed to form new, identical hybrid orbitals.
hydrate (p. 351) A compound that has a specific number of water molecules bound to its atoms.
hydration reaction (p. 804) An addition reaction in which a hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl group from a water mol-ecule add to a double or triple bond.
hydrocarbon (p. 745) Simplest organic compound com-posed only of the elements carbon and hydrogen.
hydrogenation reaction (p. 804) An addition reaction in which hydrogen is added to atoms in a double or triple bond; usually requires a catalyst.
hydrogen bond (p. 413) A strong dipole-dipole attraction between molecules that contain a hydrogen atom bonded to a small, highly electronegative atom.
hydroxyl group (p. 792) An oxygen-hydrogen group cova-lently bonded to a carbon atom.
hypothesis (p. 13) A tentative, testable statement or predic-tion about what has been observed.
hibridación (pág. 262) Proceso mediante el cual se mezclan los orbitales atómicos para formar orbitales híbridos nuevos e idénticos.
hidrato (pág. 351) Compuesto que tiene un número especí-fico de moléculas de agua unidas a sus átomos.
reacción de hidratación (pág. 804) Reacción de adición en la que se añaden el átomo de hidrógeno y el grupo hidro-xilo de una molécula de agua a un enlace doble o triple.
hidrocarburo (pág. 745) El compuesto orgánico más simple; está formado sólo por los elementos carbono e hidrógeno.
reacción de hidrogenación (pág. 804) Reacción de adición en la que se agrega hidrógeno a los átomos que forman un enlace doble o triple; requiere generalmente de un catalizador.
enlace de hidrógeno (pág. 413) Fuerte atracción dipolo-dipolo entre moléculas que contienen un átomo de hidrógeno unido a un átomo pequeño, sumamente elec-tronegativo.
grupo hidroxilo (pág. 792) Un grupo hidrógeno-oxígeno unido covalentemente a un átomo de carbono.
hipótesis (pág. 13) Enunciado tentativo y comprobable o predicción acerca de lo que ha sido observado.
Iideal gas constant (R) (p. 454) An experimentally deter-
mined constant whose value in the ideal gas equation depends on the units that are used for pressure.
ideal gas law (p. 454) Describes the physical behavior of an ideal gas in terms of pressure, volume, temperature, and number of moles of gas.
immiscible (ih MIHS ih bul) (p. 479) Describes two liquids that can be mixed together but separate shortly after you cease mixing them.
independent variable (p. 14) In an experiment, the variable that the experimenter plans to change.
induced transmutation (p. 875) The process in which nuclei are bombarded with high-velocity charged particles in order to create new elements.
inhibitor (p. 571) A substance that slows down the reaction rate of a chemical reaction or prevents a reaction from happening.
inner transition metal (p. 180) A type of group B element that is contained in the f-block of the periodic table and is characterized by a filled outermost orbital, and filled or partially filled 4f and 5f orbitals.
insoluble (p. 479) Describes a substance that cannot be dis-solved in a given solvent.
instantaneous rate (p. 578) The rate of decomposition at a specific time, calculated from the rate law, the specific rate constant, and the concentrations of all the reactants.
intensive property (p. 73) A physical property that remains the same no matter how much of a substance is present.
intermediate (p. 580) A substance produced in one elemen-tary step of a complex reaction and consumed in a subse-quent elementary step.
constante de los gases ideales (R) (pág. 454) Constante determinada experimentalmente cuyo valor en la ecua-ción de los gases ideales depende de las unidades en las que se expresa la presión.
ley de los gases ideales (pág. 454) Describe el comporta-miento físico de un gas ideal en términos de la presión, el volumen, la temperatura y el número de moles del gas.
inmiscible (pág. 479) Describe dos líquidos que se pueden mezclar entre sí, pero que se separan poco después de que se cesa de mezclarlos.
variable independiente (pág. 14) La variable de un experi-mento que el experimentador piensa cambiar.
transmutación inducida (pág. 875) Proceso en cual se bom-bardean núcleos con partículas cargadas de alta veloci-dad para crear elementos nuevos.
inhibidor (pág. 571) Sustancia que reduce la tasa de reac-ción de una reacción química o evita que ésta suceda.
metal de transición interna (pág. 180) Tipo de elemento del grupo B contenido dentro del bloque F de la tabla periódica; se caracteriza por tener el orbital más externo lleno y los orbitales 4f y 5f parcialmente llenos.
insoluble (pág. 479) Describe una sustancia que no se puede disolver en un disolvente dado.
velocidad instantánea (pág. 578) La tasa de descomposición en un tiempo dado, se calcula a partir de la ley de veloci-dad de la reacción, la constante de velocidad de la reac-ción y las concentraciones de los reactivos.
propiedad intensiva (pág. 73) Propiedad física que perma-nece igual sea cual sea la cantidad de sustancia presente.
intermediario (pág. 580) Sustancia producida en un paso elemental de una reacción compleja y que es consumida en un paso elemental subsecuente.
hybridization/hibridación intermediate/intermediario
1018 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
joule (p. 518) The SI unit of heat and energy. julio (pág. 518) La unidad SI de medida del calor y la energía.
ion/ion law of conservation of mass/ley de conservación de la masa
J
ion (p. 189) An atom or bonded group of atoms with a positive or negative charge.
ionic bond (p. 210) The electrostatic force that holds oppo-sitely charged particles together in an ionic compound.
ionic compounds (p. 210) Compounds that contain ionic bonds
ionization energy (p. 191) The energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom; generally increases in moving from left-to-right across a period and decreases in moving down a group
ionizing radiation (p. 885) Radiation that is energetic enough to ionize matter it collides with.
ion product constant for water (p. 650) The value of the equilibrium constant expression for the self-ionization of water.
isomers (p. 765) Two or more compounds that have the same molecular formula but have different molecular structures.
isotopes (p. 117) Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
ion (pág. 189) Átomo o grupo de átomos unidos que tienen carga positiva o negativa.
enlace iónico (pág. 210) Fuerza electrostática que mantiene unidas las partículas con carga opuesta en un compuesto iónico.
compuestos iónicos (pág. 210) Compuestos que contienen enlaces iónicos.
energía de ionización (pág. 191) Energía que se requiere para separar un electrón de un átomo en estado gaseoso; generalmente aumenta al moverse de izquierda a derecha a lo largo de un período de la tabla periódica y disminuye al moverse hacia abajo a lo largo de un grupo.
radiación ionizante (pág. 885) Radiación que posee suficiente energía como para ionizar la materia con la que choca.
constante del producto iónico del agua (pág. 650) Valor de la expresión de la constante de equilibrio de la ionización del agua.
isómeros (pág. 765) Dos o más compuestos que tienen la misma fórmula molecular pero poseen estructuras moleculares diferentes.
isótopos (pág. 117) Átomos del mismo elemento con dife-rente número de neutrones.
kelvin (p. 35) The SI base unit of temperature.ketone (p. 797) An organic compound in which the carbon
of the carbonyl group is bonded to two other carbon atoms.
kilogram (p. 34) The SI base unit for mass.kinetic-molecular theory (p. 402) Describes the behavior
of gases in terms of particles in motion; makes several assumptions about size, motion, and energy of gas par-ticles.
kelvin (pág. 35) Unidad básica de temperatura del SI.cetona (pág. 797) Compuesto orgánico en el que el car-
bono del grupo carbonilo está unido a otros dos átomos de carbono.
kilogramo (pág. 34) Unidad básica de masa del SI.teoría cinético-molecular (pág. 402) Explica el comporta-
miento de los gases en términos de partículas en movi-miento; hace varias suposiciones acerca del tamaño, movimiento y energía de las partículas de gas.
K
Llanthanide series (p. 180) In the periodic table, the f-block
elements from period 6 that follow the element lantha-num.
lattice energy (p. 216) The energy required to separate one mole of the ions of an ionic compound, which is directly related to the size of the ions bonded and is also affected by the charge of the ions.
law of chemical equilibrium (p. 599) States that at a given temperature, a chemical system may reach a state in which a particular ratio of reactant and product concen-trations has a constant value.
law of conservation of energy (p. 517) States that in any chemical reaction or physical process, energy may change from one form to another, but it is neither created nor destroyed.
law of conservation of mass (p. 77) States that mass is nei-ther created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction but is conserved.
serie de los lantánidos (pág. 180) Los elementos del blo-que F del período 6 de la tabla periódica que siguen al elemento lantano.
energía reticular (pág. 216) Energía que se requiere para separar un mol de los iones de un compuesto iónico; está directamente relacionada con el tamaño de los iones enlazados y es afectada también por la carga de los iones.
ley del equilibrio químico (pág. 599) Establece que a una temperatura dada, un sistema químico puede alcanzar un estado en el que la razón particular de las concentracio-nes del reactivo y el producto tiene un valor constante.
ley de conservación de la energía (pág. 517) Establece que en toda reacción química y en todo proceso físico la energía puede cambiar de una forma a otra, pero no puede ser creada ni destruida.
ley de conservación de la masa (pág. 77) Establece que durante una reacción química la masa no se crea ni se destruye, sino que se conserva.
Glossary/Glosario 1019
Glossary/Glosario
law of definite proportions (p. 87) States that, regardless of the amount, a compound is always composed of the same elements in the same proportion by mass.
law of multiple proportions (p. 89) States that when different compounds are formed by the combination of the same elements, different masses of one element combine with the same mass of the other element in a ratio of small whole numbers.
Le Châtelier’s principle (luh SHAHT uh lee yays • PRIHN sih puhl) (p. 607) States that if a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system shifts in the direction that relieves the stress.
Lewis model (p. 641) An acid is an electron-pair acceptor and a base is an electro-pair donor.
Lewis structure (p. 242) A model that uses electron-dot structures to show how electrons are arranged in mol-ecules. Pairs of dots or lines represent bonding pairs.
limiting reactant (p. 379) A reactant that is totally con-sumed during a chemical reaction, limits the extent of the reaction, and determines the amount of product.
lipids (p. 835) Large, nonpolar biological molecules that vary in structure, store energy in living organisms, and make up most of the structure of cell membranes.
liquid (p. 71) A form of matter that flows, has constant vol-ume, and takes the shape of its container.
liter (p. 35) The metric unit for volume equal to one cubic decimeter.
ley de las proporciones definidas (pág. 87) Establece que, independientemente de la cantidad, un compuesto siem-pre se compone de los mismos elementos en la misma proporción por masa.
ley de las proporciones múltiples (pág. 89) Establece que cuando la combinación de los mismos elementos forma compuestos diferentes, una masa dada de uno de los elementos se combina con masas diferentes del otro elemento de acuerdo con una razón que se expresa en números enteros pequeños.
Principio de Le Châtelier (pág. 607) Establece que si se aplica una perturbación a un sistema en equilibrio, el sistema cambia en la dirección que reduce la perturbación.
modelo de Lewis (pág. 641) Un ácido es un receptor de pares de electrones y una base es un donante de pares de electrones.
estructura de Lewis (pág. 242) Modelo que utiliza diagramas de puntos de electrones para mostrar la disposición de los electrones en las moléculas. Los pares de puntos o líneas representan pares de electrones enlazados.
reactivo limitante (pág. 379) Reactivo que se consume com-pletamente durante una reacción química, limita la dura-ción de la reacción y determina la cantidad del producto.
lípidos (pág. 835) Moléculas biológicas no polares de gran tamaño que varían en estructura, almacenan energía en los seres vivos y conforman la mayor parte de la estruc-tura de las membranas celulares.
líquido (pág. 71) Forma de materia que fluye, tiene volu-men constante y toma la forma de su envase.
litro (pág. 35) Unidad de volumen del sistema métrico; equivale a un decímetro cúbico.
law of definite proportions/ley de las proporciones definidas meter/metro
mass (p. 9) A measure that reflects the amount of matter.mass defect (p. 877) The difference in mass between a
nucleus and its component nucleons.mass number (p. 117) The number after an element’s name,
representing the sum of its protons and neutrons.
matter (p. 4) Anything that has mass and takes up space.
melting point (p. 426) For a crystalline solid, the tempera-ture at which the forces holding a crystal lattice together are broken and it becomes a liquid.
metabolism (p. 844) The sum of the many chemical reac-tions that occur in living cells.
metal (p. 177) An element that is solid at room tempera-ture, a good conductor of heat and electricity, and gener-ally is shiny; most metals are ductile and malleable.
metallic bond (p. 225) The attraction of a metallic cation for delocalized electrons.
metalloid (p. 181) An element that has physical and chemi-cal properties of both metals and nonmetals.
meter (p. 33) The SI base unit for length.
masa (pág. 9) Medida que refleja la cantidad de materia.defecto másico (pág. 877) La diferencia de masa entre un
núcleo y los nucleones que lo componen.número de masa (pág. 117) El número que va después del
nombre de un elemento; representa la suma de sus pro-tones y neutrones.
materia (pág. 4) Cualquier cosa que tiene masa y ocupa espacio.
punto de fusión (pág. 426) Para un sólido cristalino, es la temperatura a la que se rompen las fuerzas que mantienen unida la red cristalina y el sólido se convierte en líquido.
metabolismo (pág. 844) El conjunto de las numerosas reac-ciones químicas que ocurren en las células vivas.
metal (pág. 177) Elemento sólido a temperatura ambiente, es buen conductor de calor y electricidad y generalmente es brillante; la mayoría de los metales son dúctiles y maleables.
enlace metálico (pág. 225) Atracción de un catión metálico por los electrones deslocalizados.
metaloide (pág. 181) Elementos que tienen las propiedades físicas y químicas de metales y de no metales.
metro (pág. 33) Unidad básica de longitud del SI.
M
1020 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
method of initial rates (p. 576) Determines the reaction order by comparing the initial rates of a reaction carried out with varying reactant concentrations.
miscible (p. 479) Describes two liquids that are soluble in each other.
mixture (p. 80) A physical blend of two or more pure substances in any proportion in which each substance retains its individual properties; can be separated by physical means.
model (p. 10) A visual, verbal, and/or mathematical expla-nation of data collected from many experiments.
molality (p. 487) The ratio of the number of moles of sol-ute dissolved in one kilogram of solvent; also known as molal concentration.
molar enthalpy (heat) of fusion (p. 530) The amount of heat required to melt one mole of a solid substance.
molar enthalpy (heat) of vaporization (p. 530) The amount of heat required to vaporize one mole of a liquid.
molarity (p. 482) The number of moles of solute dissolved per liter of solution; also known as molar concentration.
molar mass (p. 326) The mass in grams of one mole of any pure substance.
molar volume (p. 452) For a gas, the volume that one mole occupies at 0.00°C and 1.00 atm pressure.
mole (p. 321) The SI base unit used to measure the amount of a substance, abbreviated mol; the number of carbon atoms in exactly 12 g of pure carbon; one mole is the amount of a pure substance that contains 6.02 × 1 0 23 rep-resentative particles.
molecular formula (p. 346) A formula that specifies the actual number of atoms of each element in one molecule of a substance.
molecule (p. 241) Forms when two or more atoms cova-lently bond and is lower in potential energy than its con-stituent atoms.
mole fraction (p. 488) The ratio of the number of moles of solute in solution to the total number of moles of solute and solvent.
mole ratio (p. 371) In a balanced equation, the ratio between the numbers of moles of any two substances.
monatomic ion (p. 218) An ion formed from only one atom.monomer (p. 810) A molecule from which a polymer is
made.monosaccharides (p. 832) The simplest carbohydrates, also
called simple sugars.
método de las velocidades iniciales (pág. 576) Determina el orden de la reacción al comparar las velocidades iniciales de una reacción realizada con diversas concentraciones de reactivo.
miscible (pág. 479) Describe dos líquidos que son solubles entre sí.
mezcla (pág. 80) Combinación física de dos o más sustan-cias puras en cualquier proporción en la que cada sustan-cia retiene sus propiedades individuales; las sustancias se pueden separar por medios físicos.
modelo (pág. 10) Explicación matemática, verbal o visual de datos recolectados en muchos experimentos.
molalidad (pág. 487) La razón del número de moles de soluto disueltos en un kilogramo de disolvente; también se conoce como concentración molal.
entalpía (calor) molar de fusión (pág. 530) Cantidad requerida de calor para fundir un mol de una sustancia sólida.
entalpía (calor) molar de vaporización (pág. 530) Cantidad requerida de calor para vaporizar un mol de un líquido.
molaridad (pág. 482) Número de moles de soluto disueltos por litro de solución; también se conoce como concen-tración molar.
masa molar (pág. 326) Masa en gramos de un mol de cualquier sustancia pura.
volumen molar (pág. 452) Para un gas, es el volumen que ocupa un mol a 0.00°C y una presión de 1.00 atm.
mol (pág. 321) Unidad básica del SI para medir la cantidad de una sustancia, se abrevia mol; el número de átomos de carbono en 12 g exactos de carbono puro; un mol es la cantidad de sustancia pura que contiene 6.02 × 1 0 23
partículas representativas.fórmula molecular (pág. 346) Fórmula que especifica
el número real de átomos de cada elemento en una molécula de la sustancia.
molécula (pág. 241) Se forma cuando dos o más átomos se unen covalentemente y posee menor energía potencial que los átomos que la conforman.
fracción molar (pág. 488) La razón del número de moles de soluto en solución al número total de moles de soluto y disolvente.
razón molar (pág. 371) En una ecuación equilibrada, se refiere a la razón entre el número de moles de dos sus-tancias cualesquiera.
ion poliatómico (pág. 218) Ion formado de un sólo átomo.monómero (pág. 810) Molécula a partir de la cual se forma
un polímero.monosacáridos (pág. 832) Los carbohidratos más simples;
se llaman también azúcares simples.
method of initial rates/método de las velocidades iniciales neutralization reaction/reacción de neutralización
net ionic equation (p. 301) An ionic equation that includes only the particles that participate in the reaction.
neutralization reaction (p. 659) A reaction in which an acid and a base react in aqueous solution to produce a salt and water.
ecuación iónica neta (pág. 301) Ecuación iónica que incluye sólo las partículas que participan en la reacción.
reacción de neutralización (pág. 659) Reacción en la que un ácido y una base reaccionan en una solución acuosa para producir sal y agua.
N
Glossary/Glosario 1021
Glossary/Glosario
neutron (p. 113) A neutral, subatomic particle in an atom’s nucleus that has a mass nearly equal to that of a proton.
noble gas (p. 180) An extremely unreactive group 18 ele-ment.
nonmetals (p. 180) Elements that are generally gases or dull, brittle solids that are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
nuclear equation (p. 123) A type of equation that shows the atomic number and mass number of the particles involved.
nuclear fission (p. 883) The splitting of a nucleus into smaller, more stable fragments, accompanied by a large release of energy.
nuclear fusion (p. 878) The process of binding smaller atomic nuclei into a single, larger, and more stable nucleus.
nuclear reaction (p. 122) A reaction that involves a change in the nucleus of an atom.
nucleic acid (p. 840) A nitrogen-containing biological poly-mer that is involved in the storage and transmission of genetic information.
nucleons (p. 865) The positively charged protons and neu-tral neutrons contained in an atom’s nucleus.
nucleotide (p. 840) The monomer that makes up a nucleic acid; consists of a nitrogen base, an inorganic phosphate group, and a five-carbon monosaccharide sugar.
nucleus (p. 112) The extremely small, positively charged, dense center of an atom that contains positively charged protons and neutral neutrons.
neutrón (pág. 113) Partícula subatómica neutral en el núcleo de un átomo que tiene una masa casi igual a la de un protón.
gas noble (pág. 180) Elemento extremadamente no reactivo del grupo 18.
no metales (pág. 180) Elementos que generalmente son gases o sólidos quebradizos, sin brillo y malos conducto-res de calor y electricidad.
ecuación nuclear (pág. 123) Tipo de ecuación que muestra el número atómico y el número de masa de las partículas involucradas.
fisión nuclear (pág. 883) Ruptura de un núcleo en fragmen-tos más pequeños y más estables; se acompaña de una gran liberación de energía.
fusión nuclear (pág. 878) Proceso de unión de núcleos atómicos pequeños en un solo núcleo más grande y más estable.
reacción nuclear (pág. 122) Reacción que implica un cam-bio en el núcleo de un átomo.
ácido nucleico (pág. 840) Polímero biológico que contiene nitrógeno y que participa en el almacenamiento y trans-misión de información genética.
nucleones (pág. 865) Los protones de carga positiva y los neutrones sin carga que contiene el núcleo de un átomo.
nucleótido (pág. 840) Monómeros que forman los ácidos nucleicos; consisten de una base nitrogenada, un grupo fosfato inorgánico y un azúcar monosacárido de cinco carbonos.
núcleo (pág. 112) El diminuto y denso centro con carga positiva de un átomo; contiene protones con su carga positiva y neutrones sin carga.
osmotic pressure/presión osmóticaneutron/neutrón
Ooctet rule (p. 193) States that atoms lose, gain, or share elec-
trons in order to acquire the stable electron configuration of a noble gas.
optical isomers (p. 768) Result from different arrangements of four different groups around the same carbon atom and have the same physical and chemical properties except in chemical reactions where chirality is important.
optical rotation (p. 769) An effect that occurs when polar-ized light passes through a solution containing an optical isomer and the plane of polarization is rotated to the right by a d-isomer or to the left by an l-isomer.
organic compounds (p. 745) All compounds that contain carbon with the primary exceptions of carbon oxides, carbides, and carbonates, all of which are considered inorganic.
osmosis (p. 504) The diffusion of solvent particles across a semipermeable membrane from an area of higher solvent concentration to an area of lower solvent concentration.
osmotic pressure (p. 504) The pressure caused when water molecules move into or out of a solution.
regla del octeto (pág. 193) Establece que los átomos pierden, ganan o comparten electrones para adquirir la configuración electrónica estable de un gas noble.
isómeros ópticos (pág. 768) Son resultado de los distin-tos ordenamientos que adquieren los cuatro grupos diferentes que rodean a un mismo átomo de carbono; todos poseen las mismas propiedades químicas y físicas, excepto en las reacciones químicas donde la quiralidad es importante.
rotación óptica (pág. 769) Efecto que ocurre cuando la luz polarizada atraviesa una solución que contiene un isómero óptico y el plano de polarización rota a la dere-cha en los isómeros dextrógiros (-d) y a la izquierda en los isómeros levógiros (-l).
compuestos orgánicos (pág. 745) Todo compuesto que con-tiene carbono; las excepciones más importantes son los óxidos de carbono, los carburos y los carbonatos, todos los cuales se consideran inorgánicos.
osmosis (pág. 504) Difusión de partículas de disolvente a través de una membrana semipermeable hacia el área donde la concentración del disolvente es menor.
presión osmótica (pág. 504) La presión que causan las moléculas de agua al entrar o salir de una solución.
1022 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
oxidation/oxidación periodic table/tabla periódica
oxidation (p. 681) The loss of electrons from the atoms of a substance; increases an atom’s oxidation number.
oxidation number (p. 219) The positive or negative charge of a monatomic ion.
oxidation-number method (p. 689) The technique that can be used to balance more difficult redox reactions, based on the fact that the number of electrons transferred from atoms must equal the number of electrons accepted by other atoms.
oxidation-reduction reaction (p. 680) Any chemical reac-tion in which electrons are transferred from one atom to another; also called a redox reaction.
oxidizing agent (p. 683) The substance that oxidizes another substance by accepting its electrons.
oxyacid (p. 250) Any acid that contains hydrogen and an oxyanion.
oxyanion (ahk see AN i ahn) (p. 222) A polyatomic ion composed of an element, usually a nonmetal, bonded to one or more oxygen atoms.
oxidación (pág. 681) Pérdida de electrones de los átomos de una sustancia; aumenta el número de oxidación de un átomo.
número de oxidación (pág. 219) La carga positiva o negativa de un ion monoatómico.
método del número de oxidación (pág. 689) Técnica que sirve para equilibrar las reacciones redox más difíciles; se basa en el hecho de que el número de electrones trans-feridos por los átomos debe ser igual al número de elec-trones aceptados por otros átomos.
reacción de oxidación-reducción (pág. 680) Toda reacción química en la que sucede transferencia de electrones de un átomo a otro; también se llama reacción redox.
agente oxidante (pág. 683) Sustancia que oxida otra sustan-cia al aceptar sus electrones.
oxiácido (pág. 250) Todo ácido que contiene hidrógeno y un oxianión.
oxianión (pág. 222) Ion poliatómico compuesto de un ele-mento, generalmente un no metal, unido a uno o a más átomos de oxígeno.
parent chain (p. 753) The longest continuous chain of car-bon atoms in a branched-chain alkane, alkene, or alkyne.
pascal (p. 407) The SI unit of pressure; one pascal (Pa) is equal to a force of one newton per square meter.
Pauli exclusion principle (p. 157) States that a maximum of two electrons can occupy a single atomic orbital but only if the electrons have opposite spins.
penetrating power (p. 864) The ability of radiation to pass through matter.
peptide (p. 828) A chain of two or more amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
peptide bond (p. 828) The amide bond that joins two amino acids.
percent by mass (p. 87) A percentage determined by the ratio of the mass of each element to the total mass of the compound.
percent composition (p. 342) The percent by mass of each element in a compound.
percent error (p. 48) The ratio of an error to an accepted value.
percent yield (p. 386) The ratio of actual yield (from an experiment) to theoretical yield (from stoichiometric calculations) expressed as a percent.
period (p. 177) A horizontal row of elements in the modern periodic table.
periodic law (p. 176) States that when the elements are arranged by increasing atomic number, there is a peri-odic repetition of their properties.
periodic table (p. 85) A chart that organizes all known ele-ments into a grid of horizontal rows (periods) and verti-cal columns (groups or families) arranged by increasing atomic number.
cadena principal (pág. 753) La cadena continua más larga de átomos de carbono en un alcano, un alqueno o un alquino ramificados.
pascal (pág. 407) La unidad SI de presión; un pascal (Pa) es igual a una fuerza de un newton por metro cuadrado.
principio de exclusión de Pauli (pág. 157) Establece que cada orbital atómico sólo puede ser ocupado por un máximo de dos electrones, pero sólo si los electrones tienen giros opuestos.
poder de penetración (pág. 864) La capacidad de la radia-ción de atravesar la materia.
péptido (pág. 828) Cadena de dos o más aminoácidos uni-dos por enlaces peptídicos.
enlace peptídico (pág. 828) Enlace amida que une dos ami-noácidos.
porcentaje en masa (pág. 87) Porcentaje determinado por la razón de la masa de cada elemento respecto a la masa total del compuesto.
composición porcentual (pág. 342) Porcentaje en masa de cada elemento en un compuesto.
porcentaje de error (pág. 48) La razón del error al valor aceptado.
porcentaje de rendimiento (pág. 386) Razón del rendimiento real (de un experimento) al rendimiento teórico (de cál-culos estequiométricos) expresada como porcentaje.
período (pág. 177) Fila horizontal de elementos en la tabla periódica moderna.
ley periódica (pág. 176) Establece que al ordenar los ele-mentos por número atómico en sentido ascendente, existe una repetición periódica de sus propiedades.
tabla periódica (pág. 85) Tabla en la que se organizan todos los elementos conocidos en una cuadrícula de filas horizontales (períodos) y columnas verticales (grupos o familias), ordenados según su número atómico en sen-tido ascendente.
P
Glossary/Glosario 1023
Glossary/Glosario
pH (p. 652) The negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution; acidic solutions have pH val-ues between 0 and 7, basic solutions have values between 7 and 14, and a solution with a pH of 7.0 is neutral.
phase change (p. 76) A transition of matter from one state to another.
phase diagram (p. 429) A graph of pressure versus tempera-ture that shows which phase a substance exists in under different conditions of temperature and pressure.
phospholipid (p. 838) A triglyceride in which one of the fatty acids is replaced by a polar phosphate group
photoelectric effect (p. 142) A phenomenon in which pho-toelectrons are emitted from a metal’s surface when light of a certain frequency shines on the surface.
photon (p. 143) A particle of electromagnetic radiation with no mass that carries a quantum of energy.
photosynthesis (p. 846) The complex process that converts energy from sunlight to chemical energy in the bonds of carbohydrates.
physical change (p. 76) A type of change that alters the physical properties of a substance but does not change its composition.
physical property (p. 73) A characteristic of matter that can be observed or measured without changing the sample’s composition—or example, density, color, taste, hardness, and melting point.
pi bond (p. 245) A bond that is formed when parallel orbit-als overlap to share electrons.
Planck’s constant (h) (p. 142) 6.626 × 1 0 -34 J·s, where J is the symbol for the joule.
plastic (p. 789) A polymer that can be heated and molded while relatively soft.
pOH (p. 652) The negative logarithm of the hydroxide ion concentration of a solution; a solution with a pOH above 7.0 is acidic, a solution with a pOH below 7.0 is basic, and a solution with a pOH of 7.0 is neutral.
polar covalent bond (p. 266) A type of bond that forms when electrons are not shared equally.
polyatomic ion (p. 221) An ion made up of two or more atoms bonded together that acts as a single unit with a net charge.
polymerization reaction (p. 810) A reaction in which mono-mer units are bonded together to form a polymer.
polymers (p. 809) Large molecules formed by combining many repeating structural units (monomers); are synthe-sized through addition or condensation reactions.
polysaccharide (p. 833) A complex carbohydrate, which is a polymer of simple sugars that contains 12 or more monomer units.
positron (p. 868) A particle that has the same mass as an electron but an opposite charge.
positron emission (p. 868) A radioactive decay process in which a proton in the nucleus is converted into a neutron and a positron, and then the positron is emitted from the nucleus.
pH (pág. 652) El logaritmo negativo de la concentración de iones hidrógeno de una solución; las soluciones ácidas poseen valores de pH entre 0 y 7, las soluciones básicas tienen valores entre 7 y 14 y una solución con un pH de 7.0 es neutra.
cambio de fase (pág. 76) La transición de la materia de un estado a otro.
diagrama de fase (pág. 429) Gráfica de presión contra tem-peratura que muestra la fase en la que se encuentra una sustancia bajo distintas condiciones de temperatura y presión.
fosfolípido (pág. 838) Triglicérido en el que uno de los áci-dos grasos es sustituido por un grupo fosfato polar.
efecto fotoeléctrico (pág. 142) Fenómeno en el cual la superficie de un metal emiten fotoelectrones cuando una luz de cierta frecuencia ilumina su superficie.
fotón (pág. 143) Partícula de radiación electromagnética sin masa que transporta un cuanto de energía.
fotosíntesis (pág. 846) Proceso complejo que convierte la energía de la luz solar en la energía química de los enlaces en carbohidratos.
cambio físico (pág. 76) Tipo de cambio que altera las propiedades físicas de una sustancia pero no cambia su composición.
propiedad física (pág. 73) Característica de la materia que se puede observar o medir sin cambiar la composición de una muestra de la materia; por ejemplo, la densidad, el color, el sabor, la dureza y el punto de fusión.
enlace pi (pág. 245) Enlace que se forma cuando orbitales paralelos se superponen para compartir electrones.
constante de Planck (h) (pág. 142) 6.626 × 1 0 -34 J·s, donde J es el símbolo de julios.
plástico (pág. 789) Polímero que se puede calentar y mol-dear mientras esté relativamente suave.
pOH (pág. 652) El logaritmo negativo de la concentración de iones hidróxido de una solución; una solución con un pOH mayor que 7.0 es ácida, una solución con un pOH menor que 7.0 es básica y una solución con un pOH de 7.0 es neutra.
enlace covalente polar (pág. 266) Tipo de enlace que se forma cuando los electrones no se comparten de manera equitativa.
ion poliatómico (pág. 221) Ion compuesto de dos o más átomos unidos entre sí que actúan como una unidad con carga neta.
reacción de polimerización (pág. 810) Reacción en la cual los monómeros se unen para formar un polímero.
polímeros (pág. 809) Moléculas grandes formadas por la unión de muchas unidades estructurales repetidas (monómeros); se sintetizan a través de reacciones de adición o de condensación.
polisacárido (pág. 833) Carbohidrato complejo; es un polímero de azúcares simples que contiene 12 ó más monómeros.
positrón (pág. 868) Partícula que tiene la misma masa que un electrón pero carga opuesta.
emisión de positrones (pág. 868) Proceso de desintegración radiactiva en el que un protón del núcleo se convierte en un neutrón y un positrón y luego el positrón es emitido del núcleo.
positron emission/emisión de positronespH/pH
1024 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
precipitate (p. 296) A solid produced during a chemical reaction in a solution.
precision (p. 47) Refers to how close a series of measure-ments are to one another; precise measurements show little variation over a series of trials but might not be accurate.
pressure (p. 406) Force applied per unit area.primary battery (p. 720) A type of battery that produces
electric energy by redox reactions that are not easily reversed, delivers current until the reactants are gone, and then is discarded.
principal energy levels (p. 153) The major energy levels of an atom.
principal quantum number (n) (p. 153) Assigned by the quantum mechanical model to indicate the relative sizes and energies of atomic orbitals.
product (p. 283) A substance formed during a chemical reaction.
protein (p. 826) An organic polymer made up of animo acids linked together by peptide bonds that can function as an enzyme, transport important chemical substances, or provide structure in organisms.
proton (p. 113) A subatomic particle in an atom’s nucleus that has a positive charge of 1+.
pure research (p. 17) A type of scientific investigation that seeks to gain knowledge for the sake of knowledge itself.
precipitado (pág. 296) Sólido que se produce durante una reacción química en una solución.
precisión (pág. 47) Se refiere a la cercanía de una serie de medidas entre sí; las medidas precisas muestran poca variación durante una serie de pruebas, incluso si no son exactas.
presión (pág. 406) Fuerza aplicada por unidad de área.batería primaria (pág. 720) Tipo de batería que produce
energía eléctrica por reacciones redox que no son fácil-mente reversibles, produce corriente hasta que se agotan los reactivos y luego se desecha.
niveles energéticos principales (pág. 153) Los niveles ener-géticos más importantes de un átomo.
número cuántico principal (pág. 153) Asignado por el mo delo mecánico cuántico para indicar el tamaño y la energía relativas de los orbitales atómicos.
producto (pág. 283) Sustancia que se forma durante una reacción química.
proteína (pág. 826) Polímero orgánico compuesto de ami-noácidos unidos por enlaces peptídicos; puede funcionar como enzima, transportar sustancias químicas impor-tantes o ser parte de la estructura en los organismos.
protón (pág. 113) Partícula subatómica en el núcleo de un átomo con carga positiva 1+.
investigación pura (pág. 17) Tipo de investigación científica que busca obtener conocimiento sin otro interés que sa tisfacer el interés científico.
precipitate/precipitado radiochemical dating/datación radioquímica
Qqualitative data (p. 13) Information describing color, odor,
shape, or some other physical characteristic.quantitative data (p. 13) Numerical information describing
how much, how little, how big, how tall, or how fast.quantum (p. 141) The minimum amount of energy that can
be gained or lost by an atom.quantum mechanical model of the atom (p. 152) An atomic
model in which electrons are treated as waves; also called the wave mechanical model of the atom.
quantum number (p. 146) The number assigned to each orbit of an electron.
datos cualitativos (pág. 13) Información que describe el color, el olor, la forma o alguna otra característica física.
datos cuantitativos (pág. 13) Información numérica que describe cantidad, tamaño o rapidez.
cuanto (pág. 141) La cantidad mínima de energía que puede ganar o perder un átomo.
modelo mecánico cuántico del átomo (pág. 152) Modelo atómico en el cual los electrones se estudian como si fueran ondas; también se denomina modelo mecánico ondulatorio del átomo.
número cuántico (pág. 146) Número que se asigna a cada órbita de un electrón.
radiation (p. 122) The rays and particles—alpha and beta particles and gamma rays—that are emitted by radioac-tive materials.
radioactive decay (p. 122) A spontaneous process in which unstable nuclei lose energy by emitting radiation.
radioactive decay series (p. 870) A series of nuclear reac-tions that starts with an unstable nucleus and results in the formation of a stable nucleus.
radioactivity (p. 122) The process in which some substances spontaneously emit radiation.
radiochemical dating (p. 873) The process that is used to determine the age of an object by measuring the amount of a certain radioisotope remaining in that object.
radiación (pág. 122) Los rayos y partículas que emiten los materiales radiactivos (partículas alfa y beta y rayos gamma).
desintegración radiactiva (pág. 122) Proceso espontáneo en el que los núcleos inestables pierden energía al emitir radiación.
serie de desintegración radiactiva (pág. 870) Serie de reac-ciones nucleares que empieza con un núcleo inestable y produce la formación de un núcleo estable.
radiactividad (pág. 122) Proceso en el que algunas sustan-cias emiten radiación espontáneamente.
datación radioquímica (pág. 873) Proceso que sirve para determinar la edad de un objeto al medir la cantidad res-tante de cierto radioisótopo en dicho objeto.
R
Glossary/Glosario 1025
Glossary/Glosario
salt hydrolysis/hidrólisis de salesradioisotopes/radioisótopos
radioisotopes (p. 861) Isotopes of atoms that have unstable nuclei and emit radiation to attain more stable atomic configurations.
radiotracer (p. 887) An isotope that emits non-ionizing radiation and is used to signal the presence of an element or specific substance; can be used to analyze complex chemical reactions mechanisms and to diagnose disease.
rate-determining step (p. 581) The slowest elementary step in a complex reaction; limits the instantaneous rate of the overall reaction.
rate law (p. 574) The mathematical relationship between the rate of a chemical reaction at a given temperature and the concentrations of reactants.
reactant (p. 283) The starting substance in a chemical reac-tion.
reaction mechanism (p. 580) The complete sequence of elementary steps that make up a complex reaction.
reaction order (p. 575) For a reactant, describes how the rate is affected by the concentration of that reactant.
reaction rate (p. 561) The change in concentration of a reactant or product per unit time, generally calculated and expressed in moles per liter per second.
redox reaction (p. 680) An oxidation-reduction reaction.reducing agent (p. 683) The substance that reduces another
substance by losing electrons.reduction (p. 681) The gain of electrons by the atoms of a
substance; decreases an atom’s oxidation number.
reduction potential (p. 711) The tendency of a substance to gain electrons.
representative elements (p. 177) Elements from groups 1, 2, and 13–18 in the modern periodic table, possessing a wide range of chemical and physical properties.
resonance (p. 258) Condition that occurs when more than one valid Lewis structure exists for the same molecule.
reversible reaction (p. 595) A reaction that can take place in both the forward and reverse directions; leads to an equi-librium state where the forward and reverse reactions occur at equal rates and the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant.
radioisótopos (pág. 861) Isótopos de átomos que poseen núcleos inestables y emiten radiación para obtener una configuración atómica más estable.
radiolocalizador (pág. 887) Isótopo que emite radiación no ionizante y se utiliza para señalar la presencia de un elemento o sustancia específica; se usan para analizar los mecanismos de reacciones químicas complejas y para diagnosticar enfermedades.
paso determinante de la velocidad de reacción (pág. 581) El paso elemental más lento en una reacción compleja; limita la velocidad instantánea de la reacción general.
ley de velocidad de la reacción (pág. 574) Relación matemática entre la velocidad de una reacción química a una temperatura dada y las concentraciones de los reactivos.
reactivo (pág. 283) Sustancia inicial en una reacción química.
mecanismo de reacción (pág. 580) Sucesión completa de pasos elementales que componen una reacción compleja.
orden de la reacción (pág. 575) Describe cómo la concen-tración de un reactivo afecta la velocidad de la reacción para dicho reactivo.
tasa de reacción (pág. 561) Cambio en la concentración de un reactivo o producto por unidad de tiempo, general-mente se calcula y expresa en moles por litro por segundo.
reacción redox (pág. 680) Una reacción de oxidorreducción.agente reductor (pág. 683) Sustancia que reduce otra sus-
tancia al perder electrones.reducción (pág. 681) Ganancia de electrones por los átomos
de una sustancia; reduce el número de oxidación de los átomos.
potencial de reducción (pág. 711) Tendencia de una sustan-cia a ganar electrones.
elementos representativos (pág. 177) Elementos de los gru-pos 1, 2 y 13 a 18 de la tabla periódica moderna; poseen una gran variedad de propiedades químicas y físicas.
resonancia (pág. 258) Condición que ocurre cuando existe más de una estructura válida de Lewis para una misma molécula.
reacción reversible (pág. 595) Reacción que puede ocurrir en direcciones normal e inversa; produce un estado de equilibrio donde las reacciones en sentido nor-mal e inverso ocurren a tasas iguales, ocasionando que la concentración de reactivos y productos permanezcan constantes.
salt (p. 659) An ionic compound made up of a cation from a base and an anion from an acid.
salt bridge (p. 709) A pathway constructed to allow positive and negative ions to move from one solution to another.
salt hydrolysis (p. 665) The process in which anions of the dissociated salt accept hydrogen ions from water, or the cations of the dissociated salt donate hydrogen ions to water.
sal (pág. 659) Compuesto iónico formado por un catión pro-veniente de una base y un anión proveniente de un ácido.
puente salino (pág. 709) Medio que permite el movimiento de iones positivos y negativos de una solución a otra.
hidrólisis de sales (pág. 665) Proceso en el que los aniones de una sal disociada aceptan iones hidrógeno del agua o en el que los cationes de la sal disociada donan iones hidrógeno al agua.
S
1026 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
saponification/saponificación species/especie
saponification (suh pahn ih fih KAY shuhn) (p. 837) The hydrolysis of the ester bonds of a triglyceride using an aqueous solution of a strong base to form carboxylate salts and glycerol.
saturated hydrocarbon (p. 746) A hydrocarbon that contains only single bonds.
saturated solution (p. 493) Contains the maximum amount of dissolved solute for a given amount of solvent at a spe-cific temperature and pressure.
scientific law (p. 16) Describes a relationship in nature that is supported by many experiments.
scientific methods (p. 12) A systematic approach used in scientific study; an organized process used by scientists to do research and to verify the work of others.
scientific notation (p. 40) Expresses any number as a num-ber between 1 and 10 (known as a coefficient) multiplied by 10 raised to a power (known as an exponent).
second (p. 33) The SI base unit for time.second law of thermodynamics (p. 543) The spontaneous
processes always proceed in such a way that the entropy of the universe increases.
secondary battery (p. 720) A rechargeable battery that depends on reversible redox reactions.
sigma bond (p. 244) A single covalent bond that is formed when an electron pair is shared by the direct overlap of bonding orbitals.
significant figures (p. 50) The number of all known digits reported in measurements plus one estimated digit.
single-replacement reaction (p. 293) A chemical reaction that occurs when the atoms of one element replace the atoms of another element in a compound.
solid (p. 71) A form of matter that has its own definite shape and volume, is incompressible, and expands only slightly when heated.
solubility (p. 614) The maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a specific tem-perature and pressure.
solubility product constant (p. 614) K sp , which is an equi-librium constant for the dissolving of a sparingly soluble ionic compound in water.
soluble (p. 479) Describes a substance that can be dissolved in a given solvent.
solute (p. 299) One or more substances dissolved in a solu-tion.
solution (p. 81) A uniform mixture that can contain solids, liquids, or gases; also called a homogeneous mixture.
solvation (p. 489) The process of surrounding solute parti-cles with solvent particles to form a solution; occurs only where and when the solute and solvent particles come in contact with each other.
solvent (p. 299) The substance that dissolves a solute to form a solution; the most plentiful substance in the solution.
species (p. 693) Any kind of chemical unit involved in a process.
saponificación (pág. 837) La hidrólisis de los enlaces éster de un triglicérido, usando una solución acuosa de una base fuerte, para formar sales de carboxilato y glicerol.
hidrocarburo saturado (pág. 746) Hidrocarburo que sólo contiene enlaces sencillos.
solución saturada (pág. 493) Solución que contiene la can-tidad máxima de soluto disuelto para una cantidad dada de disolvente a una temperatura y presión específicas.
ley científica (pág. 16) Describe una relación natural demostrada en muchos experimentos.
métodos científicos (pág. 12) Enfoque sistemático que se usa en los estudios científicos; proceso organizado que siguen los científicos para realizar sus investigaciones y verificar el trabajo realizado por otros científicos.
notación científica (pág. 40) Expresa cualquier número como un número entre 1 y 10 (conocido como coefi-ciente) multiplicado por 10 elevado a alguna potencia (conocida como exponente).
segundo (pág. 33) Unidad básica de tiempo del SI.segunda ley de la termodinámica (pág. 543) Los pro-
cesos espontáneos siempre proceden de una forma que aumenta la entropía del universo.
batería secundaria (pág. 720) Batería recargable que depende de reacciones redox reversibles.
enlace sigma (pág. 244) Enlace covalente simple que se forma cuando se comparte un par de electrones me diante la superposición directa de los orbitales del enlace.
cifras significativas (pág. 50) El número de dígitos conoci-dos que se reportan en medidas, más un dígito estimado.
reacción de sustitución simple (pág. 293) Reacción química que ocurre cuando los átomos de un elemento reempla-zan a los átomos de otro elemento en un compuesto.
sólido (pág. 71) Forma de la materia que tiene su propia forma y volumen, es incompresible y sólo se expande levemente cuando se calienta.
solubilidad (pág. 614) Cantidad máxima de soluto que se disolverá en una cantidad dada de disolvente a una tem-peratura y presión específicas.
constante de producto de solubilidad (pág. 614) Se repre-senta como K sp ; es la constante de equilibrio para la diso-lución de un compuesto iónico moderadamente soluble en agua.
soluble (pág. 479) Describe una sustancia que se puede disolver en un disolvente dado.
soluto (pág. 299) Una o más sustancias disueltas en una solución.
solución (pág. 81) Mezcla uniforme que puede contener sóli-dos, líquidos o gases; llamada también mezcla homogénea.
solvatación (pág. 489) Proceso de rodear las partículas de soluto con partículas del disolvente para formar una solu-ción; ocurre sólo en los lugares y en el momento en que las partículas de soluto y disolvente entran en contacto.
disolvente (pág. 299) Sustancia que disuelve un soluto para formar una solución; la sustancia más abundante en la solución.
especie (pág. 693) Cualquier clase de unidad química que participa en un proceso.
Glossary/Glosario 1027
Glossary/Glosario
specific heat (p. 519) The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a given substance by one degree Celsius.
specific rate constant (p. 575) A numerical value that relates reaction rate and concentration of reactant at a specific temperature.
spectator ion (p. 301) Ion that does not participate in a reaction.
spontaneous process (p. 542) A physical or chemical change that occurs without outside intervention and may require energy to be supplied to begin the process.
standard enthalpy (heat) of formation (p. 537) The change in enthalpy that accompanies the formation of one mole of a compound in its standard state from its constituent elements in their standard states.
standard hydrogen electrode (p. 711) The standard elec-trode against which the reduction potential of all elec-trodes can be measured.
states of matter (p. 71) The physical forms in which all matter naturally exists on Earth—most commonly as a solid, a liquid, or a gas.
stereoisomers (p. 766) A class of isomers whose atoms are bonded in the same order but are arranged differently in space.
steroids (p. 839) Lipids that have multiple cyclic rings in their structures.
stoichiometry (p. 368) The study of quantitative relation-ships between the amounts of reactants used and prod-ucts formed by a chemical reaction; is based on the law of conservation of mass.
strong acid (p. 644) An acid that ionizes completely in aqueous solution.
strong base (p. 648) A base that dissociates entirely into metal ions and hydroxide ions in aqueous solution.
strong nuclear force (p. 865) A force that acts on subatomic particles that are extremely close together.
structural formula (p. 253) A molecular model that uses symbols and bonds to show relative positions of atoms; can be predicted for many molecules by drawing the Lewis structure.
structural isomers (p. 765) A class of isomers whose atoms are bonded in different orders with the result that they have different chemical and physical properties despite having the same formula.
sublimation (p. 83) The energy-requiring process by which a solid changes directly to a gas without first becoming a liquid.
substance (p. 5) Matter that has a definite composition; also known as a chemical.
substituent groups (p. 753) The side branches that extend from the parent chain; they appear to substitute for a hydrogen atom in the straight chain.
substitution reaction (p. 790) A reaction of organic com-pounds in which one atom or group of atoms in a mol-ecule is replaced by another atom or group of atoms.
calor específico (pág. 519) Cantidad de calor requerida para elevar la temperatura de un gramo de una sustancia dada en un grado centígrado (Celsius).
constante de velocidad de la reacción (pág. 575) Valor numérico que relaciona la velocidad de la reacción y la concentración de reactivos a una temperatura específica.
ion espectador (pág. 301) Ion que no participa en una reacción.
proceso espontáneo (pág. 542) Cambio físico o químico que ocurre sin intervención externa; la iniciación del proceso puede requerir un suministro de energía.
entalpía (calor) estándar de formación (pág. 537) Cambio en la entalpía que acompaña la formación de un mol de un compuesto en su estado normal, a partir de sus elemen-tos constituyentes en su estado normal.
electrodo normal de hidrógeno (pág. 711) Electrodo están-dar que sirve de referencia para medir el potencial de reducción de todos los electrodos.
estados de la materia (pág. 71) Las formas físicas en las que la materia existe naturalmente en la Tierra, más común-mente como sólido, líquido o gas.
estereoisómeros (pág. 766) Clase de isómeros cuyos átomos se unen en el mismo orden, pero con distinta disposición espacial.
esteroides (pág. 839) Lípidos con múltiples anillos en sus estructuras.
estequiometría (pág. 368) El estudio de las relaciones cuan-titativas entre las cantidades de reactivos utilizados y los productos formados durante una reacción química; se basa en la ley de la conservación de la masa.
ácido fuerte (pág. 644) Ácido que se ioniza completamente en solución acuosa.
base fuerte (pág. 648) Base que se disocia enteramente en iones metálicos e iones hidróxido en solución acuosa.
fuerza nuclear fuerte (pág. 865) Fuerza que actúa sólo en las partículas subatómicas que se encuentran extremada-mente cercanas.
fórmula estructural (pág. 253) Modelo molecular que usa símbolos y enlaces para mostrar las posiciones relati-vas de los átomos; esta fórmula se puede predecir para muchas moléculas al trazar su estructura de Lewis.
isómeros estructurales (pág. 765) Clase de isómeros cuyos átomos están unidos en distinto orden, por lo que tienen propiedades químicas y físicas diferentes a pesar de tener la misma fórmula.
sublimación (pág. 83) Proceso que requiere de energía en el que un sólido se convierte directamente en gas, sin con-vertirse primero en un líquido.
sustancia (pág. 5) Materia con una composición definida; también se conoce como sustancia química.
grupos sustituyentes (pág. 753) Las ramas laterales que se extienden desde la cadena principal y parecen sustituir un átomo de hidrógeno de la cadena recta.
reacción de sustitución (pág. 790) Reacción de compuestos orgánicos en la cual un átomo o un grupo de átomos en una molécula son sustituidos por otro átomo o grupo de átomos.
substitution reaction/reacción de sustituciónspecific heat/calor específico
1028 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
substrate (p. 830) A reactant in an enzyme-catalyzed reac-tion that binds to specific sites on enzyme molecules.
supersaturated solution (p. 494) Contains more dissolved solute than a saturated solution at the same temperature.
surface tension (p. 418) The energy required to increase the surface area of a liquid by a given amount; results from an uneven distribution of attractive forces.
surfactant (p. 419) A compound, such as soap, that low-ers the surface tension of water by disrupting hydrogen bonds between water molecules; also called a surface active agent.
surroundings (p. 526) In thermochemistry, includes every-thing in the universe except the system.
suspension (p. 476) A type of heterogeneous mixture whose particles settle out over time and can be separated from the mixture by filtration.
synthesis reaction (p. 289) A chemical reaction in which two or more substances react to yield a single product.
system (p. 526) In thermochemistry, the specific part of the universe containing the reaction or process being studied.
sustrato (pág. 830) Reactivo en una reacción catalizada por enzimas que se enlaza a sitios específicos en las molécu-las de la enzima.
solución sobresaturada (pág. 494) Aquella que contiene más soluto disuelto que una solución saturada a la misma temperatura.
tensión superficial (pág. 418) Energía requerida para aumentar el área superficial de un líquido en una canti-dad dada; es producida por una distribución desigual de las fuerzas de atracción.
surfactante (pág. 419) Compuesto, como el jabón, que reduce la tensión superficial del agua al romper los enlaces de hidrógeno entre las moléculas de agua; lla-mado también agente tensioactivo.
alrededores (pág. 526) En termoquímica, incluye todo el universo a excepción del sistema.
suspensión (pág. 476) Tipo de mezcla heterogénea cuyas partículas se asientan con el tiempo y pueden separarse de la mezcla por filtración.
reacción de síntesis (pág. 289) Reacción química en la que dos o más sustancias reaccionan para generar un solo producto.
sistema (pág. 526) En termoquímica, se refiere a la parte específica del universo que contiene la reacción o el pro-ceso en estudio.
substrate/sustrato titration/titulación
Ttechnology (p. 9) The practical use of scientific information.temperature (p. 403) A measure of the average kinetic
energy of the particles in a sample of matter.theoretical yield (p. 385) In a chemical reaction, the maxi-
mum amount of product that can be produced from a given amount of reactant.
theory (p. 16) An explanation supported by many experi-ments; is still subject to new experimental data, can be modified, and is considered valid it if can be used to make predictions that are proven true.
thermochemical equation (p. 529) A balanced chemical equation that includes the physical states of all the reac-tants and the energy change, usually expressed as the the change in enthalpy.
thermochemistry (p. 525) The study of heat changes that accompany chemical reactions and phase changes.
thermonuclear reaction (p. 883) A nuclear fusion reaction.thermoplastic (p. 813) A type of polymer that can be melted
and molded repeatedly into shapes that are retained when it is cooled.
thermosetting (p. 813) A type of polymer that can be molded when it is first prepared but when cool cannot be remelted.
titrant (p. 661) A solution of known concentration used to titrate a solution of unknown concentration; also called the standard solution.
titration (p. 660) The process in which an acid-base neu-tralization reaction is used to determine the concentra-tion of a solution of unknown concentration.
tecnología (pág. 9) Uso práctico de la información científica.temperatura (pág. 403) Medida de la energía cinética pro-
medio de las partículas en una muestra de materia.rendimiento teórico (pág. 385) La cantidad máxima de
producto que se puede producir a partir de una cantidad dada de reactivo, durante una reacción química.
teoría (pág. 16) Explicación respaldada por muchos experi-mentos; está sujeta a los resultados obtenidos en nuevos experimentos, se puede modificar y se considera válida si permite hacer predicciones verdaderas.
ecuación termoquímica (pág. 529) Ecuación química equili-brada que incluye el estado físico de todos los reactivos y el cambio de energía, este último usualmente expresado como el cambio en entalpía.
termoquímica (pág. 525) El estudio de los cambios de calor que acompañan a las reacciones químicas y a los cambios de fase.
reacción termonuclear (pág. 883) Reacción de fusión nuclear.termoplástico (pág. 813) Tipo de polímero que se puede
fundir y moldear repetidas veces en formas que el plástico mantiene al enfriarse.
fraguado (pág. 813) Tipo de polímero que se puede mol-dear la primera vez que es producido, pero que no puede fundirse de nuevo una vez que se ha enfriado.
solución tituladora (pág. 661) Solución de concentración conocida que se usa para titular una solución de concen-tración desconocida; también conocida como solución estándar.
titulación (pág. 660) Proceso en el que se usa una reacción de neutralización ácido-base para determinar la concen-tración de una solución de concentración desconocida.
Glossary/Glosario 1029
Glossary/Glosario
transition elements (p. 177) Elements in groups 3–12 of the modern periodic table and are further divided into tran-sition metals and inner transition metals.
transition metal (p. 180) The elements in groups 3–12 that are contained in the d-block of the periodic table and, with some exceptions, is characterized by a filled out-ermost s orbital of energy level n, and filled or partially filled d orbitals of energy level n −1.
transition state (p. 564) Term used to describe an activated complex because the activated complex is as likely to form reactants as it is to form products.
transmutation (p. 865) The conversion of an atom of one element to an atom of another element.
transuranium element (p. 876) An element with an atomic number of 93 or greater in the periodic table.
triglyceride (p. 836) Forms when three fatty acids are bonded to a glycerol backbone through ester bonds; can be either solid or liquid at room temperature.
triple point (p. 429) The point on a phase diagram repre-senting the temperature and pressure at which the three phases of a substance (solid, liquid, and gas) can coexist.
Tyndall effect (TIHN duhl • EE fekt) (p. 478) The scat-tering of light by colloidal particles.
elementos de transición (pág. 177) Elementos de los grupos 3 al 12 de la tabla periódica moderna; se subdividen en metales de transición y metales de transición interna.
metal de transición (pág. 180) Elementos de los grupos 3 al 12 del bloque d de la tabla periódica; con algunas excep-ciones, se caracterizan por tener lleno el orbital externo s del nivel de energía n y por tener orbitales d llenos o parcialmente llenos en el nivel de energía n −1.
estado de transición (pág. 564) Término que se usa para describir un complejo activado por su probabilidad de formar tanto reactivos como productos.
transmutación (pág. 865) Conversión de un átomo de un elemento a un átomo de otro elemento.
elemento transuránico (pág. 876) Elementos de la tabla periódica con un número atómico igual o mayor que 93.
triglicérido (pág. 836) Se forma cuando tres ácidos grasos se enlazan a un cadena principal de glicerol por enlaces éster; puede ser sólido o líquido a temperatura ambiente.
punto triple (pág. 429) El punto en un diagrama de fase que representa la temperatura y la presión en la que coexisten las tres fases de una sustancia (sólido, líquido y gas).
efecto Tyndall (pág. 478) Dispersión de la luz causada por las partículas coloidales.
viscosity/viscosidadtransition elements/elementos de transición
Uunit cell (p. 421) The smallest arrangement of atoms in a
crystal lattice that has the symmetry as the whole crystal; a small representative part of a larger whole.
universe (p. 526) In thermochemistry, is the system plus the surroundings.
unsaturated hydrocarbon (p. 746) A hydrocarbon that con-tains at least one double or triple bond between carbon atoms.
unsaturated solution (p. 493) Contains less dissolved solute for a given temperature and pressure than a saturated solution; has further capacity to hold more solute.
celda unitaria (pág. 421) El conjunto más pequeño de áto-mos en una red cristalina que posee la simetría de todo el cristal; pequeña parte representativa de un entero mayor.
universo (pág. 526) En termoquímica, se refiere el sistema más los alrededores.
hidrocarburo no saturado (pág. 746) Hidrocarburo que contiene por lo menos un enlace doble o triple entre sus átomos de carbono.
solución no saturada (pág. 493) Aquella que contiene menos soluto disuelto a una temperatura y presión dadas que una solución saturada; puede contener cantidades adi-cionales del soluto.
valence electrons (p. 161) The electrons in an atom’s outer-most orbitals; determine the chemical properties of an element.
vapor (p. 72) Gaseous state of a substance that is a liquid or a solid at room temperature.
vaporization (p. 426) The energy-requiring process by which a liquid changes to a gas or vapor.
vapor pressure (p. 427) The pressure exerted by a vapor over a liquid.
vapor pressure lowering (p. 499) The lowering of vapor pressure of a solvent by the addition of a nonvolatile sol-ute to the solvent.
viscosity (p. 417) A measure of the resistance of a liquid to flow, which is affected by the size and shape of particles, and generally increases as the temperature decreases and as intermolecular forces increase.
electrones de valencia (pág. 161) Los electrones en el orbital más externo de un átomo; determinan las propiedades químicas de un elemento.
vapor (pág. 72) Estado gaseoso de una sustancia que es líquida o sólida a temperatura ambiente.
vaporización (pág. 426) Proceso que requiere energía en el que un líquido se convierte en gas o vapor.
presión de vapor (pág. 427) Presión que ejerce un vapor sobre un líquido.
disminución de la presión de vapor (pág. 499) Reducción de la presión de vapor de un disolvente por la adición de un soluto no volátil al disolvente.
viscosidad (pág. 417) Medida de la resistencia de un líquido a fluir; es afectada por el tamaño y la forma de las partícu-las y en general aumenta cuando disminuye temperatura y cuando aumentan las fuerzas intermoleculares.
V
1030 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
wavelength (p. 137) The shortest distance between equiva-lent points on a continuous wave; is usually expressed in meters, centimeters, or nanometers.
wax (p. 838) A type of lipid that is formed by combining a fatty acid with a long-chain alcohol; is made by both plants and animals.
weak acid (p. 645) An acid that ionizes only partially in dilute aqueous solution.
weak base (p. 648) A base that ionizes only partially in dilute aqueous solution to form the conjugate acid of the base and hydroxide ion.
weight (p. 9) A measure of an amount of matter and also the effect of Earth’s gravitational pull on that matter.
longitud de onda (pág. 137) La distancia más corta entre puntos equivalentes en una onda continua; se expresa generalmente en metros, centímetros o nanómetros.
cera (pág. 838) Tipo de lípido que se forma al combinarse un ácido graso con un alcohol de cadena larga; son ela-borados por plantas y animales.
ácido débil (pág. 645) Ácido que se ioniza parcialmente en una solución acuosa diluida.
base débil (pág. 648) Base que se ioniza parcialmente en una solución acuosa diluida para formar el ácido conju-gado de la base y el ion hidróxido.
peso (pág. 9) Medida de la cantidad de materia y también del efecto de la fuerza gravitatoria de la Tierra sobre esa materia.
W
voltaic cell (p. 709) A type of electrochemical cell that con-verts chemical energy into electrical energy by a sponta-neous redox reaction.
VSEPR model (p. 261) Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model, which is based on an arrangement that minimizes the repulsion of shared and unshared pairs of electrons around the central atom.
pila voltaica (pág. 709) Tipo de celda electroquímica que convierte la energía química en energía eléctrica mediante una reacción redox espontánea.
modelo RPCEV (pág. 261) Modelo de Repulsión de los Pares Electrónicos de la Capa de Valencia; se basa en un ordenamiento que minimiza la repulsión de los pares de electrones compartidos y no compartidos alrededor del átomo central.
X ray (p. 864) A form of high-energy, penetrating electro-magnetic radiation emitted from some materials that are in an excited electron state.
rayos X (pág. 864) Forma de radiación electromagnética penetrante de alta energía que emiten algunos materiales que se encuentran en un estado electrónico excitado.
X
voltaic cell/pila voltaica X ray/rayos X
Index 1031
Italic numbers = illustration/photo
act. = activity
Bold numbers = vocabulary term
prob. = problem
Index Key
AAbsolute zero, 445
Absorption spectrum, 145, 164 act.
Accelerants, 91
Accuracy, 47–48
Acetaldehyde, 796
Acetaminophen, 800
Acetic acid, 634, 798, 800
Acetone, 432 act., 797
Acetylene. See Ethyne
Acid anhydrides, 643
Acid-base chemistry, 633 act., 634–668;
acid-base titration, 660–663, 664 prob.,
670 act.; acids, strength of, 644–647,
648 act.; Arrhenius model, 637, 642
table; bases, strength of, 648–649;
Brønsted-Lowry model, 638–640,
642 table; buffers, 666–667, 668 act.;
chemical properties of acids and bases,
635; hydronium and hydroxide ions,
636; ion-product of water and, 650
prob., 650–651; Lewis model, 641–643,
642 table; litmus paper and, 633 act.,
635, 658; milestones in understanding,
636–637; molarity and pH, 656; mono-
protic and polyprotic acids, 640–641,
641 table; neutralization reactions,
659–660; pH and, 633 act., 652, 653,
653 prob., 654 prob.; physical proper-
ties of acids and bases, 634–635; pOH
and, 652, 653; salt hydrolysis, 665
Acid-base indicators, 658, 663, 664
Acid-base titration. See Titration
Acid hydrolysis, 665
Acidic solutions, 636
Acid ionization constant ( K a), 647, 647
table, 970 table; calculate from pH,
656, 657 prob.
Acid mine waste, biotreatment of, 920
Acidosis, 666
Acid rain, 637
Acids. See also Acid-base chemistry;
acid ionization constant ( K a), 647,
647 table, 656, 657 prob.; anhydrides,
643; Arrhenius, 637; Brønsted-Lowry,
638–639, 646; chemical properties,
635; conjugate, 638; electrical conduc-
tivity, 635; in household items, 633
act.; ionization equations, 645, 645
table; molarity and pH of strong, 656;
monoprotic, 640, 640 table; naming,
250–251, 252; pH of. See pH; physical
properties, 634–635; polyprotic, 640–
641, 641 table; strength of, 644–647,
648 act.; strong, 644; titration of. See
Titration; weak, 645
Actinide series, 180, 185, 921
Activated complex, 564
Activation energy ( E a ), 564–566,
571–572
Active site, 830
Activities. See CHEMLABs; Data
Analysis Labs; Launch Labs;
MiniLabs; Problem-Solving Labs
Activity series, 293–294, 310 act.
Actual yield, 385
Addition: scientific notation and, 42,
948; significant figures and, 53, 53
prob., 952, 953 prob.
Addition polymerization, 811
Addition reactions, 804 table, 804–805
Adenine (A), 841
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), 845
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 532, 845
Adhesion, 419
Adipic acid, 798
ADP (adenosine diphosphate), 845
Age of Polymers. See Polymers
Agitation, 492
AIDS, 389
Air masses, density of and weather, 37
Air pressure, 406; deep sea diving and,
408 act.; measurement of, 406–407;
units of, 407
Alcoholic fermentation, 847
Alcohols, 792–793; denatured, 793;
elimination reactions, 803; evapora-
tion of, 432 act., 816 act.; functional
groups, 787 table; layering of in grad-
uated cylinder, 31 act.; naming, 793;
properties, 792–793, 816 act.
Aldehydes, 787 table, 796 table, 796–797
Algal blooms, 250
Algebraic equations, 954–955, 955 prob.
Aliphatic compounds, 771. See also
Alkanes; Alkenes; Alkynes
Alkali metals (Group 1A), 177, 906–909
Alkaline batteries, 719
Alkaline earth metals (Group 2A), 177,
910–915
Alkanes, 750–758; alkyl halides and,
789; branched-chain, 752–753,
754–755 prob.; burner gas analysis,
776 act.; chemical properties, 758;
condensed structural formulas, 751;
cycloalkanes, 755–756, 756–757
prob.; hydrogenation reactions, 805;
naming, 751, 752–753, 754–755
prob.; nonpolarity of, 757, 758; physi-
cal properties, 758; solubility, 758;
straight-chain, 750–751
Alkenes, 759; addition reactions involv-
ing, 804; naming, 760, 761 prob.; prop-
erties, 762; stereoisomers, 766; uses, 762
Alkyl groups, 752, 753 table
Alkyl halides, 787; dehydrogenation
reactions, 803; naming, 788; parent
alkanes v., 789 table; substitution
reactions, 791
Alkynes, 763–764; ethyne, synthesize
and observe, 762 act.; examples, 763
table; hydrogenation reactions, 805;
naming, 763; properties, 764; uses, 764
Allotropes, 938
Alloys, 81, 227–228; commercially
important, 228 table; interstitial, 228;
magnesium, 913; substitutional, 228;
transition metal, 916
Alnico, 228 table
Alpha decay, 867, 868 table
Alpha particles, 123, 861 table, 862, 864,
888 table
Alpha radiation, 123, 124 table, 861, 861
table, 862, 888 table
Alternative energy specialist, 729
Aluminum, 159 table, 226 table, 730–
731, 922, 923, 924
Aluminum oxide, 212
Amide functional group, 787 table
Amides, 787 table, 800, 800 table
Amines, 787 table, 795, 795 table
Amino acids, 826–827, 827 table
Amino functional group, 787 table, 826
Ammonia: as Brønsted-Lowry base,
639; evaporation of, 432 act.; Lewis
structure, 243, 255 prob.; polarity of,
268; production of, 290, 462, 594, 596,
597; sigma bonds in, 244, 245
Ammoniated cattle feed, 601
Ammonium, 221 table
Amorphous solids, 424
Amphoteric, 639
Amplitude, 137
Anabolism, 844–845
Analytical balance, 77, 79
Analytical chemistry, 11 table, 79, 341
Anhydrides, 643
Anhydrous calcium chloride, 354
Aniline, 795
Anions, 209
Absolute zero Anions
1032 Index
Index
Anodes, 107, 710
Antacids, 659
Antarctica, ozone hole over, 7, 20–21
Anthracene, 772
Antilogarithms, 966–967
Antimony, 932, 933, 935
Applied research, 17
Aqueous solutions, 299–308. See also
Solutions; electrolytes in and colliga-
tive properties, 498–499; ionic com-
pounds in, 300; ionic equations and,
301, 302 prob.; molecular compounds
in, 299; nonelectrolytes in and colliga-
tive properties, 499; overall equations
for reactions in, 307; reactions produc-
ing water in, 303, 304 prob.; reactions
that form gases, 281 act., 304–305, 306
prob.; reactions that form precipitates
in, 300, 301 act., 302 prob.; solvation of
ionic compounds in, 490; solvation of
molecular compounds in, 491
Aragonite, 214
Archaeologist, 891
Argon, 159 table, 185 table, 944, 945
Aristotle, 103, 103 table, 416
Aromatic compounds, 771–774; ben-
zene, 770–771; carcinogenic, 774;
fused-ring systems, 772; naming,
772–773, 773 prob.
Arrhenius model of acid-base chemis-
try, 637, 642 table
Arrhenius, Svante, 636, 637
Arsenic, 932, 933
Arson investigator, 91
Art restorer, 23
Aryl halides, 788
Aspirin, 810
Astatine, 940, 941
Asymmetric carbon, 768
Atmosphere (atm), 407, 407 table
Atmosphere, Earth’s: cycling of carbon
dioxide in, 505; elements in, 901;
layers of, 5; ozone layer and, 5–8
Atomic bomb, 879
Atomic distances, 113 act.
Atomic emission spectrum, 144–145,
164 act.
Atomic Force Microscope, 291
Atomic mass, 119–120, 121 prob., 126
act.
Atomic mass unit (amu), 119, 325, 969
table
Atomic nucleus, 112; discovery of, 112;
nuclear model of mass and, 326 act.
Atomic number, 115, 116 prob., 118
prob.
Atomic orbitals, 152, 154, 262
Atomic radii, trends in, 187, 188, 189
prob.
Atomic solids, 422, 422 table
Atomic structure: Bohr model of,
146–148, 150 act.; Dalton’s model
of, 104 table, 104–105; Democritus’
early idea of, 103; Greek philosophers’
views of, 102–103, 103 table; mile-
stones in understanding, 110–111;
nuclear atomic model, 112–114, 136;
plum pudding model, 110; quantum
mechanical model, 149–152; try to
determine, 135 act.
Atomic weapons, 111
Atoms, 10, 106–107; atom-to-mass
conversions, 331 prob.; determining
structure of. See Atomic structure;
excited state, 146, 147; ground state,
146; mass-to-atom conversions,
329–330, 330 prob.; size of, 106, 112;
stability of, 240; subatomic particles,
113–114, 114 table; viewing, 107
ATP (adenosine triphosphate), 845
Aufbau diagram, 156–157, 157 table,
160
Aufbau principle, 156, 157 table
Automobile air safety bags, 292
Average rate of reaction, 560–562, 562
prob.
Avogadro’s number, 321, 326 act., 969
table
Avogadro’s principle, 452
BBacteria, nitrogen-fixing, 934
Bakelite, 809, 810, 813
Baker, 847
Baking, acid-base chemistry and, 669
Baking powder, 669
Baking soda, 378 act., 669
Balanced chemical equations: conserva-
tion of mass and, 285, 288; deriving,
285–286, 286 table, 287 prob., 288,
288. See also Stoichiometry; mole
ratios and, 371–372; particle and mole
relationships in, 368–369; relation-
ships derived from, 369 table
Balanced forces, 597
Ball-and-stick molecular models, 253, 746
Balmer (visible) series, 147, 148, 150 act.
Band of stability, 866
Bar graphs, 56
Barite, 214
Barium, 226 table, 910–911, 913, 914
Barium carbonate, 302, 302 prob.
Barium chloride, 913
Barium sulfate, 621
Barometers, 407, 416
Base hydrolysis, 665
Base ionization constant ( K b ), 649, 649
table, 970 table
Bases. See also Acid-base chemistry;
antacids, 659; Arrhenius, 637; base
ionization constant ( K b ), 649, 649
table; Brønsted-Lowry, 638–639;
chemical properties, 635; conjugate,
638; in household items, 633 act.;
molarity and pH of strong, 656; phys-
ical properties, 634–635; strength of,
648–649; strong, 649; titration of. See
Titration; weak, 649
Base units, 33, 35–37
Basic solutions, 636
Batteries, 717, 718–723; dry cells, 718–
720; fuel cells, 722–723; lead-acid,
720–721, 930; lemon battery, 707 act.;
lithium, 721–722
Becquerel, Henri, 860–861, 885
Beetles, bioluminescent, 309
Bent molecular shape, 263 table
Benzaldehyde, 796 table, 797
Benzene, 770–771; carcinogenic nature
of, 774; naming of substituted,
772–773
Benzopyrene, 774
Bernoulli, Daniel, 416
Beryl, 214
Beryllium, 158 table, 161 table, 910–
911, 912
Beryls, 912
Best-fit line, 56–57
Beta decay, 867, 868 table
Beta particles, 123, 861 table, 863, 864,
888 table
Beta radiation, 123, 124 table, 861, 861
table, 862, 863, 888 table
Binary acids, 250, 252
Binary ionic compounds, 210, 219
Binary molecular compounds, 248–250,
249 prob., 252
Binding energy, 877, 878
Biochemist, 308
Biochemistry, 11 table
Biofuel cells, 724 act.
Biofuels, 774 act., 775
Biogas, 775
Biological metabolism. See Metabolism
Bioluminescence, 309, 693
Biomolecules: carbohydrates, 825 act.,
832–834; lipids, 835–839; nucleic
acids, 840–843; proteins, 826–831
Bioremediation, 920
Bismuth, 932, 933, 935
Bismuth subsalicylate, 935
Blocks, periodic table, 183–185. See also
Specific blocks
Blood, pH of, 666, 668 act.
Anodes Blood
Index 1033
Index
Bloodstains, detecting, 697
Body temperature, reaction rate and, 583
Bohr atomic model, 146–148, 150 act.
Bohr, Niels, 110, 146
Boiling, 427
Boiling point, 77, 427; of alkanes, 758;
of covalent compounds, 270; of halo-
carbons, 789; as physical property, 73
Boiling point elevation, 500–501, 503
prob.
Boltzmann, Ludwig, 402
Bond angles, 261
Bond character, 266
Bond dissociation energies, 247
Bonding pairs, 242
Bonds. See Chemical bonds
Book preservation, 661
Borates, 214
Boron, 158 table, 161 table, 184, 922,
923, 924
Boron group (Group 13), 922–925
Bose-Einstein condensate, 417
Bose, Satyendra Nath, 417
Boyle, Robert, 442
Boyle’s law, 442–443, 443 prob., 444 act.,
451 table
Branched-chain alkanes, 752–753;
alkyl groups, 752; naming, 752–753,
754–755 prob., 760, 761 prob.
Brass, 228 table
Breathing, Boyle’s law and, 444 act.
Breeder reactors, 882
Brine, electrolysis of, 730
Bromate, 221 table
Bromine, 120, 180, 940, 941, 942
Brønsted, Johannes, 638
Brønsted-Lowry model, 638–640, 642
table, 646
Bronze, 228 table
Brownian motion, 477
Brown, Robert, 477
Buckminsterfullerene, 928
Buckyballs, 928
Buffer capacity, 667
Buffers, 666–667, 668 act.
Buffer systems, 666–667, 668 act.
Bufotoxin, 839
Burner gas analysis, 776 act.
Butane, 750, 751, 751 table
1-Butene, 759 table
2-Butene, 759 table
Butyl group, 753 table
CCadaverine, 795
Cadmium, 920
Calcium, 177, 195, 910–911, 913, 914
Calcium chloride, 913
Calcium hydroxide, 287
Calibration technician, 56
Calorie (cal), 518
Calorimeter, 523–524, 525 prob., 532 prob.
Calx of mercury, 79
Cancer, 163, 887
Canola oil, hydrogenation of, 805 act.
Capillary action, 419
Caramide, 800
Carbohydrates, 832–834; disaccharides,
833; functions of, 832; monosaccha-
rides, 832–833; polysaccharides, 833–
834; test for simple sugars, 825 act.
Carbolic acid, 636
Carbon. See also Organic compounds;
abundance of, 84; analytical tests for,
926–927; atomic properties, 158 table,
161 table, 926–927; common reactions
involving, 926–927; in human body,
195; organic compounds and, 745;
physical properties, 926; uses of, 928
Carbonated beverages, 495
Carbonates, 214
Carbon dating, 873–874, 883
Carbon dioxide, 256 prob., 430, 505
Carbon group (Group 4A), 926–931,
932–935
Carbonic acid, 634
Carbon tetrachloride, 20, 267–268
Carbonyl compounds, 796–801; alde-
hydes, 796–797; carboxylic acids, 798;
ketones, 797
Carbonyl group, 787 table, 796
Carboxyl group, 787 table, 798, 798
table, 826
Carboxylic acids, 798, 798 table; con-
densation reactions, 801; functional
groups, 787 table; naming, 798;
organic compounds derived from,
799–800, 800 act.; properties, 798
Carcinogens, 774
Cardiac scans, 925
Careers. See Careers in Chemistry; In
the Field
Careers in Chemistry: alternative energy
specialist, 729; baker, 847; biochemist,
308; calibration technician, 56; chemi-
cal engineer, 580; chemistry teacher,
123; environmental chemist, 7; flavor
chemist, 267; food scientist, 219; heat-
ing and cooling specialist, 527; materi-
als scientist, 81; medicinal chemist,
342; metallurgist, 423; meteorologist,
447; nursery worker, 646; petroleum
technician, 748; pharmacist, 381; phar-
macy technician, 483; polymer chem-
ist, 813; potter, 682; radiation therapist,
887; research chemist, 185; science
writer, 604; spectroscopist, 139
Cast iron, 228 table
Catabolism, 844–845
Catalysts, 571–573. See also Enzymes;
chemical equilibrium and, 611;
hydrogenation reactions and, 805;
temperature and, 850 act.
Catalytic converters, 573
Cathode rays, 108
Cathode-ray tubes, 107–108
Cathodes, 107, 710
Cations, 207–208
Cattle feed, 601
Cave formation, 643
CDs, 924
Cell membrane, 838
Cell notation, 713
Cell potential: applications of, 716;
calculate, 713–714, 715 prob., 717;
measure, 734 act.
Cellular respiration, 846
Celluloid, 490
Cellulose, 834
Celsius scale, 34
Centrifuge, 490
CERN, 111
Cesium, 194, 906, 907, 909
Cesium clock, 909
CFCs. See Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Chadwick, James, 110, 113
Chain reactions, 859 act., 879, 880
Chance, scientific discoveries and, 18
Charles, Jacques, 444
Charles’s law, 441 act., 444–445, 446
prob., 451 table
Chelation therapy, 229
Chemical bonds, 206; character of, 266;
covalent. See Covalent bonds; elec-
tron affinity and, 265; ionic. See Ionic
bonds; melting point and, 242 act.;
metallic. See Metallic bonds; valence
electrons and, 207
Chemical changes, 69 act., 77, 92 act.,
281 act. See also Chemical reactions
Chemical engineer, 580
Chemical equations, 285. See also
Ionic equations; Nuclear equations;
Redox equations; Stoichiometry;
Thermochemical equations; balanc-
ing, 285–286, 286 table, 287 prob.,
288; coefficients in, 369; interpreta-
tion, 370 prob.; mole ratios and,
371–372; products, 283; reactants,
283; relationships derived from, 369;
symbols used in, 283, 283 table
Chemical equilibrium, 596; addition
of products and, 608; addition of
Bloodstains Chemical equilibrium
1034 Index
Index
reactants and, 607; catalysts and, 611;
changes affecting, 593 act.; charac-
teristics of, 604; common ion effect
and, 620–621; concentration and, 607;
determine point of, 593 act.; dynamic
nature of, 597–598; equilibrium con-
stant ( K eq ), 599–600, 604, 605 prob.;
equilibrium expressions, 600, 601
prob., 602, 603 prob.; hemoglobin-
oxygen equilibrium in body, 623; law
of, 599–600; Le Châtelier’s principle
and, 606–611; moles of reactant v.
moles of product and, 609; removal
of products and, 608; reversible reac-
tions and, 595–596; temperature and,
609–610, 611 act.; volume and pres-
sure and, 608–609
Chemical formulas, 85; for binary ionic
compounds, 219, 220 prob.; empirical.
See Empirical formula; for hydrates,
351 table, 352, 353 prob., 356 act.;
for ionic compounds, 218–219, 220
prob., 221, 222 prob.; molecular. See
Molecular formulas; mole relation-
ship to, 333–334, 334–335 prob.; for
monatomic ions, 218–219; name of
molecular compound from, 251; per-
cent composition from, 342, 343 prob.;
for polyatomic ionic compounds, 221,
222 prob.; structural. See Structural
formulas
Chemical potential energy, 517
Chemical properties, 74
Chemical reaction rates. See Reaction
rates
Chemical reactions, 77, 282–288; actual
yield from, 385; addition, 804–805;
in aqueous solutions, 299–301, 302
prob., 303–305, 306 prob., 307–308;
classification of, 291 prob.; com-
bustion, 290–291, 532 prob., 533;
condensation, 801; conservation of
mass and, 77, 78 prob., 79, 285, 288;
decomposition, 292, 292 prob.; dehy-
dration, 803; dehydrogenation, 803;
elimination, 802; endothermic, 216,
247; equations for, 283 table, 283–285;
evidence of, 69 act., 77, 282–283, 367
act.; excess reactants in, 379, 384;
exothermic, 216, 247; heat from. See
Thermochemistry; limiting reactants,
379–381, 382–383 prob.; milestones in
understanding, 290–291; neutraliza-
tion, 659–660; nuclear reactions v.,
860 table; organic. See Organic reac-
tions; oxidation reduction reactions,
806–807; percent yield from, 386,
386 prob., 388; products of, identify,
92 act.; products of, predict, 298, 298
table, 807–808; rates of. See Reaction
rates; redox. See Redox reactions;
replacement, 293–294, 295 prob.,
296–297; spontaneity of, 542–545,
546–547, 548 prob., 566–567; stoi-
chiometry in. See Stoichiometry;
substitution, 790–791; synthesis, 289;
theoretical yield from, 385
Chemical symbols, 84
Chemistry, 4, 11; benefits of studying,
22; branches of, 11, 11 table; symbols
and abbreviations used in, 968 table
Chemistry & Health: elements of the
body, 195; evolution and HIV, 389;
hemoglobin-oxygen equilibrium, 623;
hyperbaric oxygen therapy, 465; laser
scissors, 163; PA-457 anti-HIV drug,
389; rate of reaction and body tem-
perature, 583; toxicology, 59
Chemistry teacher, 123
CHEMLABs, 228. See also Data Analysis
Labs; Launch Labs; MiniLabs; absorp-
tion and emission spectra, 164 act.;
alcohols, properties of, 816 act.; atomic
mass of unknown element, 126 act.;
burner gas analysis, 776 act.; calorim-
etry, 550 act.; density, dating coins
by, 60 act.; descriptive chemistry, 196
act.; enzyme action and temperature,
850 act.; evaporation, compare rates
of, 432 act.; gas, identify an unknown,
466 act.; hydrate, determine formula
for, 356 act.; hydrocarbon burner gas
analysis, 776 act.; ionic compounds,
formation of, 230 act.; metals, reactiv-
ity of, 310 act.; molar solubility, calcu-
late and compare, 624 act.; molecular
shape, 272 act.; mole ratios, determine,
390 act.; products of chemical reaction,
identify, 92 act.; reaction rate, affect of
concentration on, 584 act.; redox and
the damaging dumper, 698 act.; solu-
bility rate, factors affecting, 506 act.;
vapor pressure and popcorn popping,
466 act.; voltaic cell potentials, mea-
sure, 734 act.; water analysis, 24 act.
Chernobyl, 880, 883, 889 act.
Chewing gum, percent composition,
342 act.
Chimney soot, 774
Chirality, 767, 768
Chlorate, 221 table
Chlorine, 89–90, 119–120, 159 table,
180, 940, 941, 942
Chlorine bleach, 942
Chlorite, 221 table
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 7–8, 17,
20, 291, 788
Chloromethane, 787
Chlorophyll, 912
Chocolate, 431
Chromatograms, polarity and, 269 act.
Chromatography, 82 act., 83, 269 act.
Chrome, 328
Chromium, 160, 328, 918, 919
Cinnameldehyde, 796 table, 797
Circle graphs, 55
cis- isomers, 766
Clay, 476
Clay roofing tiles, 302
Clouds, 428
Cloud seeding, 495
Cobalt, 918, 919
Coefficients, 285; balancing equations
and, 285; scientific notation and, 40–41
Cohesion, 419
Cold-packs, 515 act., 528
Collagen, 831
Colligative properties, 498–504; boiling
point elevation, 500–501; electrolytes
and, 498–499; freezing point depres-
sion, 501–502, 502 act., 503 prob.;
osmotic pressure, 504; vapor pressure
lowering, 499–500
Collision theory, 563–564, 564 table
Colloids, 477, 477 table, 478
Color: change in as evidence of chemical
reaction, 283; as physical property, 73
Combined gas law, 449, 450 prob., 451
table, 454
Combustion engines, 290
Combustion reactions, 290–291, 532
prob., 533
Common ion, 620
Common ion effect, 620–621
Complementary base pairs, 841, 842
Complete ionic equations, 301, 302
prob., 304 prob.
Complex carbohydrates. See
Polysaccharides
Complex reactions, 580
Compounds, 85–87; compare melt-
ing points of, 242 act.; formulas for.
See Formulas; ionic. See Ionic com-
pounds; law of definite proportions
and, 87–88; law of multiple propor-
tions and, 89–90; mass-to-mole
conversions, 337, 337 prob.; molar
mass of, 335, 335 prob.; mole-to-mass
conversions, 336, 336 prob.; percent
composition and. See Percent com-
position; properties of, 86; separating
components of, 86; stability of, 240
Computer chips, 181, 929
Concentration, 475 act., 480–488. See
Solution concentration; calculate from
Chemical formulas Concentration
Index 1035
Index
equilibrium constant expression, 612,
613 prob.; chemical equilibrium and,
607; qualitative descriptions of, 480;
ratios of. See Concentration ratios;
reaction rate and, 569, 574–576, 584
act.
Concentration ratios: molality, 480
table, 487, 487 prob.; molarity, 480
table, 482, 483 prob.; mole fraction,
480 table, 488; percent by mass, 480
table, 481, 481 prob.; percent by vol-
ume, 480 table, 482
Conclusions, 15
Condensation, 76, 428
Condensation polymerization, 811
Condensation reactions, 801
Condensed structural formulas, 751
Conductivity: among types of elements
177–181; as physical property, 73;
explanation of, 226; of ionic com-
pounds in solution, 215, 498–499
Conjugate acid-base pair, 638
Conjugate acids, 638, 641 table
Conjugate bases, 638, 641 table
Conservation of energy. See Law of con-
servation of energy
Conservation of mass. See Law of con-
servation of mass
Constant, 14
Controls, 14
Conversion factors, 44–46, 46 prob.,
319 act.
Coordinate covalent bonds, 259
Copper: acid mine waste, 920; electron
configuration, 160; in fireworks, 913;
flame test for, 92 act.; law of multiple
proportions and, 89–90; melting and
boiling point, 226 table; in microchip
wiring, 919; as paint pigment, 919;
properties of, 74 table; purification of,
731–732
Core, iron in Earth’s, 919
Corn oil, 31 act.
Corrosion, 724–727, 726 act.
Counting units, 320
Covalent bonds, 241–247; bond angle,
261, 263 table; coordinate, 259; double,
245; electron affinity and, 265; electro-
negativity and, 266; energy in, 247; for-
mation of, 241; hybridization and, 262;
length of, 246; nonpolar, 266; pi bonds
and, 245; polar, 266, 267–268; sigma
bonds and, 244, 245; single, 242–244;
strength of, 246–247; super ball prop-
erties, 239 act.; triple, 245
Covalent compounds: boiling points
of, 270; formulas from names of, 251;
intermolecular forces in, 269–270;
Lewis structures for, 253–260, 255 prob.,
256 prob., 257 prob., 258 prob., 260
prob.; melting points of, 242 act., 270;
naming, 248–251, 249 prob., 252; polar-
ity of and chromatograms, 269 act.;
properties of, 270; shape of (VSEPR
model), 261–262, 263 table, 264 prob.
Covalent gases, 270
Covalent molecular solids, 270
Covalent network solids, 270, 422, 422
table, 423
Cracking, 748
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and
Physics, 75, 77
Crick, Francis, 637, 841–842
Crime-scene investigator, 697
Critical mass, 880
Critical point, 429
Crookes, Sir William, 108
Crude oil. See Petroleum
Crust, Earth’s, 901
Cryosurgery, 934
Cryotherapy, 934
Crystal lattices, 214, 270, 420–421, 422
act.
Crystalline solids, 420–421, 422 table;
categories, 422 table, 422–423; crystal
unit cells, 421, 422 act.
Crystallization, 83
Cube root, 949
Cubic unit cells, 421 table
Curie, Marie, 861, 882, 915
Curie, Pierre, 861, 882
Cyanide, 221 table
Cyclic hydrocarbons, 755
Cycloalkanes, 755–756, 756–757 prob.
Cyclohexane, 755
Cyclohexanol, 793
Cyclohyexylamine, 795
Cysteine, 827 table
Cytosine (C), 841
DDalton, John, 417
Dalton’s atomic theory, 104 table,
104–105, 109
Dalton’s law of partial pressures, 408,
409 prob., 410
Data, 13
Data Analysis Labs. See also
CHEMLABs; Launch Labs; MiniLabs;
Problem-Solving Labs; antimicrobial
properties of polymers, 216 act.;
atomic distances in highly ordered
pyrolytic graphite (HOPG), 113 act.;
biofuel cells, 724 act.; gas pressure and
deep sea diving, 408 act.; hydrogena-
tion of canola oil, 805 act.; microbes,
electric current from, 724 act.; oxida-
tion rate of dichloroethene isomers,
768 act.; oxygen in moon rocks, 387
act.; ozone levels in Antarctica, 21
act.; polarity and chromatograms, 269
act.; redox reactions and space shuttle
launch, 691 act.; turbidity and Tyndall
effect, 478 act.
d-block elements, 185, 916
de Broglie equation, 150
de Broglie, Louis, 149
Decane, 751 table
Decomposition reactions, 292, 292
prob., 566 act.
Deep sea diving, gas pressure and, 408
act.
Dehydration reactions, 803
Delocalized electrons, 225
Democritus, 103, 103 table, 416
Denaturation, 829
Denatured alcohol, 793
Density, 36–37; calculate, 37; date coins
by, 60 act.; of gases, 403, 456, 457 act.;
identification of unknowns by, 37, 38
prob., 39 act.; of liquids, 31 act., 415;
as physical property, 73; of solids, 420;
units of, 36
Dental amalgams, 228 table
Deoxyribonucleic acid. See DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid)
Deoxyribose sugar, 841
Dependent variables, 14, 56
Deposition, 429
Derived units, 35–36, 44
Desalination, 730
Descriptive chemistry, 196 act.
Dessicants, 354
Detergents, 13 act., 419, 924
Deuterium, 904
Diamonds, 423, 928
Diatomic molecules, 241
Dichloroethene, 768 act.
Dietary salt, 908
Diffusion, 404, 405
Dilute solutions, 485, 486 prob.
Dimensional analysis, 44–46, 46 prob.,
956, 956 prob.
Dinitrogen pentoxide, 565 act.
Dipeptides, 828
Dipole-dipole forces, 269, 411, 412–413
Direct relationships, 961
Disaccharides, 833
Dispersion forces, 269, 411, 412
Dispersion medium, 477 table
Dissociation energy, 247
Dissociation equations, strong bases,
648, 648 table
Concentration ratios Dissociation equations
1036 Index
Index
Distillation, 82
Distilled water: electrical conductivity
of, 205 act.; evaporation of, 432 act.
Diving, gas pressure and, 408 act.
Division operations, 54
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 841–842,
842 act., 843
Dobson, G. M. B., 6
Dobson units (DU), 6
d orbitals, 154
Dose of radiation, 889–890
Dose-response curve, 59
Double covalent bonds, 245, 246
Double helix, DNA, 841
Double-replacement reactions, 296–
297, 297 prob., 297 table
Down’s cells, 729
Drake, Edwin, 749
Dry cells, 718–720; alkaline batteries,
719; primary batteries, 720; second-
ary batteries, 720; silver batteries, 719;
zinc-carbon, 718–719
Dry ice, 428
Drywall, 914
Ductility, 226
DVDs, 924
EEarth: atmosphere of, 5, 901; elements
in core of, 919; elements in crust of,
84, 901; elements in oceans of, 901;
entropy and geologic changes on, 545
Effusion, 404–405, 405 prob.
Egyptian cubits, 46 prob.
Einstein, Albert, 143, 417, 877
Elastic collisions, 403
Electrical conductivity: of acids and
bases, 635; of ionic compounds, 214–
215; of metals, 180, 226; of strong
acids, 645; of various compounds, 205
act.; of weak acids, 645, 648 table
Electric charge, observe, 101 act.
Electrochemical cell potentials, 711–
717, 734 act.; calculate, 713–714, 715
prob., 717; cell notation, 713; half-cell
potentials, 712, 712 table; of standard
hydrogen electrode, 711
Electrochemical cells, 707 act., 709,
709–711; alkaline batteries, 719;
chemistry of, 710–711; dry cells,
718–720; electrochemical cell poten-
tials, 711–714, 715 prob., 716–717;
electrolysis and, 728–732; half-cells,
710; lead-acid batteries, 720–721;
lithium batteries, 721–722; primary
and secondary batteries, 720; silver
batteries, 719
Electrochemistry: batteries, 717, 718–
723; biofuel cells, 724 act.; corrosion,
724–727; electrochemical cell poten-
tials, 711–714, 715 prob., 716–717;
electrochemical cells, 707 act., 709;
electrolysis, 728–732; lemon battery,
707 act.; redox reactions in, 708–709;
voltaic cell chemistry, 710–711
Electrolysis, 86, 728–732; aluminum
production, 730–731; desalination by,
730; electroplating and, 732; of mol-
ten NaCl, 729; ore purification and,
731–732
Electrolytes, 215; colligative properties
of aqueous solutions and, 498–499;
strong, 498; weak, 498
Electrolytic cells, 728; aluminum pro-
duction and, 730–731; electrolysis of
brine and, 730; electrolysis of molten
NaCl and, 729; electroplating and,
732; purification of ores and, 731–732
Electromagnetic radiation, 137–139,
140 prob., 861 table, 863–864
Electromagnetic (EM) spectrum,
138–139
Electromagnetic wave relationship, 137,
150
Electromotive force (emf), 710
Electron affinity, 265
Electron capture, 868, 868 table
Electron configuration notation, 158–
159; first period elements, 158 table;
second period elements, 158 table;
third period elements, 159 table
Electron configurations, 156–162;
aufbau principle and, 156–157, 157
table; electron configuration notation,
158–159; electron-dot structures, 161,
162 prob.; exceptions to predicted,
160; ground state, 156; Hund’s rule
and, 157; Noble-gas notation, 159;
orbital diagrams of, 158; Pauli exclu-
sion principle and, 157; periodic table
trends, 182–185, 186 prob.; valence
electrons, 161
Electron-dot structures, 161, 161 table,
162 prob., 207. See also Lewis struc-
tures
Electronegativity, 194, 265; bond
character and, 266, 266 table; bond
polarity and, 266, 267; periodic table
trends, 194, 265; redox and, 684
Electronegativity scale, 194, 212, 265
Electron mediator, 724 act.
Electrons, 108; charge of, 108–109; dis-
covery of, 107–109; energy levels and,
146–148; location of around nucleus,
152; mass of, 108–109, 119, 969 table;
photoelectric effect and, 142; proper-
ties of, 114 table; quantum mechanical
model of atom and, 150–152; valence,
161
Electron sea model, 225
Electroplating, 732
Electrostatic force, 865
Elements, 10, 84–85, 87; abundance
of various, 84; in atmosphere, 901;
atomic number of, 115, 116 prob., 118
prob.; chemical symbols for, 84; color
key, 968 table; in Earth’s atmosphere,
901; in Earth’s core, 919; in Earth’s
crust, 84, 901; in Earth’s oceans, 901;
emission spectra of, 164 act.; in the
human body, 195; isotopes, 117; law
of definite proportions, 87–88; law of
multiple proportions, 89–90; periodic
table of. See Periodic table; physical
states of, 84; properties of, 180 act.,
196 act., 971–974 table; representa-
tive, 177, 196 act.
Elimination reactions, 802
Emeralds, 912
Emission spectra, 164 act.
Empirical formulas, 344; from mass
data, 349–350 prob.; from percent
composition, 344, 345 prob., 347
Endothermic reactions, 216, 247, 528,
528 table
End point (titration), 663
Energy, 516–522; bond dissociation, 247;
change during solution formation,
475 act., 492; changes of state and,
530–530, 531 act., 532 prob.; chemi-
cal cold pack and, 515 act.; chemical
potential, 517; flow of as heat, 518. See
also Heat; kinetic, 402, 403, 516–517,
710; lattice, 216–217; law of conserva-
tion of, 517; potential, 516–517; quan-
tized, 141–143, 146; solar, 522; units of,
518, 518 prob., 518 table; uses of, 516;
voltaic cells and, 710–711
Energy levels, 153
Energy sublevels, 153–154
English units, 32
Enthalpy (H), 527; calculate changes
in (Hess’s law), 534–536, 536 prob.;
calorimetry measurement of, 550 act.;
changes of state and, 530–533, 531
act., 532 prob.; thermochemical equa-
tions and, 529
Enthalpy (heat) of combustion
(∆ H comb ), 529, 529 table
Enthalpy (heat) of reaction (∆ H rxn ),
527–528
Entropy (S), 543; Earth’s geologic pro-
cesses and, 545; predict changes in,
Distillation Entropy
Index 1037
Index
544–545; reaction spontaneity and,
546–547, 548 prob.; second law of
thermodynamics and, 543
Environmental chemist, 7
Environmental chemistry, 11 table
Enzymes, 826, 829–830. See also
Catalysts; Proteins; affect on reaction
rate, 571; chirality and, 767, 768; tem-
perature and, 850 act.
Enzyme-substrate complex, 830
Equations: algebraic, 954–955, 955 prob.;
atomic number, 115; average rate of
reaction, 562; boiling point elevation,
500; Boyle’s law, 443; cell potential,
714; Charles’s law, 445; chemical. See
Chemical equations; Dalton’s law of
partial pressures, 409; density, 37; dilu-
tion, 485; Einstein’s (E=m c 2 ), 877;
electromagnetic wave relationship, 137,
150; energy of a photon, 143; energy of
a quantum, 142; error, 48; Gay-Lussac’s
law, 447; general rate law, 575; Gibbs
free energy, 515 act., 546; Graham’s
law of effusion, 404; Henry’s law, 496;
ideal gas law, 454; induced transmuta-
tion, 876 prob.; ionic, 301; ion-product
of water, 650; law of conservation of
mass, 77; mass number, 117; molality,
487; molarity, 482; mole fraction, 488;
neutralization, 659–660; nuclear, 123,
869, 869 prob.; overall, 307; percent by
mass, 87, 481; percent by mass from
the chemical formula, 342; percent by
volume, 482; percent error, 48; percent
yield, 386; pH, 652; pH and pOH,
relationship between, 652; pOH, 652;
quantum, energy of, 142; radiation,
intensity and distance of, 890; radioac-
tive element, remaining amount of,
871; rate law, 574; skeleton, 284; slope
of a line, 57, 962; specific heat, 520;
summation, 540; symbols used in, 283
table; thermochemical, 529–533; word,
284
Equilibrium. See Chemical equilibrium;
Solubility equilibrium
Equilibrium concentrations, calculate,
612, 613 prob.
Equilibrium constant ( K eq ), 599–600,
604, 605 prob.
Equilibrium constant expressions,
599–600; calculate concentrations
from, 612, 613 prob.; for heteroge-
neous equilibrium, 602, 603 prob.; for
homogeneous equilibrium, 600, 601
prob.; Le Châtelier’s principle and,
606–611; solubility product constant
expressions. See Solubility product
constant expressions
Equivalence point, 661
Error, 48
Essential elements, 383
Essential oils, 770
Esterification, 806 table
Esters, 787 table, 799, 799 table, 800 act.
Ethanal, 796
Ethanamide, 800
Ethane, 750, 751 table, 793
Ethanol, 432 act., 792–793, 816 act.
Ethene, 759 table, 762, 803
Ether functional group, 787 table
Ethers, 787 table, 794, 794 table
Ethylamine, 795
Ethyl group, 753 table
Ethyne (acetylene), 762 act., 763, 763,
764
Evaporation, 426–427, 432 act., 816 act.
Everyday Chemistry: baking soda and
baking powder and cooking, 669;
chocolate, manufacture of, 431; garlic
and pain receptors, 815; history in a
glass of water, 355; killer fashion, 229
Example Problems: algebraic equations,
955 prob.; alkanes, naming, 754–755
prob.; alkenes, naming, 761 prob.;
aromatic compounds, naming, 773
prob.; atomic mass, 121 prob.; atomic
number, 116 prob., 118 prob.; atomic
radii trends, 189 prob.; atom-to-mass
conversions, 330 prob.; average rate of
reaction, 562 prob.; balancing equa-
tions, 287 prob.; boiling point eleva-
tion, 503 prob.; Boyle’s law, 443 prob.;
branched-chain alkanes, naming,
754–755 prob.; cell potential, calculate,
715 prob.; Charles’s law (gas tempera-
ture and volume relationship), 446
prob.; chemical equations, interpret,
370 prob.; combined gas law, 450 prob.;
combustion reactions, energy released
by, 532 prob.; concentration from equi-
librium constant expression, 613 prob.;
conservation of mass, 78 prob.; conver-
sion factors, 46 prob.; cycloalkanes,
naming, 756–757 prob.; density and
volume to find mass, 38 prob.; dimen-
sional analysis, 956 prob.; electron
configuration and the periodic table,
186 prob.; electron-dot structure, 162
prob.; empirical formula from mass
data, 349–350 prob.; empirical formula
from percent composition, 345 prob.;
energy of a photon, 143 prob.; energy
units, convert, 518 prob.; equilibrium
constant expression for heterogeneous
equilibrium, 603 prob.; equilibrium
constant expression for homogeneous
equilibrium, 601 prob.; equilibrium
constants, value of, 605 prob.; formula
for polyatomic compound, 222 prob.;
formulas for ionic compound, 220
prob.; freezing point depression, 503
prob.; gas stoichiometry, 461 prob.;
Gay-Lussac’s law, 448 prob.; Graham’s
law of effusion, 405 prob.; half-reac-
tion method, 695 prob.; heat absorbed,
calculate, 521 prob.; hydrates, deter-
mine formula for, 353 prob.; ideal gas
law, 455 prob.; induced transmutation
equations, 876 prob.; instantaneous
reaction rates, 579 prob.; ionic equa-
tions and precipitation reactions, 302
prob.; ionic equations for aqueous
solutions forming gases, 306 prob.;
ionic equations for aqueous solutions
forming water, 304 prob.; ion product
constant, 651 prob.; ion product con-
stant Q sp , 619 prob.; Lewis structure
for covalent compound with multiple
bonds, 256 prob.; Lewis structure for
covalent compound with single bond,
255 prob.; Lewis structures, 244 prob.;
limiting reactant, determine, 382–383
prob.; mass number, 118 prob.; mass-
to-atom conversions, 330 prob.; mass-
to-mass stoichiometric conversion, 377
prob.; mass-to-mole conversions, 329
prob.; mass-to-mole conversions for
compounds, 337 prob.; mass to moles
to particles conversions, 338–339
prob.; molality, 487 prob.; molarity, 483
prob.; molarity from titration data, 664
prob.; molar solubility, 616 prob.; molar
volume, 453 prob.; molecular formula
from percent composition, 348–349
prob.; molecular shape, 264 prob.; mole
relationship from a chemical formula,
334 prob.; mole-to-mass conversion,
328 prob.; mole-to-mass conversions
for compounds, 336 prob.; mole-to-
mass stoichiometric conversion, 376
prob.; mole-to-mole stoichiometric
conversion, 375 prob.; net ionic redox
equation, balance, 692; nuclear equa-
tions, balancing, 869 prob.; oxidation
number, determine, 687 prob.; oxi-
dation-number method, 690 prob.;
particles, convert to moles, 324 prob.;
percent by mass, 481; percent error,
49 prob.; percent yield, 386 prob.; pH,
calculate, 653 prob., 654 prob.; pOH,
calculate, 654 prob.; radioactive ele-
ment, remaining amount of, 872 prob.;
reaction spontaneity, 548 prob.; redox
reactions, identify, 685 prob.; scientific
Environmental chemist Example Problems
1038 Index
Index
notation, 41 prob., 43 prob.; significant
figures, 51 prob., 53 prob., 54 prob.;
significant figures and, 951 prob., 953
prob.; single-replacement reactions,
295 prob.; standard enthalpy (heat) of
formation, 540 prob.; unit conversion,
958 prob.; wavelength of EM wave, 140
prob.
Excess reactants, 379, 384
Exothermic reactions, 216, 247; activa-
tion energy and, 565; enthalpy and,
527, 528 table
Expanded octets, 259
Experimental data, percent composition
from, 341–342, 342 act.
Experiments, 14. See also CHEMLABs;
MiniLabs; Problem-Solving Labs;
laboratory safety and, 18, 19 table
Exponents, 40–41
Extensive properties, 73
Extrapolation, 57, 963
FFahrenheit scale, 34
Families, periodic table. See Groups
Faraday, Michael, 770
Fasteners, arrange, 173 act.
Fats. See Lipids
Fatty acids, 767, 835–836, 837
f-Block elements, 185, 916
Femtochemistry, 581
Fermentation, 847–848; alcoholic, 847;
lactic acid, 848
Fermi, Enrico, 882
Fermionic condensate, 417
Ferromagnetism, 916
Fertilizers, 250, 388, 462
Fiber-optic cable, 930
Filtration, 82
Fire extinguishers, ideal gas law and,
456, 457 act.
Firefly, bioluminescence, 309
Fireworks, 913
First period elements: electron con-
figuration notation, 158 table; orbital
diagrams, 158 table
Fission, 111
Flame retardant fabric, 935
Flame tests, 92 act., 144 act., 907, 923
Flat-screen televisions, 925
Flavor chemist, 267
Fleming, Alexander, 18
Flexible-fuel vehicles (FFV), 549
Fluidity, 416
Fluids, 416
Fluoridation, 622 act., 942
Fluoride, 180
Fluorine: analytical tests for, 941;
atomic properties, 941; common reac-
tions involving, 940; electron configu-
ration and orbital diagram, 158 table;
electron-dot structure, 161 table; elec-
tronegativity of, 194, 265; isotopes,
120; physical properties, 940
Fluoroapatite, 622 act.
Fog, 428
Foldables: acid-base chemistry, 633 act.;
atoms, 101 act.; biomolecules, 825
act.; bond character, 239 act.; chemi-
cal reactions, 281 act.; concentration
of solutions, 475 act.; electrochemical
cells, 707 act.; electron configura-
tion, 135 act.; equilibrium, changes
affecting, 593 act.; functional groups,
785 act.; gas laws, 441 act.; Gibbs free
energy equation, 515 act.; hydrocar-
bon compounds, 743 act.; hydrocar-
bons, 743 act.; ionic compounds, 205
act.; mole conversion factors, 319 act.;
periodic trends, 173 act.; properties
and changes, 69 act.; reaction rates,
559 act.; redox equations, balance, 679
act.; scientific method, 3 act.; states of
matter, 401 act.; stoichiometric calcu-
lations, 367 act.; types of graphs, 31
act.; types of radiation, 859 act.
Food: from fermentation, 847; homog-
enization, 490; measure calories in,
550 act.; preservation of, 571; test for
simple sugars in, 825 act.
Food scientist, 219
f orbitals, 154
Forces: balanced, 597; dipole-dipole,
269, 411, 412–413; dispersion, 269,
411, 412; intermolecular, 411–414
Forensic accelerant detection, 91
Forensics CHEMLABs: density, dating
coins by, 60 act.; hydrocarbon burner
gases, identify, 776 act.; identify the
damaging dumper, 698 act.; water
source, determine, 24 act.
Forensics, luminol and, 697
Formaldehyde, 796, 797
Formic acid, 634
Formulas. See Chemical formulas;
Structural formulas
Formula unit, 218
Fossil fuels: natural gas, 416, 745, 747;
petroleum, 747–748
Fractional distillation, 747–748
Fractionation, 747–748
Fractions, 964, 965–966
Francium, 84, 180 act., 194, 265, 906,
907
Franklin, Rosalind, 637
Free energy ( G system ), 546–547; calcu-
late, 547, 548 prob.; sign of, 547, 547
table
Freezing, 428
Freezing point, 428
Freezing point depression, 501–502, 502
act., 503 prob.
Frequency, 137
Fructose, 832, 833
Fuel cells, 722–723, 905
Fuel rods, nuclear reactor, 880–882
Functional groups, 785 act., 786, 787
table; amide group, 800; carbonyl
group, 796; carboxyl group, 798;
hydroxyl group, 792
Fused-ring systems, 772
Fusion, molar enthalpy (heat) of
(∆ H fus ), 530
Fusion nuclear reactions, 883–884
Fusion (phase change), 425–426, See
also Melting
GGadolinium, 921
Galactose, 832, 833
Gallium, 922, 923, 924
Galvanization, 727
Gamma radiation, 124, 861, 861 table,
862, 863, 888 table
Gamma rays, 124, 863, 864
Garlic, 815
Gases, 72, 402–410; compression and
expansion of, 72 act., 404; Dalton’s
law of partial pressures and, 408, 409
prob., 410; density of, 403; diffusion
and effusion of, 404–405; formation
of in aqueous solutions, 281 act.,
304–305, 306 prob.; gas laws. See Gas
laws; identify an unknown, 466 act.;
kinetic-molecular theory and, 402–
403; molar volume of, 452, 453 prob.;
pressure and volume relationship
(Boyle’s law), 442–443, 443 prob., 444
act.; real v. ideal, 457–459; solubility
of, 495–496, 497 prob.; temperature
and volume relationship, 441 act.
Gas grills, 375, 461
Gas laws, 442–451; Boyle’s law (pressure
and volume relationship), 442–443,
443 prob., 444 act.; Charles’s law
(temperature and volume), 441 act.,
444–445, 446 prob.; combined gas law,
449, 450 prob., 454; Gay-Lussac’s law
(temperature and pressure relation-
ship), 447, 448 prob.; ideal gas law,
454, 455 prob., 456; summary of, 451
table; temperature scales and, 451
Excess reactants Gas laws
Index 1039
Index
Gasoline octane rating system, 748–749
Gas particles, 403; kinetic energy of,
403; motion of, 403; size of, 403
Gas pressure, 406–410; air pressure and,
406–407; Boyle’s law (pressure and
volume relationship), 442–443, 443
prob., 444 act.; Charles’s law (tempera-
ture and volume), 441 act., 444–445,
446 prob.; combined gas law, 449, 450
prob., 454; Dalton’s law of partial pres-
sures and, 408, 409 prob., 410; deep
sea diving and, 408 act.; Gay-Lussac’s
law (temperature and pressure rela-
tionship), 447, 448 prob.; ideal gas
law, 454, 455 prob., 456
Gas stoichiometry, 460–464; industrial
applications of, 464; volume-mass
problems, 462, 462–463 prob.; volume-
volume problems, 460–461, 461 prob.
Gay-Lussac’s law, 447, 448 prob., 451
table
Geckos, grip of, 271
Geiger counters, 885
Gemstones, 912
Geometric isomers, 766
Germanium, 181, 926–927, 930
Germanium tetrachloride, 930
GFP (green fluorescent protein), 309
Gibbs free energy ( G system ), 515 act.,
546–547, 548 prob.
Gibbs, J. Willard, 546
Glass, 929
Glucose, 532, 532 prob., 832, 833
Glutamic acid, 827 table
Glutamine, 827 table
Glycerol, 31 act., 793
Glycine, 827 table, 828
Glycogen, 834. See also Polysaccharides
Goiter, 943
Gold, 228 table, 920
Gold foil experiment, Rutherford’s, 110,
111–112, 113, 862
Gold leaf, 920
Graduated cylinder, layers of liquids in,
31 act.
Graham’s law of effusion, 404–405, 405
prob.
Graham, Thomas, 404
Grams (g), 34
Graphite, 423
Graphite golf shafts, 928
Graphs, 55–58; bar, 56; circle, 55; inter-
preting, 57–58; line, 56–57, 959–963
Gravimetric analysis, 341
Gravitation, law of universal, 16
Great Smog (London), 291
Greek philosophers, ideas on structure
of matter, 102–103, 103 table
Green fluorescent protein (GFP), 309
Ground state, 146
Ground-state electron configuration,
143 prob.
Ground-state electron configurations,
156–160; aufbau principle and,
156–157, 157 table; electron configu-
ration notation, 158–159; exceptions
to predicted, 160; Hund’s rule and,
157; noble-gas notation, 159; orbital
diagrams of, 158; Pauli exclusion
principle and, 157; problem-solving
strategy, 160
Group 1 elements (Alkali metals), 182
table, 182–184, 192, 207 table, 208,
208 table, 906, 906–909; (representa-
tive elements), 177
Group 2 elements (Alkaline earth
metals), 182, 183, 184, 207 table,
208, 208 table, 218 table, 219 table,
910–915
Group 13 elements (Boron group), 184,
207 table, 208, 208 table, 219 table,
922–925
Group 14 elements (Carbon group),
184, 207 table, 219 table, 243, 926–931
Group 15 elements (Nitrogen group),
184, 207 table, 209, 209 table, 218
table, 243, 932–935
Group 16 elements (Oxygen group),
184, 207 table, 209 table, 218 table,
243, 936–939
Group 17 elements (Halogens), 184, 207
table, 209, 209 table, 218 table, 243,
940–943
Group 18 elements (Noble gases), 180,
184, 185 table, 192, 207 table, 944–945
Groups (families), periodic table, 177;
atomic radii trends, 188, 189 prob.;
electron configuration and position
on periodic table, 183; ionic radii
trends, 191
Grove, William, 722
Guanine (G), 841
Gypsum, 490, 491, 914
HHaber-Bosch process, 290
Hahn, Otto, 111
Half-cells, 710
Half-life, 870–871, 871 table
Half-reaction method, 693–694, 694
table, 695 prob.
Half-reactions, 693
Halides, 214
Hall, Charles Martin, 730
Hall-Héroult process, 730–731
Halocarbons, 787 table, 787–789; alkyl
halides, 787; aryl halides, 788; func-
tional group, 787, 787 table; naming,
788; properties of, 789; substitution
reactions forming, 790; uses of, 789
Halogenated hydrocarbons, 940
Halogenation, 790
Halogen functional group, 787 table,
787–788
Halogen light bulbs, 942
Halogens, 180
Halogens (Group 17 elements), 184, 207
table, 209, 209 table, 218 table, 243,
940–943
Halogens, 940–943; analytical tests for,
941; applications of, 942–943; atomic
properties, 941; common reactions
involving, 940; covalent bonding in,
243; physical properties of, 940; predict
reactivity of, 294 act.; single-replace-
ment reactions involving, 294, 294 act.
Halothane, 790, 791
Hardness, as physical property, 73
Hard water, 24 act.
HD DVDs, 924
Heart stress test, 925
Heat (q), 518. See also
Thermochemistry; absorption of by
chemical reactions. See Endothermic
reactions; calorimetry and, 523–524,
525 prob., 550 act.; release of by
chemical reactions. See Exothermic
reactions; specific heat, 519–520, 521
prob., 522, 526 act.; thermochemical
systems and, 523–524; units of, 518,
518 prob.
Heating and cooling specialist, 527
Heating curves, 531 act.
Heat of combustion (∆ H comb ), 529,
529 table
Heat of reaction (∆ H rxn ), 527–528
Heat of solution, 475 act., 492
Heat-pack reaction, 527, 542
Heat-treated steel, 227 act.
Heavy hydrogen (deuterium), 904
Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 151
Helium, 158 table, 159, 183, 185 table,
192, 944, 945
Hemoglobin, 623, 830
Henry’s law, 495–496, 497 prob.
Heptane, 751, 751 table
Héroult, Paul L. T., 730
Hertz (Hz), 137
Hess’s law, 534–536, 536 prob.
Heterogeneous catalysts, 573
Heterogeneous equilibrium, 602, 603
prob.
Heterogeneous mixtures, 81, 87,
Gasoline octane rating system Heterogeneous mixtures
1040 Index
Index
476–478; colloids, 477, 477 table;
separating components of, 82–83;
suspensions, 476
Hexagonal unit cells, 421 table, 422 act.
Hexane, 751 table
HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons), 788
Hill, Julian, 18
HIV, 389
Homogeneous catalysts, 573
Homogeneous equilibrium, 600, 601
prob.
Homogeneous mixtures, 81, 82–83, 87,
478–479
Homogenization, 490
Homologous series, 751
Hope Diamond, 40
HOPG, atomic distances in, 113 act.
Hormones, 831, 839
Household items, acidity of, 633 act.
How It Works: bioluminescence, 309;
flexible-fuel vehicles (FFV), 549;
gecko grip, 271; mass spectrometer,
125; methane digester, 775; pace-
maker, 733
Hubble Space Telescope, 912
Human body, elements in, 84, 195
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV),
389
Hund’s rule, 157
Hybridization, 262
Hybrid orbitals, 262
Hydrates, 351–354; formulas for, 351
table, 352, 353 prob., 356 act.; naming,
351; uses for, 354
Hydration (solvation in water), 489
Hydration reactions, 804, 804 table
Hydrocarbons, 291, 745–749. See also
specific types; alkanes. see Alkanes;
alkenes. See Alkenes; alkynes, 763–764;
aromatic. See Aromatic compounds;
burner gas analysis, 776 act.; chirality
of, 767; Foldable, 743 act.; halogenated,
940; isomers of, 765–766, 768–769;
models of, 743 act., 746; refinement of
petroleum, 747–748; saturated, 746;
substituted. See Substituted hydrocar-
bons; unsaturated, 746
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), 788
Hydrogen, 904–905; abundance of, 84;
atomic properties, 153–155, 158 table,
904; Bohr model of, 146–148, 147
table; emission spectrum, 144, 145,
147–148, 150 act.; in human body,
195; isotopes of, 904; physical proper-
ties, 904; single-replacement reactions
involving, 293; in stars, 905
Hydrogenated fats, 805
Hydrogenation, 767, 836
Hydrogenation reactions, 804 table,
804–805, 805 act.
Hydrogen bonds, 411, 413–414
Hydrogen carbonate, 221 table
Hydrogen cyanide, 647
Hydrogen fluoride, 244, 244 prob., 639
Hydrogen fuel cells, 905
Hydrogen peroxide, 89
Hydrometers, 37
Hydronium ions, 636, 652; calculate
concentration of from pH, 655 prob.;
calculate concentrations from, 651,
651 prob.; calculate pH from concen-
tration of, 653 prob., 654 prob.
Hydroxide ions, 221 table, 636, 652;
calculate concentration of from pH,
655 prob.; calculate concentrations
from, 651, 651 prob.; calculate pOH
from concentration of, 654 prob.
Hydroxyl group, 787 table, 792, 816 act.
Hyperbaric oxygen therapy, 465
Hyperthermia, 583
Hypochlorite, 221 table
Hypothermia, 583
Hypotheses, 13
IIce, 420, 425–426
Ideal gas constant (R), 454, 969 table
Ideal gases, real versus, 457–459
Ideal gas law, 454, 455 prob., 456;
density and, 456; derive other laws
from, 458; exceptions to, 458–459;
fire extinguishers and, 457 act.; molar
mass and, 456
Immiscible, 479
Independent variables, 14, 56
Indicators, acid-base, 658, 663, 664
Indium, 922, 923, 925
Indium-tin oxide, 925
Induced fit, 830
Induced transmutation, 875, 882; equa-
tions representing, 876 prob.; trans-
uranium elements, 876
Industrial chemistry, 11 table, 341, 464
Infrared (Paschen) series, 147, 148, 150
act.
Inhibitors, 571
Initial rates, method of, 576, 577 prob.
Inner transition metals, 180, 185, 916,
917
Inorganic chemistry, 11 table
Insoluble, 479
Instantaneous reaction rates, 578–579,
579 prob.
Insulin, 831
Intensive properties, 73, 77
Intermediates, 580
Intermolecular forces, 411–414; cova-
lent compounds and, 269–270;
dipole-dipole, 411, 412–413; disper-
sion, 411, 412; evaporation and, 432
act.; grip of a gecko and, 271; hydro-
gen bonds, 411, 413–414
International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), naming
conventions. See Naming conventions
Interpolation, 57, 963
Interstitial alloys, 228
In the Field: archaeologist, 891; arson
investigator, 91; art restorer, 23;
crime-scene investigator, 697; envi-
ronmental chemist, 505; molecular
paleontologist, 849
Intramolecular forces, comparison of,
411 table
Inverse relationships, 961
Iodate, 221 table
Iodine, 86, 940, 941, 943
Iodine-131, 887
Iodine deficiency, 943
Ion concentration: from K sp , 617 prob.,
618–619; from pH, 655, 655 prob.
Ionic bonds, 210; electronegativity and,
266; energy in, 216–217, 217 table
Ionic compounds, 210–215; in aqueous
solutions, 300; binary, 210; formation
of, 211–212, 212 prob., 216, 230 act.;
formulas for, 218–219, 220 prob., 221,
221 prob., 222 prob.; lattice energies
of, 216–217, 217 table; melting point
of, 242 act.; milestones in understand-
ing, 212–213; naming, 222, 223–224;
oxidation number of, 219; physical
properties, 212, 214–215, 230 act.;
physical structure, 212–214; poly-
atomic. See Polyatomic ions; solvation
of aqueous solutions of, 490; study
organizer, 205 act.
Ionic crystals, 215
Ionic equations, 301, 302 prob., 304
prob.; complete, 301; for reactions
forming gases, 304–305, 306 prob.;
for reactions forming water, 303, 304
prob.; net, 301
Ionic liquids, 229
Ionic radii, periodic table trends, 189–
191, 189–191
Ionic solids, 422, 422 table, 423
Ionization constants. See Acid ioniza-
tion constant; base ionization
constant
Ionization energy, 191–194; chemical
bonds and, 207; periodic table trends,
193
Hexagonal unit cells Ionization energy
Index 1041
Index
Ionizing radiation, 885, 886; biological
effects of, 888–890; medical uses of,
886–887
Ion product constant ( Q sp ), 618–619,
619 prob.
Ion product constant for water, 650–
651, 651 prob.
Ions, 189; anion formation, 209; cation
formation, 207; formula for mona-
tomic, 218–219; ionic radii periodic
table trends, 189–191; metal, 208;
monatomic. See Monatomic ions;
naming, 222–223; oxidation number
of, 219; polyatomic, 221, 222 prob.;
pseudo-noble gas configuration, 208;
stability of, 240; transition metal, 208
Iron: in acid mine waste, 920; Earth’s
core and, 919; as paint pigment, 919;
redox reactions oxidizing, 693 table;
rust formation, 74, 77, 679 act.
Iron oxide. See Rusting
Isobutane, 752
Isomers, 765; cis-, 766; geometric, 766;
optical, 768–769; stereoisomers, 766;
structural, 765; trans-, 766; trans-fatty
acid, 767
Isopropyl alcohol, 432 act.
Isopropyl group, 753 table
Isotopes, 117, 118 prob.. See also
Radioactivity; abundance of, 117,
120; atomic mass and, 117, 118 act.,
119–120, 121 prob., 126 act.; mass of,
117; modeling, 120 act.; notation for,
117; radioactive. See Radioisotopes
IUPAC naming conventions. See
Naming conventions
JJames Webb Space Telescope (JWST), 912
Jin, Deborah S., 417
Joule (J), 142, 518
KKekule, Friedrich August, 771
Kelvin (K), 35, 451
Kelvin scale, 35, 451
Ketones, 787 table, 797, 797 table
Kilns, 461
Kilocalorie (kcal), 518
Kilogram (kg), 34
Kilometer (km), 33
Kinetic energy (KE), 516–517; kinetic-
molecular theory and, 402, 403, 517;
voltaic cells and, 710
Kinetic-molecular theory, 402–403;
assumptions of, 403; compression and
expansion of gases and, 404; density of
gases and, 403; diffusion and effusion
of gases and, 404–405; liquids and, 415
Knocking, 748
Krypton, 185 table, 944, 945
Kwolek, Stephanie, 491
LLab activities. See CHEMLABs;
Data Analysis Labs; Launch Labs;
MiniLabs; Problem-Solving Labs
Laboratory safety, 18, 19 table
Lactic acid fermentation, 848
Lactose, 833
Lanthanide series, 180, 185, 916
Large Hadron Collider, 111
Laser scissors, 163
Lattice energy, 216–217, 217 table
Launch Labs: arrange items, 173 act.;
atomic structure, 135 act.; chemical
change, evidence of, 281 act.; chemi-
cal change, observe, 69 act.; chemical
cold pack, 515 act.; chemical reaction,
observe, 367 act.; covalent bond-
ing (super ball properties), 239 act.;
electrical conductivity of solutions,
205 act.; electric charge, observe,
101 act.; equilibrium point, 593 act.;
hydrocarbons, model, 743 act.; lemon
battery, 707 act.; liquids, layering of
(density), 31; liquids, properties of,
401 act.; mole conversion factors,
319 act.; nuclear chain reactions, 859
act.; reaction rates, speeding, 559 act.;
rust formation, 679 act.; slime, make,
785 act.; solution formation, energy
change and, 475 act.; sugars, test for
simple, 825 act.; temperature and gas
volume (Charles’s Law), 441 act.; vis-
cosity of liquids, 401 act.; Where is it?
(conservation of matter), 3 act.
Lavoisier, Antoine, 79, 174, 174 table,
184, 290
Law, 16
Law of chemical equilibrium, 599–600
Law of conservation of energy, 517
Law of conservation of mass, 77, 78
prob., 79; balancing equations and,
285, 288; Dalton’s experimental evi-
dence of, 105; molar mass and, 335;
stoichiometry and, 368
Law of definite proportions, 87–88
Law of multiple proportions, 89–90
Law of octaves, 175
Law of universal gravitation, 16
Lawrencium, 921
LCD panels, 925
Lead, 229, 926–927, 930; poisoning, 229
Lead-acid storage batteries, 720–721,
930
Lead shot, 228 table
Le Châtelier, Henri-Louis, 607
Le Châtelier’s principle, 607; chemical
equilibrium and, 606–611; common
ion effect and, 620–621; ion-product
of water and, 650, 650 prob.; molar
solubility and, 624 act.
Lecithin, 431
Lemon battery, 707 act.
Length, 33, 33 table
LEO GER, 681
Lewis, G. N., 161, 212, 641
Lewis model, 641–643, 642 table
Lewis structures, 242, 244 prob., 253–
260. See also Electron-dot structures;
covalent compound with multiple
bond, 256 prob.; covalent compound
with single bond, 255 prob.; modeling,
272 act.; octet rule exceptions and,
258–259, 260 prob.; polyatomic ions,
256, 257 prob.; resonance and, 258
Light: continuous spectrum of, 138;
dual nature of, 143; electromagnetic
spectrum, 138–139; particle nature
of, 141–143; speed of (c), 137; visible
spectrum of, 139; wave nature of,
137–139, 140 prob., 143
“Like dissolves like”, 489
Limestone, 635, 643
Limiting reactants, 379–381; calculat-
ing product with, 380–381, 382–383
prob.; determining, 380
Linear molecular shape, 261, 263 table
Line graphs, 56–57, 58, 959–963
Line, slope of, 57, 962
Line spectra. See Emission spectra
Lipid bilayer, 838
Lipids, 13 act., 830, 835–839; fatty
acids, 835–836, 837; phospholipids,
838; saponification of, 837, 837 act.;
steroids, 839; triglycerides, 836–837;
waxes, 838
Liquids, 71, 415–419; adhesion and
cohesion of, 419; attractive forces in,
417; capillary action, 419; compres-
sion of, 415; density of, 31 act., 415;
evaporation of, 426–427, 432 act.; flu-
idity of, 416; properties of, compare,
401 act.; shape and size of particles in,
417; surface tension, 418–419; viscos-
ity of, 401 act., 417, 418
Liter (L), 35
Lithium, 136, 158 table, 161 table, 177,
226 table, 906, 907, 913
Lithium batteries, 721–722, 908
Lithium batteriesIonizing radiation
1042 Index
Index
Litmus paper, 633 act., 635, 658
Logarithms, 966–967
London forces. See Dispersion forces
London, Fritz, 412
Lowry, Thomas, 638
LP (liquefied propane) gas, 750
Luciferin, 309
Luminol, 697
Lunar missions, oxygen in moon rocks,
387 act.
Lyman (ultraviolet) series, 147, 148,
150 act.
Lysine, 827 table
MMagnesium, 159 table, 177, 910–911,
912, 913
Magnesium oxide, 210, 217 table
Magnetic resonance imaging, 921
Malleability, 226
Manganese, 918, 920
Manhattan Project, 882
Manometers, 407
Mass, 9–10; determine from density
and volume, 38 prob.; identify an
unknown by, 50 act.; law of conserva-
tion of, 77, 78 prob., 79, 105; mass-
to-atom conversions, 329–330, 330
prob.; mass-to-mole conversions, 329
prob.; mass-to-mole conversions for
compounds, 337, 337 prob.; mass-to-
moles-to-particles conversions, 338,
338–339 prob.; molar. See Molar mass;
mole-to-mass conversions, 328 prob.;
SI base unit for, 33 table, 34; volume-
mass gas stoichiometry, 462, 462–463
prob.; weight v., 9–10
Mass defect, 877
Mass number, 117, 118 prob.
Mass spectrometry, 125, 327
Mass-to-mass stoichiometric conver-
sions, 374, 377, 377 prob.
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), 59
Materials scientist. See Careers in
Chemistry; In the Field
Math Handbook, 946–967; algebraic
equations, 954–955, 955 prob.; anti-
logarithms, 967; dimensional analysis,
956 prob.; fractions, 964, 965–966;
line graphs, 959–963; logarithms,
966–967; percents, 965; ratios, 964;
scientific notation, 946–948; sig-
nificant figures, 949–950, 951 prob.;
square and cube roots, 949; unit con-
version, 957–958, 958 prob.
Matter: categories of, 87; characteristics
of, 9–10; chemical changes in, 69 act.,
77; chemical properties of, 74; Greek
philosophers’ theories of, 102–103;
mixtures of. See Mixtures; physical
changes in, 76–77; physical properties
of, 73; properties of, observe, 74–75;
pure substances. See Pure substances;
states of. See States of matter; study of
chemistry and, 4
Maxwell, James, 402
Measurement, 295; accuracy of, 47–48;
precision of, 47–48; significant figures
and, 50–51; units of, 32–37
Medicinal chemist, 342
Meitner, Lise, 111
Melting, 425–426, 530
Melting point, 77, 426
Melting points: of alkanes, 758; bond
type and, 242 act.; of covalent com-
pounds, 270; of metals, 226, 226 table;
as physical property, 73
Mendeleev, Dmitri, 85, 175, 176 table,
184
Mercury, 73 table, 226
Mercury(II) oxide, 79
Metabolism, 844–848; anabolism,
844–845; ATP and, 845; catabolism,
844–845; cellular respiration, 846;
fermentation, 847–848; photosynthe-
sis, 846
Metal alloys, 227–228
Metal carbonates, 635
Metal ions: formation of, 208; mona-
tomic, 218, 219, 219 table
Metallic bonds, 225
Metallic hydroxids, 648
Metallic solids, 422, 422 table, 423
Metalloids, 181, 196 act.
Metallurgist, 423
Metals, 177. See also Alkali metals;
Alkaline earth metals; Inner transi-
tion metals; Transition metals; acid-
base reactions and, 635; activities of,
310 act.; boiling points, 226, 226 table;
bonding in, 225; ductility of, 177, 226;
durability of, 226; electrical conduc-
tivity of, 177, 226; fireworks and, 913;
hardness and strength of, 226; mal-
leability of, 177, 226; melting points,
226, 226 table; periodic table position,
177; properties of, 177, 196 act., 226,
226 table; purification of by electroly-
sis, 731–732; reactivity of, 293–294,
310 act.; single-replacement reactions
involving, 293–294; specific heat of,
526 act.; thermal conductivity of, 226
Meteorologist, 447
Meter (m), 33, 33 table
Methanal, 796
Methane, 243, 244, 245, 291, 745, 747,
750, 751, 751 table
Methane digester, 775
Methanol, 793, 816 act.
Method of initial rates, 576, 577 prob.
Methylbenzene, 772
Methyl chloroform, 20
Methyl group, 753 table
Methyl red, 662
Meyer, Lothar, 175, 176 table, 184
Microbes, electric current from, 724 act.
Microchips, 919
Microwaves, 137, 140 prob.
Midgley, Thomas Jr., 7
Milligrams (mg), 34
Millikan, Robert, 109
Milliliters (ml), 33 table, 36
Millimeter (mm), 33, 33 table
Mineralogists, 214
Minerals, 383; classification of, 214;
crystal lattice structure, 214
Mineral supplements, 220
MiniLabs. See also CHEMLABs; Data
Analysis Labs; Problem-Solving Labs;
acid strengths, compare, 648 act.;
bond type and melting point, 242
act.; chemical equilibrium, stress and,
611 act.; corrosion, 726 act.; crystal
unit cells, model, 422 act.; density
of unknown objects, 39 act.; esters,
recognize, 800 act.; ethyne, synthesize
and observe, 762 act.; flame test, 144
act.; freezing point depression, 502
act.; halogens, predict reactivity of,
294 act.; heat-treated steel, proper-
ties of, 227 act.; isotopes, model, 120
act.; molar volume and mass (fire
extinguisher), 457 act.; observation
skills, develop, 13 act.; paper chroma-
tography, 82 act.; percent composition
of chewing gum, 342 act.; periodic
trends, model, 193 act.; precipitate-
forming reaction, observe, 301 act.;
radioactive decay, model, 873 act.;
reaction rate and temperature, 571
act.; saponification (soap making),
837 act.; specific heat, 526 act.; stoi-
chiometry of baking soda decomposi-
tion, 378 act.; tarnish removal (redox
reaction), 683 act.
Miscible, 479
Mixtures, 80–83, 87; heterogeneous, 81,
476–478; homogeneous, 81, 478–479;
separate components of, 80, 82 act.,
82–83
Mobile phase, chromatography, 83
Model, 10, 15
Molal boiling point elevation constant
( K b ), 500, 500 table, 976 table
Litmus paper Molal boiling point elevation constant
Index 1043
Index
Molal freezing point elevation constant
( K f ), 502, 502 table, 976 table
Molality (m), 480 table, 487, 487 prob.
Molar calculations, history in a glass of
water and, 355
Molar enthalpy (heat) of condensation,
530
Molar enthalpy (heat) of fusion, 530
Molar enthalpy (heat) of vaporization,
530, 531 act.
Molarity (M), 480 table, 482, 483 prob.;
from titration, 663, 664 prob., 670 act.
Molar mass, 326–332; atom-to-mass
conversions, 331 prob.; of compounds,
335, 335 prob.; effusion rate and, 404,
405 prob.; ideal gas law and, 456;
mass-to-atom conversions, 329–330,
330 prob.; mass-to-mole conversions,
329 prob.; mole-to-mass conversions,
327–328, 328 prob.; nuclear model of
mass and, 326 act.
Molar solubility, 615–617, 616 prob.,
621, 624 act.
Molar solutions, preparation of, 484,
485, 486 prob.
Molar volume, 452, 453 prob., 969 table
Mole (mol), 321–324; chemical for-
mulas and, 333–334, 334–335 prob.;
conversion factors, 319 act.; convert
particles to, 323, 323 prob., 324 prob.;
convert to particles, 322; as count-
ing unit, 319 act., 320; mass-to-mole
conversions, 329 prob.; mass-to-mole
conversions for compounds, 337, 337
prob.; mass to moles to particles con-
versions, 338, 338–339 prob.; molar
mass and, 326–332; mole-to-mass
conversions, 327–328, 327–328, 328
prob.; mole-to-mass conversions for
compounds, 336, 336 prob.
Molecular compounds: in aqueous solu-
tions, 299; formation of, 241; formulas
from names of, 251; Lewis structures
for, 253–260, 255 prob., 256 prob.,
257 prob., 258 prob., 260 prob.; nam-
ing, 248–251, 249 prob., 252; shape of
(VSEPR model), 261–262, 263 table,
264 prob., 272 act.; solvation of aque-
ous solutions of, 491
Molecular formulas, 253, 346–347; of
organic compounds, 746; from per-
cent composition, 346–347, 348–349
prob.
Molecular manufacturing, 107
Molecular paleontologist, 849
Molecular shape, 261–262, 263 table,
264 prob., 267–268
Molecular solids, 422, 422 table
Molecules, 241; diatomic, 241; shape
of, 261–262, 263 table, 264 prob.,
267–268
Mole fraction, 480 table, 488, 488 prob.
Mole ratios, 371–372, 390 act.
Mole-to-mass stoichiometric conver-
sions, 374, 376, 376 prob.
Mole-to-mole stoichiometric conver-
sions, 373–374, 375 prob.
Monatomic ions, 218; formulas for,
218–219; oxidation number of, 219
Monoclinic unit cells, 421 table, 422 act.
Monomers, 810
Monoprotic acids, 640, 641 table
Monosaccharides, 825 act., 832–833
Montreal Protocol, 20
Moon rocks, oxygen in, 387 act.
Moseley, Henry, 115, 176, 176 table, 184
Mothballs, 428
Motor oil, viscosity of, 417, 418
Multidrug therapy, 389
Multiple covalent bonds, 245–246
Multiplication, 54, 54 prob.
NNaming conventions: acids, 250–251,
250–251, 252; alcohols, 793; alde-
hydes, 796; alkenes, 760, 761 prob.;
alkynes, 764; amides, 800; amines, 795;
aromatic compounds, 772–773, 773
prob.; binary molecular compounds,
248–250, 249 prob., 252; branched-
chain alkanes, 752–753, 754–755 prob.;
carboxylic acids, 798; cycloalkanes,
756, 756–757 prob.; esters, 799; halo-
carbons, 788; hydrates, 351; ionic
compounds, 223–224; ions, 222–223;
ketones, 797; oxyanions, 222 table,
222–223; straight-chain alkanes, 751
Nanoparticles, 216 act.
Nanotechnology, 107
Nanotubes, 928
Naphthalene, 772
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), 20, 21 act.
Natural gas, 416, 745, 747
Negatively charged ions. See Anions
Neon, 143, 158 table, 161 table, 185
table, 944, 945
Net ionic equations, 301, 302 prob., 304
prob.
Net ionic redox equations, balancing,
691, 692 prob.
Network solids, 270
Neutralization equations, 659–660
Neutralization reactions, 659–660
Neutral solutions, 636
Neutron activation analysis, 886, 891
Neutrons, 113, 114 table, 119, 969 table
Neutron-to-proton ratio, nuclear stabil-
ity and, 865, 866
Newlands, John, 175, 176 table
Newton, Sir Isaac, 16
NiCad batteries, 720
Nickel, 919
Night-vision lenses, 930
Nitrate, 221 table
Nitrite, 221 table
Nitrogen, 158 table, 161 table, 195, 932,
933, 934
Nitrogen cryotherapy, 934
Nitrogen-fixation, 462, 934
Nitrogenous bases, 841, 843
Noble gases (Group 18), 180, 183, 184,
185 table, 207, 944–945
Noble-gas notation, 159
Nonane, 751 table
Nonmetals, 180; ions of, 209; periodic
table position, 177; properties of,
196 act.
Nonpolar covalent bonds, 266
Nonpolar molecules, 267–268, 269
Nuclear atomic model, 112–113, 136
Nuclear chain reactions. See Chain
reactions
Nuclear equations, 123, 869, 869 prob.
Nuclear fission, 878–880; chain reac-
tions and, 879–880; nuclear reactors
and, 880–882
Nuclear fusion, 883–884
Nuclear power plants, 878, 880–882
Nuclear reactions, 122; balanced equa-
tions representing, 863, 869, 869
prob.; chain reactions, 859 act., 879–
880; chemical reactions vs., 860 table;
induced transmutation, 875–876,
876 prob.; mass defect and binding
energy, 877–878; milestones in under-
standing, 882–883; nuclear fission,
878–880; nuclear fusion, 883–884;
radioactive decay series, 870; thermo-
nuclear reactions, 883
Nuclear reactors, 878, 880–882
Nuclear stability, 124, 865–866
Nuclear waste, storage of, 882
Nucleic acids, 636, 840–843; DNA,
841–842, 842 act.; RNA, 843
Nucleons, 865
Nucleotides, 840
Nucleus (atomic), 112; discovery of,
112; nuclear model of mass and, 326
act.; size of, 112
Nutritional calories, 518
Nylon, 18, 594, 811
Molal freezing point elevation constant Nylon
1044 Index
Index
OObservation, 13, 13 act.
Oceans: elements in, 901; sequestration
of carbon dioxide in, 505
Octahedral molecular shape, 261, 263
table
Octane, 751, 751 table
Octane rating system, 748–749
Octet rule, 193, 240; exceptions to,
258–259, 260 prob.
Odor, 73, 283
Oil drop experiment, Milikan’s, 109
Oil of wintergreen, 800 act.
Oleic acid, 835
Optical isomers, 768–769
Optical rotation, 769
Orbital diagrams, 158, 158 table, 159
table
Orbitals, 152, 154, 262
Order of operations, algebraic, 954–955,
955 prob.
Ores, 731–732
Organic chemistry, 11 table, 745
Organic compounds, 744–745. See also
Hydrocarbons; carbon-carbon bonds
in, 746; models of, 746; reactions
forming. See Organic reactions
Organic reactions: addition reactions,
804–805; condensation reactions, 801;
dehydration reactions, 803; dehydro-
genation reaction, 803; elimination
reactions, 802; oxidation reduction
reactions, 806–807; products of, pre-
dict, 807–808; substitution reactions,
790–791
Organosilicon oxide, 239 act.
Orthorhombic unit cell, 421 table, 422
act.
Osmosis, 504
Osmotic pressure, 504
Overall equations, 307
Oxalic acid, 798
Oxidation, 681
Oxidation number, 219, 682; determine,
686, 686 table, 687 prob.; monatomic
ion formulas and, 219; in redox reac-
tions, 688; of various elements, 688
table
Oxidation-number method, 689, 689
table, 690 prob.
Oxidation reduction reactions, 680. See
also Redox reactions
Oxidizing agent, 683
Oxyacids, 250–251, 252
Oxyanions, 222, 223
Oxygen: abundance of, 84; analytical
tests for, 937; atomic properties, 937;
common reactions involving, 936–
937; diatomic, 241; electron configu-
ration and orbital diagram, 158 table;
electron-dot structure, 161 table; in
human body, 195, 623; photosynthesis
and, 846, 912, 938; physical proper-
ties, 73 table, 936
Oxygen group (group 16), 184, 207
table, 209 table, 218 table, 243,
936–939
Ozone, 5, 6, 21 act., 938
Ozone depletion, 20–21
Ozone hole, 7, 20–21, 21 act.
Ozone layer, 5–8, 938; chlorofluorocar-
bons (CFCs) and, 7–8, 20; formation of
ozone in, 6; thinning of, 7, 20, 21 act.
PPA-457 anti-HIV drug, 389
Pacemakers, 733
Pain receptors, temperature and, 815
Painting restoration, 23
Paint pigments, 919
Paleontologist, 849
Papain, 829
Paper chromatography, 82 act., 83, 269
act.
Paraffin, 270
Paramagnetism, 916, 917
Parent chain, 752
Partial pressure, Dalton’s law of, 408,
409 prob., 410
Particle accelerators, 875
Particle model of light, 141–143
Particles: convert moles to, 322, 323
prob.; convert to moles, 323, 324
prob.; counting, 320–321; mass-to-
moles-to-particles conversions, 338,
338–339 prob.; representative, 321
Pascal (Pa), 407
Paschen (infrared) series, 147, 148, 150
act.
Pasteur, Louis, 767
Pauli exclusion principle, 157
Pauling, Linus, 194, 771
Paulings, 194
Pauli, Wolfgang, 157
p-Block elements, 184
Penetrating power, 864; of alpha par-
ticles, 862; of beta particles, 863; of
X rays, 864
Penicillin, 18
Pennies: dating by density, 60 act.;
model isotopes with, 120 act.
Pentane, 751, 751 table
Peptide bond, 827–828
Peptides, 828
Percent by mass concentration ratio,
87–88, 480 table
Percent by volume concentration ratio,
480 table, 482, 482 prob.
Percent composition, 341–342; from
chemical formula, 342, 343 prob.;
empirical formula from, 344, 345
prob.; from experimental data,
341–342, 342 act.; molecular formula
from, 346–347, 348–349 prob.
Percent error, 48–49, 49 prob.
Percents, 965; as conversion factors, 44
Percent yield, 386, 386 prob., 388
Perchlorate, 221 table
Perfumes, 770
Periodic law, 176
Periodic table of the elements, 85, 173
act., 174–177, 178–179, 180–181;
atomic radii trends, 187–188, 189
prob.; blocks on, 183–185; boxes on,
177; electron configuration of ele-
ments and, 182–185, 186 prob.; elec-
tronegativity trends, 194, 265; groups
(families), 177; history of develop-
ment of, 174–177, 176 table, 184–185;
ionic radii trends, 189–191; ionization
energy trends, 193; model periodic
trends, 193 act.; model trends, 173
act.; nonmetals, 180; periods (rows),
177, 182; predict element properties
from, 180 act.
Periods, periodic table, 85, 177; atomic
radii trends, 188, 189 prob.; electron
configuration, 182 table; ionic radii
trends, 190; ionization energies, 192
table; valence electrons and, 182
Permaganate, 221 table
Perspiration, 426
Petroleum, 747–749, 790
Petroleum technician, 748
PET scans, 888
Pewter, 228 table
pH, 652, 653; acid ionization constant
( K a ) from, 656, 657 prob.; of familiar
substances, 652; of household items,
633 act.; ion concentration from, 655,
655 prob.; from ion concentrations,
653 prob., 654 prob.; measurement of,
633 act., 635, 658
Pharmacist, 381
Pharmacy technician, 483
Phase changes, 76–77, 425–430; boiling,
427; condensation, 428; deposition,
429; evaporation, 426–427, 432 act.;
freezing, 428; melting, 425–426; phase
diagrams and, 429–430; six possible
transitions, 425; sublimation, 428;
Observation Phase changes
Index 1045
Index
thermochemical equations for, 530–
531, 531 act.; vaporization, 426–427
Phase diagrams, 429–430
Phenanthrene, 772
Phenolthphalein, 658, 662
Phenylalanine, 827 table, 828
pH meters, 637, 658
Phosphate ion structure, 257 prob.
Phosphates, 250
Phospholipases, 838
Phospholipids, 838
Phosphoric acid, 634
Phosphors, 180, 886
Phosphorus, 159 table, 932, 933, 934
Phosphorus trihydride, 264 prob.
Photocopies, 939
Photoelectric effect, 142–143
Photoelectrons. See Electrons
Photons, 143, 143 prob.
Photosynthesis, 846, 912, 938
Photovoltaic cells, 142, 522
pH paper, 633 act., 635, 658
pH scale, 636
Physical changes, 76–77
Physical chemistry, 11 table
Physical constants, 969 table
Physical properties, 73; of common
substances, 73 table; extensive, 73;
intensive, 73, 77; mineral identifica-
tion by, 73; observe, 74–75
Pi bond, 245–246
Pie charts, 55
Planck, Max, 141–142
Planck’s constant, 142, 969 table
Plants: hydrogen cyanide in, 647; nitro-
gen-fixation, 462, 934; photosynthe-
sis, 846, 912, 938; waxes, 838
Plasma, 71, 417
Plastics, 789, 802, 810–811, 814
Plastic viscosity, 431
Platinum, 918
Plum pudding model, 110
pOH, 652, 653, 654 prob.
Polar covalent bonds, 266, 267–268
Polarized light, 769
Polar molecules, 267–268; chromato-
grams and, 269 act.; ideal gas law and,
459; shape of, 267–268; solubility of,
268
Polonium, 882, 936, 937
Polyacrylonitrile, 812 table
Polyatomic ions, 221, 970 table;
common, 221 table; formulas for, 221,
222 prob.; Lewis structures, 256, 257
prob.; naming, 222–223
Polycarbonate, 809
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs), 807
Polyethylene, 762, 810, 811
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), 810,
812 table
Polymer chemist, 813
Polymer chemistry, 11 table
Polymerization reactions, 810–811
Polymers, 809–814; antimicrobial
properties of, 216 act.; common, 812
table; milestones in understanding,
810–811; properties of, 813; reactions
forming, 810–811; recycling of, 814;
synthetic, 809
Polymethyl methacrylate, 812 table
Polypeptides, 828
Polyphenols, 662
Polypropylene, 812 table
Polyprotic acids, 640–641, 641 table
Polysaccharides, 833–834
Polyurethane, 812 table
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 812 table
Polyvinylidene chloride, 812 table
Popcorn, 466 act.
p orbitals, 154
Positive ions. See Cations
Positron, 868
Positron emission, 868, 868 table, 888
Positron emission transaxial tomogra-
phy (PET), 888
Potassium, 86, 117, 136, 906, 907
Potential energy, 516–517
Potter, 682
Pottery kilns, 461
Practice Problems: acid-metal reactions,
635 prob.; acids, naming, 251 prob.;
aromatic compounds, naming, 773
prob.; atomic mass, 121 prob.; atomic
number, 116 prob., 118 prob.; atomic
radii trends, 189 prob.; atoms-to-
mass conversions, 331 prob.; average
reaction rates, 563 prob.; balanced
chemical equations, interpret, 371
prob.; binary molecular compounds,
naming, 249 prob.; Boyle’s law (pres-
sure and volume relationship),
443 prob.; branched-chain alkanes,
naming, 755 prob.; branched-chain
alkenes, naming, 761 prob.; calorim-
etry data, 525 prob.; Charles’s law,
446 prob.; chemical equations, write,
287 prob.; chemical reactions, clas-
sify, 291 prob.; combined gas law,
450 prob.; conjugate acid-base pairs,
640 prob.; cycloalkanes, naming, 757
prob.; decomposition reactions, 292
prob.; dilute stock solutions, 486 prob.;
double-replacement reactions, 297
prob.; electron configuration and the
periodic table, 186 prob.; electron-
dot structures, 162 prob.; empirical
formula from mass data, 350 prob.;
empirical formula from percent com-
position, 346 prob.; energy released
by reaction, 532 prob.; energy units,
convert, 519 prob.; equilibrium con-
centrations, 613 prob.; equilibrium
constant expressions, 601 prob., 603
prob.; equilibrium constants, value of,
605 prob.; expanded octets, 260 prob.;
formulas from names of molecular
compounds, 251 prob.; freezing and
boiling point depressions, 503 prob.;
gas-forming reactions, 306 prob.;
Gay-Lussac’s law, 448 prob.; Graham’s
law of effusion, 405 prob.; ground-
state electron configuration, 160
prob.; half-cell potentials, 716 prob.;
half-reaction method, 695 prob.; halo-
carbons, naming, 788 prob.; Henry’s
law, 497 prob.; Hess’s law, 537 prob.;
hydrate, determine formula for, 353
prob.; ideal gas law, 455 prob.; induced
transmutation, 876 prob.; instanta-
neous reaction rates, 579 prob.; ion
concentrations, 617 prob.; ion con-
centrations from pH, 655 prob.; ionic
compound formation, 212 prob.; ionic
compounds, formulas for, 221 prob.,
222 prob.; ionic compounds, nam-
ing, 223 prob.; ionization constant of
water, 651 prob.; ionization equations
and base ionization constants, 649
prob.; isotopes, amount of remain-
ing, 872 prob.; law of conservation of
mass, 78 prob.; law of definite pro-
portions, 88 prob.; Lewis structures,
244 prob., 255 prob., 256 prob., 257
prob., 258 prob., 260 prob.; limiting
reactant, determine, 383 prob.; mass
number, 118 prob.; mass-to-mass
stoichiometry, 377 prob.; mass-to-
mole conversions, 329 prob.; mass-
to-mole conversions for compounds,
337 prob.; mass-to-moles-to-particles
conversions, 339 prob.; molality, 487
prob.; molarity, 483 prob.; molarity
from titration data, 664 prob.; molar
mass and, 335 prob.; molar solubility,
616 prob.; molar solutions, 484 prob.;
molar volume, 453 prob.; molecular
shape, 264 prob.; mole fraction,
488 prob.; mole ratios, 372 prob.;
mole relationships from a chemical
formula, 335 prob.; moles, convert
to particles, 323 prob.; mole-to-mass
conversions, 328 prob.; mole-to-mass
conversions for compounds, 336
Phase diagrams Practice Problems
1046 Index
Index
prob.; mole-to-mass stoichiometry,
376 prob.; mole-to-mole stoichiom-
etry, 375 prob.; nuclear equations, bal-
ancing, 869 prob.; oxidation number,
687 prob.; oxidation-number method,
690 prob., 692 prob.; oxidation-reduc-
tion reactions, 685 prob.; partial
pressure of a gas, 409 prob.; particles,
convert to moles, 324 prob.; percent
by mass, 481 prob.; percent by vol-
ume, 482 prob.; percent composition,
344 prob.; percent yield, 387 prob.;
pH, acid dissociation constant from,
657 prob.; pH from [ H + ], 653 prob.;
photon, energy of, 143 prob.; pOH
and pH from [O H - ], 654 prob.; pre-
cipitate-forming reactions, 302 prob.;
precipitates, predicting, 619 prob.; rate
laws, 577 prob.; reaction spontane-
ity, 545 prob., 548 prob.; resonance
structures, 258 prob.; salt hydrolysis,
665 prob.; single-replacement reac-
tions, 295 prob.; skeleton equations,
284 prob.; specific heat, 521 prob.;
standard enthalpies of formation, 541
prob.; volume-mass gas stoichiometry,
463 prob.; volume-volume problems,
461 prob.; water-forming reactions,
304 prob.; wavelength, 140 prob.
Precipitates, 296; determine with K sp ,
618, 619 prob.; reactions in aqueous
solutions forming, 300, 301 act., 302
prob.
Precipitation, 428
Precision, 47–48, 50
Pressure, 406; chemical equilibrium
and, 608–609; combined gas law and,
449, 450 prob.; extreme and ideal gas
law, 458, 466 act.; gas temperature and
(Gay-Lussac’s law), 447, 448 prob.; gas
volume and (Boyle’s law), 442–443,
443 prob., 444 act.; partial pressure
of a gas, 408, 409 prob., 410; popcorn
popping and, 466 act.; solubility of
gases and (Henry’s law), 495–496, 497
prob.; units of, 407, 407 table
Primary batteries, 720
Principle energy levels, 153, 154
Principle quantum numbers (n), 153
Problem-Solving Labs: Bohr model of
the atom, 150 act.; Boyle’s law and
breathing, 444 act.; decomposition
rate, variation in, 566 act.; DNA
replication, 842 act.; elements, pre-
dict properties of by periodic table
position, 180 act.; fluoride ions and
prevention of tooth decay, 622 act.;
francium, predict properties of, 180
act.; gas, release of compressed, 72
act.; identify an unknown by mass
and volume, 50 act.; molar enthalpy
(heat) of vaporization, 531 act.; molar
mass, Avogadro’s number, and atomic
nucleus, 326 act.; pH of blood, 668
act.; radiation exposure, distance and,
890 act.; rate of decomposition of
dinitrogen pentoxide, 566 act.
Problem-Solving Strategies: ground-
state electron configuration, 160;
halogens, predict reactivity of, 294
act.; ideal gas law, derive other laws
from, 458; ionic compound naming
flowchart, 224; Lewis structures, 254;
mass defect and binding energy, 878;
molarity from titration, 663; molar
solubility, streamlining calculation
of, 621; potential of voltaic cell, 717;
redox equations, balance, 696; round-
ing numbers, 52; significant figures,
recognizing, 51; stoichiometry, 374
Products, 77, 283; addition of and
chemical equilibrium, 608; calculating
when reactant is limiting, 380–381,
382–383 prob.; identifying, 92 act.;
predicting, 298, 298 table; removal of
and chemical equilibrium, 608
Propane, 750, 751, 751 table; chemical
equation for, 370 prob.; gas grills and,
375
Propanol, 816 act.
Propene, 759 table
Propyl group, 753 table
Proteins, 826–831; amino acid build-
ing blocks, 826–827; denaturation of,
829; enzymes, 826, 829–830; peptide
bonds in, 827–828; polypeptides, 828;
protein hormones, 831; structural
proteins, 831; three-dimensional
structure, 829; transport proteins, 830
Protium, 904
Protons, 113, 114 table, 119, 969 table
Prussian blue, 916
Pseudo-noble gas configurations, 208
PTFE (nonstick coating), 811
Pure covalent bond, 266
Pure research, 17
Pure substances, 70, 87. See also
Substances; compounds. See
Compounds; elements. See Elements;
mixtures of. See Mixtures; physical
properties of, 73
Putrescine, 795
QQualitative data, 13
Quantitative data, 13
Quantized energy, 141–143, 146
Quantum, 141–142
Quantum mechanical model of atom,
149–152
Quantum number (n), 147
Quarks, 111, 114
RRad, 889
Radiation, 122; alpha, 123, 124 table,
861, 861 table, 862, 888 table; average
annual exposure to, 890 table; beta,
123, 124 table, 861, 861 table, 862,
863, 888 table; biological effects of,
888–890, 889 table; detection of, 885–
886; discovery of, 860–861; distance
and, 889 act., 890; dose of, 889–890;
gamma, 124, 861, 861 table, 862, 863,
888 table; intensity of and distance,
889 act., 890; ionizing, 885; medical
uses of, 886–887; neutron activation
analysis, 891; scientific uses of, 886;
types of, 123–124, 859 act., 861 table,
861–864
Radiation-detection tools, 885–886
Radiation therapist, 887
Radiation therapy, 887
Radioactive decay, 122, 861; model, 873
act.; nuclear stability and, 865–866;
radiochemical dating and, 873–874;
rate of, 870–871, 872 prob., 873–874;
transmutation, 865; types of, 866–868,
868 table
Radioactive decay series, 870
Radioactivity, 122. See also Radiation;
detection of, 885–886; discovery of,
860–861, 915
Radiocarbon dating. See Carbon dating
Radiochemical dating, 873–874
Radioisotopes, 861; half-life of,
870–871, 871 table; medical uses of,
887–888; radioactive decay of. See
Radioactive decay; radiochemical dat-
ing and, 873–874
Radiotracers, 887
Radium, 882, 910–911, 915
Radium-226, 862
Radon, 944
Radon gas, 915
Rainbows, 138
Rare Earth elements. See f-Block
elements
Rate constant (k), 574
Precipitates Rate constant
Index 1047
Index
Rate-determining steps, 581–582
Rate laws, 574–576
Rates, reaction. See Reaction rates
Ratios, 964
Reactants, 77, 283; addition of and
chemical equilibrium, 607; calculate
product when limited, 380–381,
382–383 prob.
Reaction mechanisms, 580–582; com-
plex reactions, 580; intermediates,
580; rate-determining steps, 581–582
Reaction order, 575–577; determination
of, 576, 577 prob.; first-order reaction
rate laws and, 575; other-order reac-
tion rate laws and, 575–576
Reaction rate laws. See Rate laws
Reaction rates, 561–567; activation
energy and, 564–566; average rate
of, 560–562, 562 prob.; catalysts and,
571–573; collision theory and, 563,
564; concentration and, 569, 584
act.; decomposition of dinitrogen
pentoxide, 565 act.; factors affecting,
559 act.; inhibitors and, 571; instan-
taneous, 578–579, 579 prob.; rate-
determining steps, 581–582; rate laws,
574–576; reactivity of reactants and,
566–567; speeding, 559 act.; sponta-
neity and, 542–545, 566–567; surface
area and, 569–570; temperature and,
570, 571 act.
Reaction spontaneity (∆G), 542–545;
Earth’s geologic processes and, 545;
entropy and, 544–545, 545 prob.; free
energy and, 548 prob.; Gibbs free
energy and, 546–547; reaction rate
and, 566–567
Real-World Chemistry: algal blooms
and phosphates, 250; ammoniated
cattle feed, 601; book preservation
and, 661; cathode ray, 108; chrome
and chromium, 328; clay roofing tiles,
302; enzymes (papain), 829; food
preservation, 571; fuel cells, 722; gas
grills, 375, 461; Gay-Lussac’s law and
pressure cookers, 448; hydrogen cya-
nide, 647; iron oxidation, 685; kilns,
461; liquid density measurement, 37;
mineral identification, 73; mineral
supplements, 220; perspiration, 426;
photoelectric effect, 142; polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 807;
reef aquariums, 287; saltwater fish
and freezing point depression, 503;
scuba diving and helium, 192; solar
energy, 142; solar fusion, 883; specific
heat, 521; sunscreen, protection from
UV radiation, 5; trans-fatty acids, 767;
zinc-plating, 295
Reaumur scale, 451
Recycling, 814
Redox equations, balancing, 679 act.,
689–696; half-reaction method,
693–693, 695 prob.; net ionic redox
equations, 691, 692 prob.; oxidation-
number method, 689, 689 table, 690
prob.; problem-solving flow-chart, 696
Redox reactions, 680–688, 806–807;
bioluminescence, 693; in electro-
chemistry, 707 act., 708–709, 711;
electronegativity and, 684; electron
transfer and, 680–682; forensics and,
697, 698 act.; identify, 685 prob.;
oxidation, 681; oxidation number,
219, 682, 686, 686 table, 687 prob.,
688; oxidizing agents, 683; reducing
agents, 683; reduction, 681; reversal
of (electrolysis), 728; rust formation,
679 act.; space shuttle launch and, 691
act.; summary of, 683 table; tarnish
removal, 683 act.
Reduction, 681
Reduction agent, 683
Reduction potential, 711
Reef aquariums, 287
Refrigerators, CFCs and, 7–8
Rem, 889
Replacement reactions, 293–294, 296–
297; double-replacement, 296–297;
single-replacement, 293–294, 295
prob.
Representative elements, 177, 184, 196
act.
Representative particles, 321; convert
moles to, 322; convert to moles, 323,
323 prob., 324 prob.; mass to moles to
particles conversions, 338, 338–339
prob.
Research: applied, 17; pure, 17
Research chemist, 185
Resonance, 258
Reversible reactions, 595
Rhombohedral unit cells, 421 table, 422
act.
RNA (ribonucleic acid), 843
Roentgen, Wilhelm, 860, 889
Rubber, 762
Rubidium, 906, 907
Rusting, 74, 77, 724–727; observe, 726
act.; prevent, 685, 725–727; redox
reactions in, 679 act., 724–725; as
spontaneous process, 542–543
Rutherford, Ernest, 110, 111–112, 112–
113, 862, 875
Rutherfordium, 185
SSaccharin, 810
Sacrificial anodes, 726
Safety, lab, 18, 19 table
Safety matches, 934
Salicylaldehyde, 796 table, 797
Salt bridges, 709
Salt hydrolysis, 665
Saltwater fish, 503
Saponification, 837, 837 act.
Saturated fats, 805
Saturated fatty acids, 835–836
Saturated hydrocarbons, 746
Saturated solutions, 493
s-Block elements, 184
Scandium, 185
Scanning tunneling microscope (STM),
107, 213
Schrodinger wave equation, 152
Science writer, 604
Scientific investigations. See also
CHEMLABs; Data Analysis Labs;
MiniLabs; Problem-Solving Labs;
accidental discoveries and, 18; applied
research, 17; pure research, 17; safety
and, 18; scientific method and, 12–16
Scientific law, 16
Scientific methods, 12–16; conclusion,
15; experiments, 14–15; hypothesis,
13; observation, 13, 13 act.; scientific
law and, 16; theory and, 16
Scientific notation, 40–43, 946–948;
addition and subtraction and, 41
prob., 42, 948; multiplication and
division and, 43, 43 prob., 948
Scintillation counter, 886
Scuba diving, helium and, 192
Seaborg, Glenn, 921
Second (s), 33
Secondary batteries, 720
Second ionization energy, 192
Second law of thermodynamics, 543,
546
Second period elements, 158 table,
161 table
Seed crystal, 495
Selenium, 936, 937, 939
Semimetals. See Metalloids
Sensitive teeth, 914
Serine, 827 table
Sex hormones, 839
Shape-memory alloys, 213
Ships, corrosion of hulls of, 725–726
Side chains, amino acid, 827
Sigma bonds, 244, 245
Rate-determining steps Sigma bonds
1048 Index
Index
Significant figures, 50–51, 51 prob.,
949–950, 951 prob.; adding and sub-
tracting, 53, 53 prob., 952, 953 prob.;
atomic mass values and, 328; multipli-
cation and division and, 54, 54 prob.,
952; rounding numbers and, 52, 952
Silicates, 214
Silicon, 84, 159 table, 181, 926–927, 929
Silicon computer chips, 929
Silicon dioxide, 929
Silver, 226 table, 920
Silver batteries, 719
Silver nitrate flame test, 92 act.
Simple sugars. See Monosaccharides
Single covalent bonds, 242–244
Single-replacement reactions, 293–294,
295 prob.; metal replaces hydrogen,
293; metal replaces metal, 293–294,
310 act.; nonmetal replaces nonmetal,
294, 294 act.
SI units, 32–37, 958 table
Skeleton equations, 284
Slime, 785 act.
Slope, line, 57, 962
Soap, 419, 634, 837 act.
Sodium, 136, 159, 159 table, 177, 906,
907, 908, 913
Sodium bicarbonate, 308
Sodium carbonate, 378 act.
Sodium chloride, 70, 73 table, 85, 205
act., 210, 211 table, 213, 729
Sodium hypochlorite, 683
Sodium perborate, 924
Sodium/potassium ATPase, 909
Sodium-potassium pump, 909
Soft water, 24 act.
Solar energy, 142, 354, 522
Solar fusion, 883
Solidification, 76. See also Freezing
Solids, 71, 420–424; amorphous, 424;
crystalline, 420–423, 422 act., 422
table; density of, 39 act., 420; molecu-
lar, 422
Solubility, 479, 493–497; factors affect-
ing, 492–494, 506 act.; of gases,
495–496, 497 prob.; guidelines for,
975 table; of polar molecules, 268;
saturated solutions and, 493; super-
saturated solutions and, 494–495;
temperature and, 493–494, 494 table;
unsaturated solutions and, 493
Solubility product constant ( K sp ),
614–619, 969 table; compare, 624 act.;
ion concentrations from, 617, 617
prob., 618–619; ion product constant
( Q sp ) and, 618–619, 619 prob.; molar
solubility from, 615–617, 616 prob.;
predicting precipitates, 618
Solubility product constant expres-
sions, 614–619; ion concentrations
from, 617, 618–619, 619 prob.; molar
solubility from, 616 prob., 616–617;
predicting precipitates, 618, 619 prob.;
writing, 614–615
Soluble, 479
Solutes, 299
Solution concentration. See
Concentration
Solution formation. See Solvation
Solutions, 81, 478–479; acidic. See
Acidic solutions; aqueous. See
Aqueous solutions; basic. See Basic
solutions; boiling point elevation,
500–501, 503 prob.; concentration,
475 act., 480–488; dilution of, 485,
486 prob.; electrolytes and colliga-
tive properties, 498–499; formation
(solvation), 489–492; freezing point
depression, 501–502, 502 act., 503
prob.; heat of solution, 475 act.,
492; milestones in understanding,
490–491; molar. See Molar solutions;
neutral, 636; osmotic pressure and,
504; saturated, 493; solubility and. See
Solubility; supersaturated, 494–495;
types of, 81 table, 479 table; unsatu-
rated, 493; vapor pressure lowering
and, 499–500
Solution systems, 81, 81 table
Solvation, 489–492; aqueous solutions
of ionic compounds, 490; aqueous
solutions of molecular compounds,
491; factors affecting, 492–494, 506
act.; heat of solution, 475 act., 492;
“like dissolves like”, 489
Solvents, 299
s orbitals, 154
Space-filling molecular model, 253, 746
Space shuttle, 691 act., 722
Space telescopes, 912
Spandex, 811
Species, 693
Specific heat, 519–520, 522, 976 table;
calorimetry and, 523–524, 525 prob.,
526 act.; heat absorbed, calculate, 520,
521 prob.; heat released, calculate,
520; solar energy and, 522; of various
substances, 520 table
Specific rate constant (k), 574
Spectator ions, 301
Spectroscopist, 139
Speed of light (c), 137, 969 table
Spontaneous processes, 542. See also
Reaction spontaneity (∆G)
Spontaneity, reaction rate and. See
Reaction spontaneity (∆G)
Square root, 949
Stainless steel, 228 table
Standard enthalpy (heat) of formation,
537–541, 538 table, 540 prob.
Standard hydrogen electrode, 711
Standardized Test Practice, 28–29,
66–67, 98–99, 132–133, 170–171,
202–203, 236–237, 278–279, 316–317,
364–365, 398–399, 438–439, 472–473,
512–513, 556–557, 590–591, 630–631,
676–677, 704–705, 740–741, 782–783,
822–823, 856–857, 898–899
Standard reduction potentials, 712;
applications of, 716; calculate, 713–
714, 715 prob.; determine, 712, 712
table; measure, 734 act.
Standard temperature and pressure
(STP), 452
Starch, 834
States of matter, 71–72; gases, 72, 72
act., 402–410; liquids, 71, 401 act.,
415–419; milestones in understand-
ing, 416–417; phase changes, 76–77,
425–430; solids, 71, 420–424; summa-
rize information on, 401 act.
Stationary phase, chromatography, 83
Stearic acid, 835
Steel, 227, 227 act.
Stereoisomers, 766. See also Optical
isomers
Sterling silver, 228 table
Steroids, 839
Steroid toxins, 839
Stock solutions, dilution of, 485, 486
prob.
Stoichiometry, 368–378; actual yield
and, 385; baking soda decomposition,
378 act.; interpret chemical equa-
tions, 370 prob.; mass-to-mass con-
versions, 377, 377 prob.; mole ratios
and, 371–372, 390 act.; mole-to-mass
conversions, 376, 376 prob.; mole-
to-mole conversions, 373–374, 375
prob.; particle and mole relationships
and, 368–369; percent yield and, 386,
386 prob., 388; problem-solving flow
chart, 374; product, calculate when
reactant is limiting, 380–381, 382–383
prob.; reactions involving gases. See
Gas stoichiometry; theoretical yield
and, 385; titration and. See Titration
Storage batteries, 720
Straight-chain alkanes, 750–751
Stratosphere, 5
Straussman, Fritz, 111
Strong acids, 644, 656
Strong bases, 648, 656
Strong electrolytes, 498
Significant figures Strong electrolytes
Index 1049
Index
Strong nuclear force, 865
Strontium, 186 prob., 910–911, 913, 914
Strontium-90, 870, 871 table
Strontium carbonate, 913
Strontium chloride, 914
Structural formulas, 253, 253, 746, 751
Structural isomers, 765
Structural proteins, 831
Subatomic particles, 114 table, 119 table
Sublimation, 83, 428
Suboctets, 259
Substances, 5, 70
Substituent groups, 752
Substituted cycloalkanes, naming, 756,
756–757 prob.
Substituted hydrocarbons: alcohols,
792–793; aldehydes, 796–797; amides,
800; amines, 795; carboxylic acids,
798; chemical reactions involving. See
Organic reactions; crosslinks (make
slime), 785 act.; esters, 799, 800 act.;
ethers, 794; functional groups, 785
act., 786, 787 table; halocarbons,
787–791; ketones, 797
Substitutional alloys, 228
Substitution reactions, 790–791
Substrates, 830
Subtraction: scientific notation and, 42;
significant figures and, 53
Sucrose, 73 table, 88, 205 act., 833
Sulfur, 159 table, 195, 936–937, 939
Sulfuric acid, manufacture of, 388, 939
Sunburn, 5
Sunlight, continuous spectrum of, 138
Sunscreen, 5
Sun, solar fusion in, 883
Superacids, 637
Super ball, properties of, 239 act.
Supercritical mass, 880
Supersaturated solutions, 494–495
Surface area: reaction rate and, 569–
570; solvation and, 492
Surface tension, 418–419
Surfactants, 419
Surroundings (thermochemical), 526
Suspensions, 476
Synthesis reactions, 289
System (thermochemical), 526
Systeme International d’Unites. See SI
units
TTable salt. See Sodium chloride
Tap water, hard and soft, 24 act.
Tarnish removal, 683, 683 act.
Tartaric acid, 767
Taste, 262
Taste buds, 262
Television, 108
Tellurium, 936, 937
Temperature, 403; change in as evidence
of chemical reaction, 282; chemical
equilibrium and, 609–610, 611 act.;
combined gas law and, 449, 450 prob.;
enzyme action and, 850 act.; evapora-
tion rate and, 432 act.; extreme and
ideal gas law, 458; gas pressure and
(Gay-Lussac’s law), 447, 448 prob.; gas
volume and (Charles’s Law), 441 act.,
444–445, 446 prob.; pain receptors
and, 815; reaction rate and, 570, 571
act., 583; solubility and, 493–494, 494
table; viscosity and, 418
Temperature inversion, 428
Temperature scales, 34–35; convert
between, 34, 35; gas laws and, 451
Tetraethyl lead, 930
Tetragonal unit cell, 421 table, 422 act.
Tetrahedral molecular shape, 261, 263
table
Thallium, 922, 923, 925
Theoretical chemistry, 11 table
Theoretical yield, 385
Theory, 16
Thermal conductivity, 226
Thermochemical equations, 529–533;
for changes of state, 530–531, 531
act.; Hess’s law, 534–536, 536 prob.;
standard enthalpy (heat) of formation,
537–541, 540 prob.; writing, 529
Thermochemical universe, 526, 546
Thermochemistry, 523–528; combus-
tion reactions, 532 prob., 533; enthalpy
and enthalpy changes, 526–528;
enthalpy (heat) of reaction, 527–528;
Hess’s law, 534–536, 536 prob.; molar
enthalpy (heat) of fusion, 530–531;
molar enthalpy (heat) of vaporization,
530; phase changes and, 530–531; sur-
roundings, 526; systems, 526; thermo-
chemical equations, 529–533
Thermocouples, 34
Thermodynamics, second law of, 543
Thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD),
885
Thermonuclear reactions, 883
Thermoplastic polymers, 813
Thermosetting polymers, 813
Third ionization energy, 192
Third period elements, 159 table
Thixotropic substances, 476
Thomson, J. J., 108–109, 110, 212
Thomson, William (Lord Kelvin), 35
Thorium, 921
Three Mile Island, 880, 883
Thymine (T), 841
Time, 33
Tin, 226 table, 926–927, 930
Tinplate, 930
Titanium, 180, 181, 228, 918, 919
Titrant, 661
Titration, 660–663; acid-base indica-
tors and, 662, 663; end point of, 663;
molarity from, 663, 664 prob., 670
act.; steps in, 661
Tokamak reactor, 884
Tolerances, 49
Toluene, 774
Tools, zinc plating of, 295
Tooth decay, fluoride and, 622 act.
Torricelli, Evangelista, 406
Touch sensors, 920
Toxicologist, 59
Toxicology, 59
Trace elements, 195
Transactinide elements, 185
Trans-fatty acids, 767
trans- isomers, 766
Transition elements, 177, 916–921;
analytical tests for, 917; applications
of, 918–921; atomic properties, 917;
common reactions involving, 916;
inner transition metals, 180; locations
of strategic, 918; physical properties
of, 916; transition metals, 180
Transition metal ions, 208, 219, 219
table
Transition metals, 180, 185
Transition state, 564
Transmutation, 865, 875
Transport proteins, 830
Transuranium elements, 876
Triclinic unit cells, 421 table
Triglycerides, 836–837, 837 act.; phos-
pholipids, 838; saponification of, 838,
838 act.
Trigonal bipyramidal molecular shape,
263 table
Trigonal planar molecular shape, 261,
263 table
Trigonal pyramid molecular shape, 261,
263 table
Triple covalent bonds, 245, 246
Triple point, 429
Tritium, 904
Troposphere, 5
Tungsten, 226, 918
Turbidity, 478 act.
Tyndall effect, 478, 478 act.
Strong nuclear force Tyndall effect
1050 Index
Index
UUltraviolet radiation: overexposure to,
damage from, 5; ozone layer and, 5, 6
Ultraviolet (Lyman) series, 147, 150 act.
Unbalanced forces, 597
Unit cell, 421, 421 table, 422 act.
Units, 32–37; base SI, 33–35; converting
between, 957–958, 958 prob.; derived
SI, 35–37; English, 32
Universe (thermochemical), 526, 546
Unsaturated fatty acids, 835–836
Unsaturated hydrocarbons, 746
Unsaturated solutions, 493
Ununquadium, 185
Uranium-235, 878–879, 880
Uranium-238, 863, 880
Urea, 800
UV-B radiation, 5
VValence electrons, 161; chemical bonds
and, 207; periodic table trends, 182–
185, 186 prob.
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
(VSEPR) theory. See VSEPR model
Valine, 827 table
van der Waals forces, 269–270, 271
Vapor, 72
Vaporization, 426–427; molar enthalpy
(heat) of vaporization, 530, 531 act.
See also Boiling, Evaporation
Vapor pressure, 427
Vapor pressure lowering, 499–500
Variables, 14; controlling, 14–15;
dependent, 14, 56; independent, 14
Venom, 838
Vinegar-baking soda volcano, 669
Viscosity, 401 act., 417, 418
Visible (Balmer) series, 147, 148, 150 act.
Visible spectroscopy, 917
Visible spectrum, 138–139
Vitalism, 744
Vitamins, 383
Vocabulary margin features: alloy, 227;
anhydrous, 352; aromatic, 771; atom,
103; attain, 243; aufbau, 157; bond,
794; buffer, 667; capacity, 721; cis-, 766;
class, 799; combustion, 290; comple-
tion, 599; complex, 845; compound,
300; concentrated, 485; concentra-
tion, 561; concept, 113; conceptualize,
845; conduct, 215; conductor, 180;
conform, 642; conjugate, 639; convert,
595; correspond, 711; demonstrate,
547; deposit, 747; derive, 372; disac-
charide, 833; element, 85; eliminate,
751; environment, 75; evolve, 5; force,
419; formula, 284; gases, 403; generate,
878; homologous, 751; indicators, 663;
initial, 576; investigate, 566; meter, 33;
method, 694; mixture, 81; mole, 321,
456; monosaccharide, 833; neutral,
113; orient, 412; overlap, 244; ozone,
5; percent, 48; period, 159; periodic,
176; phenomenon, 141; polysaccha-
ride, 833; potential, 714; pressure, 495;
product, 381; radiation, 863; random,
544; ratio, 333, 462; recover, 21; reduce,
730; reduction, 681; resonance, 258;
saturated, 494; species, 693; specific,
119; stoichiometry, 369; stress, 607;
structure, 184; sum, 42; system, 543;
trans-, 766; transfer, 219; trigonal pla-
nar, 262; unstable, 867; weight, 10
Volt, 710
Volta, Alessandro, 709
Voltaic cell potentials. See
Electrochemical cell potentials
Voltaic cells, 709–711; chemistry of,
710–711; electrochemical cell poten-
tials, 711–714, 715 prob., 716–717,
734 act.; half-cells, 710
Voltaic pile, 709
Volume: chemical equilibrium and,
608–609; combined gas law and, 449,
450 prob.; determine mass of object
from, 38 prob.; gas pressure and
(Boyle’s law), 442–443, 443 prob., 444
act.; gas stoichiometry and, 460–461,
461 prob., 462, 462–463 prob.; gas
temperature and (Charles’ Law), 441
act., 444–445, 446 prob.; identify an
unknown by, 50 act.; SI units for,
35–36
Volumetric analysis, 341
VSEPR model, 261–262, 263 table, 264
prob., 272 act.
WWarfarin, 59
Water: adhesion and cohesion of, 419;
amphoteric nature of, 639; boiling of,
427, 969 table; capillary action, 419;
changes of state and, 76, 425–428;
chemical properties, 75; condensation
of, 428; covalent bonds in, 240, 243;
density of solid, 420; electrical con-
ductivity of, 205 act.; electrolysis of,
86; evaporation of, 426–427, 432 act.;
formation of in aqueous solutions, 303,
304 prob.; freezing, 428, 969 table; hard
v. soft, 24 act.; history in a glass of,
355; hydration reactions forming, 804;
hydrogen bonds in, 413–414; ion prod-
uct constant for ( K w ), 650–651, 651
prob.; law of multiple proportions and,
89; layering of in graduated cylinder,
31 act.; Lewis structure, 243; melting
of, 425–426; phase diagram, 429, 430;
physical properties, 73 table, 75; polar-
ity of, 267–268; as pure substance, 70;
sigma bonds in, 244, 245; solutions of.
See Aqueous solutions; surface tension
of, 419; thermochemistry, 530–531,
531 act.; turbidity and Tyndall effect,
478 act.; vaporization of, 426
Watson, James, 637, 841–842
Wavelength, 137, 140 prob.
Wave mechanical model of the atom.
See Quantum mechanical model of
atom
Wave model of light, 137–139; atomic
emission spectrum and, 144–145;
dual nature of light and, 143
Waves, 137–138; amplitude of, 137;
electromagnetic wave relationship,
137; frequency of, 137; wavelength of,
137, 140 prob.
Waxes, 838
Weak acids, 645, 648 table
Weak bases, 649
Weak electrolytes, 498
Weather balloons, 449
Weather patterns, density of air masses
and, 37
Weight, 9–10
Willstater, Richard, 912
Wohler, Friedrich, 744
Word equations, 284
XXenon, 944, 945
X-ray crystallography, 212
X rays, 137, 864, 914
Xylene, 772, 774
ZZewail, Ahmed, 581
Zinc, 208, 920
Zinc-carbon dry cells, 718–719
Zinc plating, 295
Ultraviolet radiation Zinc plating
Credits 1051
Photo CreditsCover SPL/Photo Researchers; iv (t)courtesy of Thandi Buthelezi, (tc)courtesy of Laurel Dingrando, (bc)courtesy of Nicholas Hainen, (b)courtesy of Dinah Zike; 2 (t)Ted Kinsman/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (c)Beateworks Inc./Alamy, (b)Daniel Sambraus/Photo Researchers, (bkgd)BL Images Ltd/Alamy; 3 Tom Pantages; 4 (l)STScI/NASA/CORBIS, (r)Atlantide Phototravel/CORBIS; 5 CORBIS; 6 David Hay Jones/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 7 NASA/Photo Researchers; 9 David Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit; 10 (l)AFP/Getty Images, (r)NASA Ames Research Center/Photo Researchers; 13 Art Vandalay/Getty Images; 14 (t)Matt Meadows, (b)Martyn F. Chillmaid/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 15 Chuck Bryan/epa/CORBIS; 17 Hank Morgan/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 18 (l)Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, (r)Dr Jeremy Burgess/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 19 Matt Meadows; 21 NASA/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 22 (l)Philippe Psaila/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (r)Eye Of Science/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 23 (tl)The Andy Warhol Foundation, Inc./Art Resource, NY, (tr)courtesy of Sharon Miller/NASA; 26 STScI/NASA/CORBIS; 30 Photri/T.Sanders; 31 Matt Meadows; 32 (l)Rhoda Peacher, (r)Janet Horton Photography; 34 Robert Rathe; 37 (t)Matt Meadows, (b)B. Runk/S. Schoenberger/Grant Heilman Photography; 40 The Hope Diamond/Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC/The Bridgeman Art Library; 42 Ed Young/CORBIS; 44 CORBIS; 49 Chris Gibson/Alamy; 52 Matt Meadows; 59 Jonathan Nourok/PhotoEdit; 68 Magnus Hjorleifsson/Getty Images; 70 (l)Luca Trovato/Getty Images, (r)Thomas Raupach/Peter Arnold, Inc.; 71 (t)Michael Newman/PhotoEdit, (b)Colin Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit; 72 (t)Richard T. Nowitz/CORBIS, (b)Spencer Grant/PhotoEdit; 73 (l)Sydney James/Getty Images, (r)Scientifica/Visuals Unlimited; 74 (l)Gibson Stock Photography, (r)Richard Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC; 75 British Antarctic Survey/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 76 (l)Ilianski/Alamy, (r)Design Pics Inc./Alamy; 77 (t)Alan Schein/zefa/CORBIS, (b)Astrid & Hanns-frieder Michler/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 79 (l r)Richard Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC; 80 (l)Custom Medical Stock Photo, (r)Envision/CORBIS; 81 Robert Fournier/Visuals Unlimited; 82 Martyn F. Chillmaid/Photo Researchers; 83 Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit; 84 (l)Barry Mason/Alamy, (c)Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit, (r)AP Photo/Breakthrough Films & Televisions Inc., Randy Brooke; 85 Science Museum/SSPL/The Image Works; 86 (tl)Andrew Lambert Photography/Photo Researchers, (tr)Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, (b)Larry Stepanowicz/Fundamental Photography, NYC; 90 Matt Meadows/Peter Arnold, Inc.; 91 Robert Corry; 100 (inset)Colin Cuthbert/Photo Researchers, (bkgd)CORBIS; 101 Tom Pantages; 102(l)PhotoLink/Getty Images, (t)Andre Jenny/Alamy, (r)Digital Vision/PunchStock, (b)Sean Daveys/Australian Picture Library/CORBIS; 103 (t)Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (b)The Art Archive/Museo Nazionale Palazzo Altemps Rome/Dagli Ort; 104 (t)Rischgitz/Getty Images, (b)Wellcome Library, London; 106 (l)Stockdisc/PunchStock, (r)European Space Agency/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 107 Philippe Plailly/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 110 SSPL/The Image Works; 111 (l)Bettmann/CORBIS, (r)CERN/Photo Researchers; 113Research Group of Professor C. J. Zhong/SUNY-Binghamton/Supported by NSF; 117 Dan Peha/viestiphoto.com; 120 Eitan Simanor/Alamy; 122 (l r)Image Source/Getty Images; 125 Mauro Fermariello/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 126 Janet Horton Photography; 134 Roger Ressmeyer/CORBIS; 135 Matt Meadows; 136 137 Richard Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC; 138 David Parker/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 141 CORBIS; 142 Andrew Fox/CORBIS; 145 (t b)Richard Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC; 149 John D. Norman/CORBIS; 153 Alberto Biscaro/Masterfile; 164 Matt Meadows; 172 Jim Sugar/Science Faction/Getty Images; 173 Tom Pantages; 175 Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 177Courtesy of Dell Inc.; 181 Miyoko Oyashiki/CORBIS Sygma; 185 Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory; 192 Brandon D. Cole/CORBIS; 195 3D4Medicalcom/Getty Images; 204 CORBIS; 205 Matt Meadows; 206 David Nardini/Getty Images; 208 Richard Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC; 210 (l)Andrew Lambert Photography/Photo Researchers, (r)Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers; 212 Colin Woods/Alamy; 213 (t)Manfred Kage/Peter Arnold, Inc., (c)Cat Gwynn/CORBIS, (b)Philippe Plailly/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 214(l r)Traudel Sachs/Phototake, (c)Mark A. Schneider/Photo Researchers; 220 Richard Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC; 228 Greg Huglin/SuperStock; 229 Macduff Everton/CORBIS; 230 Matt Meadows; 238 BIOS Gilson FranÁois/Peter Arnold, Inc.; 239 Matt Meadows; 240 Charles Krebs/Getty Images; 244 Visual Arts Library (London)/Alamy; 247 Charles O’Rear/CORBIS; 257 Suzanne Long/Alamy; 261 Matt Meadows; 268 Tony Craddock/Photo Researchers; 270 Scientifica/Visuals Unlimited; 271 (t)Peter Weber/Getty Images, (tcl)Perennou Nuridsany/Photo Researchers, (cr)Susumu Nishinaga/Photo Researchers, (b bcl)Prof. Kellar Autumn, Lewis & Clark College; 272 Matt Meadows; 280 (t)Robert Clay/Alamy, (b)Terry W. Eggers/CORBIS, (bkgd)Woodfall Wild Images/Alamy; 281 Matt Meadows; 282 Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers; 283 (l)Mihaela Ninic/Alamy, (c)Phototake Inc./Alamy, (b)VStock/Alamy; 284Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers; 287 Marilyn Genter/The Image Works; 290 (t)Josh Westrich/zefa/CORBIS, (bl)Jeff Vanuga/CORBIS, (br)Mary Evans Picture Library/The Image Works; 291 (l)Bettmann/CORBIS, (r)David Tipling/Alamy; 292 Courtesy of Mercedes-Benz Canada; 293 (l)Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, (r)Yoav Levy/Phototake; 295 Donald Pye/Alamy; 296 Andrew Lambert Photography/Photo Researchers; 299 Tom Pantages; 300 303 Matt Meadows; 305 Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers; 309 (l)Darwin Dale/Photo Researchers, (r)Eye of Science/Photo Researchers, (bkgd)E.R. Degginger/Animals Animals - Earth Scenes; 310 Matt Meadows; 318 (t)Tom Pantages, (b)CORBIS, (bkgd)Tom Stack/Tom Stack & Associates; 319 320 321 Matt Meadows, 322 CORBIS; 325 326 327 Matt Meadows; 328 Jeff Greenberg/PhotoEdit; 335 Matt Meadows; 341 (l)Comstock Images/Alamy, (r)GECO UK/Photo Researchers; 346 Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit; 351 Alfred Pasieka/Photo Researchers; 352 354 356 Matt Meadows; 366 Clive Schaupmeyer/AGStockUSA/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 368 Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers; 371 Division of Chemical Education, Inc., American Chemical Society; 373 Richard Megna/Fundamental Photography, NYC; 375Rhonda Peacher Photography; 379 Aaron Haupt; 380 Chris McElcheran/Masterfile; 384 385 Matt Meadows; 388 Gunter Marx Photography/CORBIS; 389 3D4Medicalcom/Getty Images; 390Matt Meadows; 400 Richard W. Ramette; 401 Matt Meadows; 402 (l)Steve McCutcheon/Visuals Unlimited, (c)Lester V. Bergman/CORBIS, (b)Dirk Wiersma/Photo Researchers; 406 H. Turvey/Photo Researchers; 410 Tom Pantages; 415 Richard Megna/Fundamental Photography, NYC; 416 (t)Gabe Palmer/Alamy, (b)SSPL/The Image Works; 417 (l)Kent Wood/Photo Researchers, (r)Geoffrey Wheeler/Submission from National Institute of Standards and Technology; 418 Pier Munstermanu/Foto Nature/Minden Pictures; 419 Richard Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC; 420 Daryl Benson/Masterfile; 421 (tl)Charles D. Winters/Science Photo Library/Photo
Researchers, (tc bl br)Mark A. Schneider/Visuals Unlimited, (tr)Jeff J. Daly, Fundamental Photography, NYC, (bcl)Carl Frank/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (bcr)Roberto De Gugliemo/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 422 Ross Frid/Visuals Unlimited; 423 Deborah Davis/PhotoEdit; 424 Wally Eberhart/Visuals Unlimited; 426 CORBIS; 428 (t)Richard Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC, (b)Alissa Crandall/CORBIS; 431 Peter Scholey/Getty Images; 432 Matt Meadows; 440 (t)Patrick Ward/CORBIS, (b)Elizabeth Opalenik/CORBIS, (bkgd)CORBIS; 441 Matt Meadows; 448 Marie-Louise Avery/Alamy; 449 Roger Ressmeyer/CORBIS; 454 unlike by STOCK4B; 456 Cordelia Malloy/Science Photo Library; 457 Matt Meadows; 458 (l)Pasquale Sorrentino/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (r)Paul Broadbent/Alamy Images; 459 (l)Barry Runk/Grant Heilman Photography, (r)Lee Pengelly/Alamy Images; 461 Thomas R. Fletcher/www.proseandphotos.com; 462 Denny Eilers/Grant Heilman Photography; 464 Janet Horton Photography; 465 Jason Cohn/Reuters/CORBIS; 466 Matt Meadows; 474 (t)David Papazian/Beateworks/CORBIS, (b)Peter Bowater/Alamy, (bkgd)Tom Feiler/Masterfile; 475 Matt Meadows; 476 Tom Pantages; 478 Matt Meadows/Peter Arnold, Inc.; 480 Tom Pantages; 482 AP Photo/L.G. Patterson; 484 Matt Meadows; 485 Richard Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC; 489 Matt Meadows; 490 (l)Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS, (r)SuperStock; 491 (t)Richard Megna/Fundamental Photography, NYC, (b)courtesy of DuPont; 492 (t b)Tiercel Photographics, (c)Rhonda Peacher Photography; 493 Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; 494 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; 495 Theo Allofs/Visuals Unlimited; 496 (t)Marilyn Genter/The Image Works, (bl)Rachel Epstein/PhotoEdit, (br)CORBIS; 498 FP, Fundamental Photography, NYC; 501 (l)AP Photo/Gerry Broome, (r)Tom Pantages; 505 Courtesy of Dr. Christopher L. Sabine, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; 506 Tom Pantages; 508 Leonard Lessin/Peter Arnold, Inc.; 511 Courtesy NODC; 514 Purestock/Getty Images; 515 Matt Meadows; 516 (l)Agence Zoom/Getty Images, (r)Donald Miralle/Getty Images; 517 Alan Sirulnikoff/Photo Researchers; 519 (l)Stephen Chernin/Getty Images, (r)Bob Krist/CORBIS; 521 Matt Meadows; 522 Eurelios/Phototake; 524 Tom Pantages; 526 Matt Meadows; 527 Tim Fuller; 528 Phil Degginger/Alamy; 533 Janet Horton Photography; 534 (l)CORBIS, (r)Mark A. Schneider/Visuals Unlimited; 537 Will & Deni McIntyre/Photo Researchers; 539 Jeff Maloney/Getty Images; 542 Ton Koene/Visuals Unlimited; 544 Dinodia Photo Library/PixtureQuest; 545 Matt Meadows; 546 Jon Arnold Images/Alamy; 549 (t)AP Photo, (b)Joshua Matz/Grant Heilman Photography; 550 Matt Meadows; 552 Wesley Hitt/Alamy; 554 Frank Cezus/Getty Images; 554 Marc Muench/Getty Images; 558 (inset)PhotriMicroStock/J.Greenberg, (bkgd)Transtock Inc/Alamy; 559 Matt Meadows; 560 (l)Motoring Picture Library/Alamy, (cl)The Car Photo Library, (cr)John Terence Turner/Taxi/Getty Images, (r)Getty Images; 563 Masterfile Corporation; 567 Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers; 568 Tom Pantages; 569 Richard Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC; 570 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; 571 Tom Pantages; 572 (l)Arco Images/Alamy, (r)SuperStock; 574 (l)Mark Thomas/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (r)Dr Jurgen Scriba/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 581 Stephen Wilkes/Getty Images; 584 Matt Meadows; 592 Stock Connection Distribution/Alamy; 593 Matt Meadows; 594 Randall Hyman Photography; 597 Tim Fuller; 598 Oote Boe/Alamy; 600 Martyn Chillmaid /Photolibrary; 601 Dr. A. Leger/ISM/Phototake; 603 Plowes ProteaPix; 606 Shalom Ormsby/Blend Images/Getty Images; 608 Getty Images; 610 Richard Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC; 612 Tim Brakemeier/dpa/CORBIS; 614 (l)James L. Amos/CORBIS, (r)1996-98 AccuSoft Inc., All right/Robert Harding World Imagery/CORBIS; 615 Yoav Levy/Phototake; 618 620 Tom Pantages; 623 Mount Everest from the South. AlpineAscents.com Collection; 624 Matt Meadows; 625 David Taylor/Photo Researchers; 627 Matt Meadows; 629 Marie-Louise Avery/Alamy; 632 (t b)Tim Fuller, (bkgd)Jane Faircloth/TRANSPARENCIES, Inc.; 633 Matt Meadows; 634 (l)Pat O’Hara/CORBIS, (r)W. Wayne Lockwood, M.D./CORBIS; 635 (l cl r)Tom Pantages, (cr)Eric Fowke/PhotoEdit; 636 With kind permission of the University of Edinburgh/The Bridgeman Art Library; 637 (tl)courtesy of the Archives, California Institue of Technology, (r)Kazuyoshi Nomachi/CORBIS, (bl)Pasieka/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 638 Spencer Grant/PhotoEdit; 639 Ciaran Griffin/Getty Images; 643 Jim Wark/Peter Arnold, Inc.; 644 645 Matt Meadows; 646 Louise Lister/Getty Images; 652 (t)Ingram Publishing/Alamy, (cl)Sue Wilson/Alamy, (cr)foodfolio/Alamy, (bl)Eric Fowke/PhotoEdit, (br)Janet Horton Photography; 654 Peter Dean/Grant Heilman Photography; 656 Matt Meadows; 658 (l)Matt Meadows, (r)Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 659 660 661 662 663 664 665 Matt Meadows; 666 Sisse Brimberg/Getty Images; 668 Dr. Dennis Kunkel/Visuals Unlimited; 669 (l)Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, (r)CORBIS; 672 673 674 Matt Meadows; 678 (inset)Tom Pantages, (bkgd)Jeff Daly/Fundamental Photography, NYC; 679 Tom Pantages; 680 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; 681 Tom Pantages; 682 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; 685 Dean Conger/CORBIS; 686 John Cancalosi/Peter Arnold, Inc.; 689 L. S. Stepanowicz/Visuals Unlimited; 693 E. R. Degginger/Photo Researchers; 694 Tom Pantages; 697 (t)Mikael Karlsson/Alamy, (b)Adrian Neumann/[email protected]; 700 Tom Pantages; 701 (t)Peticolas/Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC, (cl)Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit, (cr)Ian Pilbeam/Alamy; 702 Tom Pantages; 703 (t)Richard Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC, (bl br)Yuliya Andrianova/Echo Ceramics; 706 (l)Tom Pantages, (tr) bobo/Alamy, (br)Khalid Ghani/NHPA, (bkgd)Michael Durham/Nature Picture Library; 707 Matt Meadows; 709 Royal Institution/SSPL/The Image Works; 710 (t)Rafael Macia/Photo Researchers, (b)Chuck Franklin/Alamy; 719 (l)Tom Pantages, (r)Sami Sarkis/Alamy; 721 Stockbyte Platinum/Alamy; 722 (tl)Paul Silverman, Fundamental Photography, NYC, (tr)Paul Rapson/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (r)Ferruccio/Alamy; 723 Pasquale Sorrentino/Photo Researchers; 724 Ilianski/Alamy; 725 Roger Ressmeyer/CORBIS; 726 Geoff Butler; 730 Tom Pantages; 731 Jeff Greenberg/PhotoEdit; 733 Tom Pantages; 742 Steve Starr/CORBIS; 743 Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 744 Panorama Media (Beijing)Ltd./Alamy; 745 A. T. Willett/Alamy; 748 Keith Dannemiller/Alamy; 749 Rachel Epstein/PhotoEdit; 752 (l)Michael Newman/PhotoEdit, (r)Janet Horton Photography; 757 Robin Nelson/PhotoEdit; 762 Michael Newman/PhotoEdit; 764 Paul A. Souders/CORBIS; 767 (l)Masterfile, (r)Beth Galton/Getty Images; 770 R H Productions/Getty Images; 772 (tl)Paul Silverman, Fundamental Photography, NYC, (tr)CORBIS, (bl)Colin Garratt, Milepost 92½/CORBIS, (br)SSPL/The Image Works; 774 PicturePress/Getty Images; 775 Peter Titmuss/Alamy; 776 Matt Meadows; 784 (inset)Science Pictures Ltd/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (bkgd)Waina Cheng/Photolibrary; 785 786 Matt Meadows; 787 David Hoffman Photo Library/Alamy; 789 DK Limited/CORBIS; 790 Keith Wood/Getty Images; 791 Paul Almasy/CORBIS; 797 Bill Aron/PhotoEdit; 798 Norm Thomas/Photo Researchers; 799 (l)Masterfile, (r)J.Garcia/photocuisine/CORBIS; 802 Cordelia Molloy/Photo Researchers; 803 Chuck Franklin/Alamy; 807 (t)NASA/ESA/STScI/Science Photo Library/Photo
1052 Credits
Credits
Researchers, (b)CORBIS; 809 Alan L. Detrick/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 810 (t)Myrleen Ferguson Cate/PhotoEdit, (bl)SSPL/The Image Works, (br)Victor De Schwanberg/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 811 (l)Bettmann/CORBIS, (r)Danita Delimont/Alamy; 812 (t)Siede Preis/Photodisc Green/Getty Images, (tc)David Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit, (b)CORBIS, (bc)Dorling Kindersley/Getty Images; 813 David R. Frazier Photolibrary, Inc.; 815 Neil Emmerson/Robert Harding World Imagery/Getty Images; 816 Matt Meadows; 824 (t)Eye Of Science/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (c)Dr. Kessel & Dr. Kardon/Tissues & Organs/Visuals Unlimited, (b)Steve Gschmeissner/Photo Researchers, (bkgd)AK PhotoLibrary/Alamy; 825 Matt Meadows; 826 (l) John Conrad/CORBIS, (r)Ron Niebrugge/Alamy; 829 Janet Horton Photography; 831 (l)CORBIS, (r)Medical-on-Line/Alamy; 833 IndexStock; 834 (l)Foodcollection.com/Alamy, (r)Brand X Pictures/Alamy; 835 D. Hurst/Alamy; 836 Michael Newman/PhotoEdit; 838 Pat O’Hara/CORBIS; 839 Joe Mc Donald/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes; 846 (t)CORBIS, (b)AP Photo/Joe Cavaretta; 847 (t)David Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit, (b)Alex Farnsworth/The Image Works; 848 Wally McNamee/CORBIS; 849 (t)epa/CORBIS, (b)Mary Schweitzer; 855 CORBIS; 858 (t)ADEAR/RDF/Visuals Unlimited, (c)ISM/Phototake, (b)Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (bkgd)John Terence Turner/Taxi/Getty Images; 859 Comstock Images/Alamy; 860 (l)alwaysstock, LLC/Alamy, (r)Lee C. Coombs/Phototake; 861 C. Powell, P. Fowler & D. Perkins/Photo Researchers; 864 Reuters/CORBIS; 874 Pixtal/SuperStock; 880 vario images GmbH & Co.KG/Alamy; 881 Savintsev Fyodor/ITAR-TASS/CORBIS; 882 (t)Catherine Pouedras/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (bl)Bettmann/CORBIS, (br)John Hopkins Medical Institute/AIP/Photo Researchers; 883 (t)epa/CORBIS, (b)D. Ducros/Photo Researchers; 884 (t)EFDA-JET/Photo Researchers; 886 Martin Bond/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 887 Custom Medical Stock Photo/cmsp.com; 888 (tl)ISM/Phototake, (tr)WDCN/Univ. College London/Photo Researchers, (b)Mediscan; 891 Johan Reinhard; 901 CORBIS; 904 (l)SPL/Photo Researchers, (r)Matt Meadows; 905 (t)European Southern Observatory/Photo Researchers, (b)Melanie Stetson Freeman/The Christian Science Monitor via Getty Images; 906 Richard Megna/Fundamental Photography, NYC; 907 (l)David Taylor/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (c cl)Jerry Mason/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (cr r)Tom Pantages, (t)NASA/epa/
CORBIS, (b)Michael Dalton, Fundamental Photography, NYC; 909 Geoffrey Wheeler; 910 Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers; 911 (l)Andrew Lambert/Photo Researchers, (r)Fundamental Photography, NYC; 912 (l)Mark A. Schneider/Photo Researchers, (r)courtesy of Northrop Grumman Space Technology; 913 (t)Paul Freytag/zefa/CORBIS, (b)Rebecca Cook/CORBIS; 914 (t)Dung Vo Trung/CORBIS, (b)Neil Borden/Photo Researchers; 915 (l)Fred Haebegger/Grant Heilman Photography, (r)Bettmann/CORBIS; 916 Cordelia Molloy/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 917 Martyn F. Chillmaid/Photo Researchers; 918 Colin Walton/Alamy; 919 (t)Roger Harris/Photo Researchers, (c)Tom Pantages, (b)Kalicoba/Alamy; 920 (t)The Art Archive/Egyptian Museum Cairo/Dagli Orti, (b)Theodore Clutter/Photo Researchers; 921 (t)ISM/Phototake, (b)Fritz Goro/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images; 924 (t)Tom Pantages, (tc)Greg Stott/Masterfile, (b)Toshiba Corporation images, (bc)Eye of Science/Photo Researchers; 925 (t)Judith Collins/Alamy, (b)Collection CNRI/Phototake; 926 Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 927 David Taylor/Photo Researchers; 928 (tl)Chemical Design/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (tr)Johner Images/Getty Images, (b)Dr Tim Evans/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 929 Phil Schermeister/CORBIS; 930 (t)Martin Dohrn/naturepl.com, (c)Goodshoot-Jupiterimages France/Alamy, (b)Allan H Shoemake/Taxi/Getty Images; 931 Chinch Gryniewicz, Ecoscene/CORBIS; 933 Tom Pantages; 934 (t)Wally Eberhart/Visuals Unlimited, (c)Dr P. Marazzi/Photo Researchers, (b)Al Francekevich/CORBIS; 935 (t,bl)Michael Newman/PhotoEdit, (br)Janet Horton; 937 Chuck Place Photography; 938 (t)Scientifica/Visuals Unlimited, (b)Glow Images/Alamy; 939 Leslie Garland Picture Library/Alamy; 940 Larry Stepanowicz/Visuals Unlimited; 941 Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 942 Michael Newman/PhotoEdit; 944 (l)Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, (r)Ted Kinsman/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 945 (t)epa/CORBIS, (bl)Phototake Inc./Alamy, (br)Wolfgang Kaehler/CORBIS; 946 (l)Chris Bjornberg/Photo Researchers, (r)Daniele Pellegrini/Photo Researchers; 947 (t)Julian Baum/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (b)CORBIS; 952 Matt Meadows; 956 ABN Stock Images/Alamy; 958 Matt Meadows; 959 Bill Aron/PhotoEdit; 964 Matt Meadows; 965 Elena Rooraid/PhotoEdit; 967 Geoff Butler
About the Photo:When a piece of sodium metal is dropped into a flask of bromine gas, the vigorous reaction produces heat and sparks of light.
Access your Student Edition on the Internet so you don't need to bring your textbook home every night. You can link to fea-tures and get additional practice with these online study tools.
Check out the following features on your Online Learning Center:
Study Tools Section Self-Check Quizzes
Chapter Tests• Interactive Tables• Interactive Time Line• Interactive Figures
Standardized Test Practice Vocabulary PuzzleMaker Personal TutorStudy to Go Online Student EditionMultilingual Science Glossary
ExtensionsPeriodic Table Links WebQuest ProjectsCareer Links Science Fair IdeasMath Handbook Internet ChemLabsPrescreened Web Links
For TeachersTeacher Bulletin BoardTeaching Today, and much more!
glencoe.comChemistryChemistry nline
Eye SafetyProper eye protection should be worn at all times by anyone performing or observing science activities.
Clothing ProtectionThis symbol appears when sub-stances could stain or burn clothing.
Animal SafetyThis symbol appears when safety of animals and students must be ensured.
RadioactivityThis symbol appears when radioactive materials are used.
HandwashingAfter the lab, wash hands with soap and water before removing goggles
Safety SymbolsTh ese safety symbols are used in laboratory and investigations in this book to indicate possible hazards.
Learn the meaning of each symbol and refer to this page oft en. Remember to wash your hands thoroughly
aft er completing lab procedures.
SAFETY SYMBOLS HAZARD EXAMPLES PRECAUTION REMEDY
DISPOSAL Special disposal procedures need to be followed.
certain chemicals, living organisms
Do not dispose of these materials in the sink or trash can.
Dispose of wastes as directed by your teacher.
BIOLOGICALOrganisms or other biological materials that might be harmful to humans
bacteria, fungi, blood, unpreserved tissues, plant materials
Avoid skin contact with these materials. Wear mask or gloves.
Notify your teacher if you suspect contact with material. Wash hands thoroughly.
EXTREME TEMPERATURE
Objects that can burn skin by being too cold or too hot
boiling liquids, hot plates, dry ice, liquid nitrogen
Use proper protection when handling.
Go to your teacher for first aid.
SHARPOBJECT
Use of tools or glassware that can easily puncture or slice skin
razor blades, pins, scalpels, pointed tools, dissecting probes, broken glass
Practice common-sense behavior and follow guidelines for use of the tool.
Go to your teacher for first aid.
FUMEPossible danger to respiratory tract from fumes
ammonia, acetone, nail polish remover, heated sulfur, moth balls
Make sure there is good ventilation. Never smell fumes directly. Wear a mask.
Leave foul area and notify your teacher immediately.
ELECTRICALPossible danger from electrical shock or burn
improper grounding, liquid spills, short circuits, exposed wires
Double-check setup with teacher. Check condition of wires and apparatus.
Do not attempt to fix electrical problems. Notify your teacher immediately.
IRRITANTSubstances that can irritate the skin or mucous membranes of the respiratory tract
pollen, moth balls, steel wool, fiberglass, potassium permanganate
Wear dust mask and gloves. Practice extra care when handling these materials.
Go to your teacher for first aid.
CHEMICALChemicals that can react with and destroy tissue and other materials
bleaches such as hydrogen peroxide; acids such as sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid; bases such as ammonia, sodium hydroxide
Wear goggles, gloves, and an apron.
Immediately flush the affected area with water and notify your teacher.
TOXICSubstance may be poisonous if touched, inhaled, or swallowed.
mercury, many metal compounds, iodine, poinsettia plant parts
Follow your teacher’s instructions.
Always wash hands thoroughly after use. Go to your teacher for first aid.
FLAMMABLEOpen flame may ignite flammable chemicals, loose clothing, or hair.
alcohol, kerosene, potassium permanganate, hair, clothing
Avoid open flames and heat when using flammable chemicals.
Notify your teacher immediately. Use fire safety equipment if applicable.
OPEN FLAMEOpen flame in use, may cause fire.
hair, clothing, paper, synthetic materials
Tie back hair and loose clothing. Follow teacher's instructions on lighting and extinguishing flames.
Always wash hands thoroughly after use. Go to your teacher for first aid.
PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
Hydrogen
1
H1.008
Lithium
3
Li6.941
Sodium
11
Na22.990
Potassium
19
K39.098
Rubidium
37
Rb85.468
Cesium
55
Cs132.905
Francium
87
Fr(223)
Radium
88
Ra(226)
Barium
56
Ba137.327
Strontium
38
Sr87.62
Calcium
20
Ca40.078
Magnesium
12
Mg24.305
Beryllium
4
Be9.012
1
1 2
2
3
4
5
6
7
93 4 5 6 7 8
Hydrogen
1
H
1.008
Element
Atomic number
Symbol
Atomic mass
State ofmatter
Gas
Liquid
Solid
Synthetic
Yttrium
39
Y88.906
Zirconium
40
Zr91.224
Niobium
41
Nb92.906
Molybdenum
42
Mo95.94
Scandium
21
Sc44.956
Titanium
22
Ti47.867
Vanadium
23
V50.942
Chromium
24
Cr51.996
Technetium
43
Tc(98)
Ruthenium
44
Ru101.07
Manganese
25
Mn54.938
Iron
26
Fe55.847
Cobalt
27
Co58.933
Rhodium
45
Rh102.906
Actinium
89
Ac(227)
Lanthanum
57
La138.905
Hafnium
72
Hf178.49
Tantalum
73
Ta180.948
Dubnium
105
Db(262)
Seaborgium
106
Sg(266)
Hassium
108
Hs(277)
Meitnerium
109
Mt(268)
Bohrium
107
Bh(264)
Tungsten
74
W183.84
Rhenium
75
Re186.207
Osmium
76
Os190.23
Iridium
77
Ir192.217
Rutherfordium
104
Rf(261)
Lanthanide series
Actinide series
The number in parentheses is the mass number of the longest lived isotope for that element.
Cerium
58
Ce140.115
Thorium
90
Th232.038
Uranium
92
U238.029
Neptunium
93
Np(237)
Plutonium
94
Pu(244)
Americium
95
Am(243)
Neodymium
60
Nd144.242
Promethium
61
Pm(145)
Samarium
62
Sm150.36
Europium
63
Eu151.965
Praseodymium
59
Pr140.908
Protactinium
91
Pa231.036
Metal
Metalloid
Nonmetal
Recentlyobserved
10 11 12
13 14 15 16 17
18
The names and symbols for elements 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, and 118 are temporary. Final names will be selected when the elements’ discoveries are verified.
Gadolinium
64
Gd157.25
Terbium
65
Tb158.925
Dysprosium
66
Dy162.50
Holmium
67
Ho164.930
Erbium
68
Er167.259
Thulium
69
Tm168.934
Ytterbium
70
Yb173.04
Lutetium
71
Lu174.967
*
Curium
96
Cm(247)
Berkelium
97
Bk(247)
Californium
98
Cf(251)
Einsteinium
99
Es(252)
Fermium
100
Fm(257)
Nobelium
102
No(259)
Lawrencium
103
Lr(262)
Mendelevium
101
Md(258)
Platinum
78
Pt195.08
Gold
79
Au196.967
Nickel
28
Ni58.693
Copper
29
Cu63.546
Zinc
30
Zn65.39
Palladium
46
Pd106.42
Silver
47
Ag107.868
Cadmium
48
Cd112.411
Darmstadtium
110
Ds(281)
Roentgenium
111
Rg(272)
Mercury
80
Hg200.59
Lead
82
Pb207.2
Gallium
31
Ga69.723
Germanium
32
Ge72.61
Arsenic
33
As74.922
Indium
49
In114.82
Tin
50
Sn118.710
Aluminum
13
Al26.982
Silicon
14
Si28.086
Phosphorus
15
P30.974
Sulfur
16
S32.066
Chlorine
17
Cl35.453
Boron
5
B10.811
Carbon
6
C12.011
Nitrogen
7
N14.007
Oxygen
8
O15.999
Fluorine
9
F18.998
* *Ununquadium
114
Uuq(289)
*Ununtrium
113
Uut(284)
Ununbium
112
Uub(285)
Thallium
81
Tl204.383
Bismuth
83
Bi208.980
Polonium
84
Po208.982
Ununhexium
116
Uuh(291)
*Ununpentium
115Uup(288)
Helium
2
He4.003
Astatine
85
At209.987
Radon
86
Rn222.018
Krypton
36
Kr83.80
Xenon
54
Xe131.290
Argon
18
Ar39.948
Neon
10
Ne20.180
* *Ununoctium
118
Uuo(294)
Selenium
34
Se78.96
Bromine
35
Br79.904
Antimony
51
Sb121.757
Tellurium
52
Te127.60
Iodine
53
I126.904