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By Philip Tovey

Copyright 2011 by Philip Tovey


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Since the time of Copernicus, astronomy, astrophysics, and cosmology expanded

from his greater view of the universe. Human sensory systems formed the common basis or

element of all these scientific endeavors since Copernicus. Of these senses, vision, or the

extension of vision through the entire spectrum of photons, has been most important in

understanding the nature of the universe.

Over the years, the invention of numerous devices and instruments, such as the

telescope, extend the limits of the human sensory system. However, even with these

inventions, the only things considered as fact or evidence is limited only to what the human

senses can acquire. Limiting knowledge of the universe to what the human senses can

distinguish is akin to the previous notion that the Earth was the center of the universe.

These artificial limits or assumptions are man-made.

Copernicus new way of looking at the universe allowed humanity to come a long

way in understanding it. There are, however, many questions about the universe that remain

unanswered and the answers are not apparent if one limits him or herself to what can be

learned through the human senses. So, the second new understanding of the universe

requires us to go beyond the senses and develop a new approach to understanding it. New

assumptions are required in order to comprehend how light behaves as it does.

Since the publication of Einsteins equation on the relationship of matter and energy

in 1905, the assumption has been that the photon is the basic unit of structure of the

universe. Little, if anything, has been learned about its structure. The most useful

information has been that the photon acts in a wave-making manner, but the wave has

nothing to do with its characteristics. The second new understanding of the universe is based

on a closer study of the behavior of light. This behavior is best understood if one makes


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some new assumptions about the characteristics of the photon by comparing it to the

characteristics of a star.

Thus, three assumptions are made: 1) the photon has as many component parts as

there are protons, or as scientists would call them atoms, in a star. This is indeed a large

number of component parts and far beyond a human sensory systems ability to recognize. It

is not only beyond ones sensory limitations to consider this huge number, but it is even

taxing to the imagination. 2) The second characteristic of the photon that is proposed is that

the photon has a life or a life cycle. The photon is born or created, lives its life, and leaves

behind a dead body, or a corpse. Just as a star is born, lives, and dies, the photon does so as

well. Just as the star has many different sizes, the photon also comes in many different sizes.

3) The third characteristic of the photon is that it radiates particles, just as a star radiates

photons. Although these three characteristics of the photon are outside the limits of the

human sensory system, it is the mission of this paper to show ways in which one can come

to grips with this new way of understanding the photon and its implications for

understanding the universe.


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Part I: Assumptions Your assumptions may no longer be valid

At the core of the scientific method is the understanding that facts are established if

experimental results produce the same finding no matter how often it is repeated. In

addition to the facts and evidence of science, there is also a need to make projections or

hypothesis from the known facts to unknown quantities. These best guesses or best

estimates of things that have not been verified go under the general rubric of assumptions.

Assumptions may be made on the basis of a small amount of verified fact or on a large

quantity of such fact. They are essential to scientific progress and are relied on to point the

way of investigations. However, it must be remembered that the assumptions may or may

not prove to be factually accurate and one must be prepared to discard an assumption if new

evidence points in a different direction. With that in mind, one can review some of the

assumptions of the past and perhaps make some new ones that will point in a new direction.

In the 1840s, Christian Doppler, a natural philosopher (physicist) from Austria, made

an interesting demonstration in regards to the way sound travels. He demonstrated that there

must be a carrier substance for the sound to move. Typically, air is the medium that carries

the sound wave, but other substances may also carry them. The second aspect of the

experiment showed that if the source of the sound traveled toward the observer, the sound

waves were compressed or the pitch was raised. If the source of the sound moved away

from the observer, then the pitch of the sound became lower as the waves spread further

apart.

Later in that century, the idea of waves was applied to the phenomenon of light,

establishing that light apparently traveled in waves. The problem was that, at about the same

time, Albert Michelson and Edward Morley showed that, despite the absence of ether or


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medium in space, light waves readily passed through it. This dilemma has never been

resolved.

In 1905 when Albert Einstein published his famous equation indicating that mass

and energy were interchangeable, it set off a search for a physical component of light energy.

It was established that the photon did exist as a physical quantity. In keeping with the

success of the Einstein equation, it was assumed that the photon was the basic substance of

the universe. Little was really known about the photon other than its wavelike characteristic.

The light wave theory proved to be very useful and, in 1915, members of the U.S. National

Academy of Sciences declared the light wave theory as the official explanation of the

phenomenon. The matter of a carrier substance remained unsolved. The action of the

National Academy of Sciences had two effects: it reinforced the practical or utilitarian value

of the light wave theory. At the same time, it dampened the concern of many about the lack

of a carrier substance for light waves.

In the 1920s, Edwin Hubble, an astronomer at the Mount Wilson Observatory, was

able to establish that the movement of the dark line spectrum of stars shifted and that this

shifting was directly related to the distance away of the star or galaxy. Hubble worked out

the direct relationship between the dark line shift of the spectrum and the distance to the

light source, which was of tremendous value to the future understanding of the universe.

The problem was that they could not understand why this relationship existed. Others

suggested that, in fact, the shift in dark line spectrum was related to the light source either

approaching or moving away from the observer, much as was the case of the train whistle

sound that Doppler had demonstrated almost a century earlier. Hubble rejected this idea.

The controversy over why the dark line shift in the spectrum was a measure of the distance

of the light source continued to grow.


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Sometime later, a group of eminent scientists headed by Dr. George Hale, Hubbles

boss at the Mount Wilson Observatory, came to Hubble and indicated that they wished to

honor him by naming the measurement of dark line shift in his honor. The only problem

was that they felt that the dark line shift was a measure of the speed with which the light

source was moving toward or away from the observer. Hubble again rejected this idea, but,

after a considerable discussion, a compromise was reached and it was decided that this shift

of the dark line should measure both the distance of the star and the speed with which was

either approaching or receding from the observer. (See footnote 1)

As the years continued and astronomers detected more and more remote galaxies in

the universe, it was discovered that none of these galaxies showed a shift in the blue

direction of the spectrum. The shift was always toward the red end of the spectrum. By the

1950s, this had resulted in the speculation that the universe was expanding and that all

galaxies were moving away from one another. This was another assumption that seemed to

move away from the observations that had been made in the past.

If the universe seemed to be expanding, then scientists could mathematically carry

the expansion in the opposite direction and arrive at the determination that the universe

began as a small dot an extremely long time ago. The notion that the universe began as a

small dot became known as The Big Bang Theory and has become extremely popular.

In the preceding paragraphs, it has been shown that a number of assumptions

pertaining to the nature of light and the nature of the universe have been made. These may

be summarized as follows: 1) Light travels in the form of a wave. 2) The photon is the basic

1 I first read of the events regarding the eminent scientist approaching Dr. Hubble in 1941. I was 16 years old atthe time and sided with Dr. Hubbles views that the dark line shift was due to distance only and not due to themovement of the source toward or away from the observer. Only much later did I realize that the dark lineshift was a measurement of how long a time the photons involved had been traveling and was a measure ofhow the individual photons had changed.


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unit of structure in the universe. 3) Light from distant galaxies is affected by the motion of

the galaxy toward or away from the observer. 4) The universe began as a single dot that

exploded instantaneously. These assumptions may be disregarded and can be replaced by

other ones if one makes this step in recognizing that the photon is a complex entity that may

be compared to a star. The new understanding of the photon begins with a brief look at the

current scientific presentation of the electromagnetic spectrum.


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Part II: The Electromagnetic Spectrum and the Spectrum of Photons

The electromagnetic spectrum is a comparatively recent device that combines the

existing spectrum of light with what is known of electricity and magnetism. It is worthwhile

to briefly sketch that development over a period of centuries.

Isaac Newton was the one who first clearly demonstrated that a beam of white light,

such as sunlight, could be broken down into components of many colors. These

components could then be reassembled into white light. Newton theorized that light

consisted of tiny particles, which he called corpuscles. He theorized that the different

colored corpuscles traveled at different speeds and it allowed them to be separated out when

passed through the prism. The particles, or corpuscles, could not be distinguished and, as

time went on, the use of the concept of the corpuscle was discontinued.

A century or more after Newtons discovery, other scientists learned that the

spectrum of light extended far beyond visible light, both below it and above it, in the

spectrum. As mentioned earlier, in the 1840s, Doppler demonstrated that sound traveled in

waves. This concept of waves was thought to be useful in the understanding of light.

Scientists were able to establish wavelike behavior in all portions of the light spectrum.

Waves above visible light were shorter and more frequent. Waves below visible light were

longer and less frequent.

After Einstein equated mass and energy in his 1905 equations, it became necessary to

reinvent the concept of particles in relation to light. These new particles, or packets, were

given the name photon. Little or nothing has been learned about the nature of the photon

since its creation. At the same time, the use of wavelength and frequency became more and

more important as a means of describing the behavior of light.


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In the last century-and-a-half or so, a new phenomenon has been observed and

worked with: electricity. It was discovered that electricity could be developed from the

envelope of magnetism that surrounded the surface of the Earth. Electric generators were

said to cut the lines of force of the magnetic field surrounding the Earth. This electricity

could be carried in wires. It was learned that the electric current, in different circumstances,

could cause atoms or molecules to produce energy all along the light spectrum or spectrum

of photons. Because electricity could be used to create radiation all along the spectrum or

expanded spectrum of light, the two different phenomena of electricity and light were

combined into what is now called the electromagnetic spectrum. Combining electricity,

magnetism, and the light spectrum into a single spectrum proved immensely valuable in the

development of many different means of communication and generally human-useful

devices.

On the following page is a chart (See figure 1) depicting the modern view of the

electromagnetic spectrum. The Exploratorium in San Francisco put this chart together and

published it.2

In reducing the chart from wall-sized to page-sized, much of the fine print is

no longer legible. While the fine details of the chart are interesting and informative, it is not

germane to the needs of this paper. Looking at the inner ring of the chart, one sees the

wavelength measured out with the longest waves on the left and the shortest waves on the

right. The next circle above shows the frequency of waves. Here, the longest waves on the

left have the lowest frequency while the shortest waves on the right have the highest

frequency. Both ends of the spectrum run to the edge of the page. There is a lack of

definition of how long the longest waves may be or how short the shortest waves may be.

The lack of definite beginning and end of the spectrum is an important point to consider.

2 Used with permission.


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Figure 1. The modern view of the Electromagnetic Spectrum (Used with permission)


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The fourth ring out from the center is a large

dark band with a narrow rainbow of colors just

to the right of its center. This visible spectrum

shows that the visible light is a very small

portion of the entire spectrum. Moving out

from that rainbow of colors is a more or less

pyramid-shaped dark area above the visible

spectrum. That pyramid, or triangular shape,

represents the radiation band that the sun

produces and covers only a very small portion

of the spectrum. (See figure 2) While electric

energy applied to atoms can produce radiation

in all sections of the spectrum, sunlight is more

or less limited to the wavelengths included in

the triangle. It should be noted that this entire diagram of the spectrum is based on

wavelength and frequency. The diagram does not take into account the other characteristics

of the photon.

When wave motion is considered in air, water, or other liquid, the strongest or most

powerful waves are the largest ones with the longest wavelength. In the electromagnetic

spectrum, the shortest wavelengths are the strongest ones and the longest wavelengths are

the weakest. Clearly, some factor other than wavelength and frequency must be involved in

the production of high energy, short wavelength emissions in the electromagnetic spectrum.

Much of the difficulty with the theoretical concept of the electromagnetic spectrum

has to do with the combining of the spectrum of light with the electric phenomena

Figure 2. A close-up view of the

Electromagnetic Spectrums visible portion (Used

with permission)


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associated with magnetism. To resolve this difficulty, it will be helpful to separate the light

spectrum from the electric effect of magnetism. The spectrum of light will hereafter be

called the spectrum of photons. The spectrum of photons will be dealt with now and the

electric effect of magnetism will be dealt with in the next part of the paper.

The spectrum of photons will be considered in light of the following characteristics.

The introduction to this paper makes three assumptions regarding the nature of the photon.

The first of these assumptions states that the photon has as many component parts as there

are protons or atoms (as a scientist would call them) in a star. This assumption is based on

the observation that there are as many different kinds of photons as there are different sizes

or kinds of stars. This is consistent with Newtons view that light is composed of tiny

particles. But while he considers these different particles to be of different colors, it is more

realistic to think of them as being different in size. The eye is thought to respond to different

wavelengths of light, but it could be, in fact, responding to different sizes of photons. In the

visible spectrum, the smaller, lighter photons at the red end of the spectrum reflect back on

a two-way mirror while the heavier, blue end photons pass through the mirror. On the other

hand, if a range of visible photons enters a field of atoms that is essentially transparent, but

not completely so, then the blue end photons that are absorbed by the almost transparent

material. The heavier photons are pushed into the nucleus of the atom by gravity. Gravity

acts to both push and pull the photon, but that will be discussed later. While none of these

statements prove that there is a huge range of different weights and sizes of the photon, they

are logical conclusions considering its behavior.

The second assumption states that the photon goes through a life cycle: a creation,

an aging process, and finally, an end product that has few characteristics of an active photon.

The aging process of the photon is similar to the aging process of the star. A new star is


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bright with much blue light. Over eons of time, the star gradually changes the output of

photons from blue, through the rainbow colors, and then to red. Many, such as our sun, are

predominantly yellow with in their output, but there are stars that produce only red photons.

These ancient red stars tend to swell up as their structure changes from tightly packed

protons to loosely packed atoms. The photon goes through a similar aging process. The

biggest, heaviest photons have a life of probably about fifteen billion years. All other

photons have appropriately less life spans. This aging process results in what has become

known as the red shift of the dark line in the spectrum of distant galaxies. Hubble was

unable to relate the dark line shift to the aging of the star or galaxy because too little was

known of the process at the time. The dark line shift then is a product of the amount of time

that the photon has been traveling from that galaxy. Whether the galaxy is moving toward or

away from the observer is not relevant.

The third assumption in the introduction states that photons radiate. This

assumption is based on the fact that, in any light source, the photons tend to push against

each other and travel in all directions. The photons can push against all the other photons

only if it is emitting its own radiation of appropriate tiny size. A photon may radiate as many

particles in a given period of time as a star might emit photons in the same period. The

emissions of any particular photon are relevant to that photons size. The radiation differs

slightly from a photon of one size to a photon of a slightly different size. Photons that are

very nearly the same size will radiate substance that is acceptable to other photons of the

same size. Coherent light is not entirely without push against the other photons in the stream

of photons from a source. It is, however, much less of a push against photons of similar size

than it is against photons of any other size.


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While the assumptions about the nature of the photon and the observations that

tend to support these views have been made, there are other factors about the photon to be

considered.

The size of the photon has been discussed but not the shape of the photon and one

must consider its shape.

By definition, the hot objects in the universe have active components. The forces

around them shape these components and, most often, this leads them to be spherical. The

exception to this is when the object is rotating on its axis at a high speed. In that case, the

sphere turns more and more into a disc shape. At the equator, the object expands while it

tends to contract at the poles. When this principle is applied to the photon, the largest and

heaviest protons in the upper ranges of the spectrum have the fastest rate of spin and tend

to be disc-shaped. As the high-end photon ages, the disc shape becomes smaller. At the

lower end of the spectrum, the photon is spherical or nearly so. The component substance

of the photon has been radiated off over periods of millions or billions of years. (See figure

3)

For example, polarizing lenses sort the disc shape of visible light. Those discs, which

seem to be horizontal in orientation, may pass though the polarizing filter while those with a

vertical orientation do not.


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Figure 3. The shapes of a photon as it ages.

In addition to rotation on the axis of the disc, the photon may also rotate on a

second axis. The second axis would be through the long distance of the photon and would

be in line with the direction of travel. This rotation on the secondary axis is called twist to

distinguish it from the spin on the primary axis. (See figure 4) This twist movement may

appear in two-dimensional representations as a sin wave or a light wave. Different

characteristics of the photon have been discussed. These different aspects are based on the

overall behavior of light when that light is seen in terms of the photon.


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Figure 4. Axes of a photon

Using the Earth as an example, it rotates (spins) on its polar axis once everyday. The

Earth tilts back and forth on an equatorial axis once a year. The tilting back and forth on the

axis was caused by a swarm of large meteors that impacted the Earth, which realigned the

heavy Earth elements several billion years ago.

The photon rotates (spins) on an A-B axis millions of times a second. On one side of

the axis, the spin is in the direction of travel of the photon. On the other side of the axis, the

direction of spin is opposite the direction of travel. The imbalance of spin results in the

twisting motion along the C-D axis. The rate of twist on the C-D axis is recognized as the

wave frequency in present usage. The distance traveled in one complete twist is the

wavelength.


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Part III Components of the Universe

Part II focused on the photon and determining its physical characteristics by taking

what is known of the behavior of the photon and using reason to find what physical

characteristics might have made that behavior possible. Part III deals with half a dozen

major components of the universe ranging from very large in size to very small. These

components are 1) the galaxy, 2) the star, 3) the proton, 4) the photon, and then two new

particles labeled 5) the magon and 6) the gravit. Discussion of the latter two particles will

come later.

The first component, the galaxy, is by far the largest in the universe. Galaxies as

much as two million light years in diameter have been observed. The galaxies are not only

very large, but also very numerous. No matter what direction one looks in space, there are

galaxies as far out as the eye, with the aid of a telescope, can see. Most of these galaxies

commonly have a disc like shape with a bulge at the center or, in some cases, two centers

that are separated on a common point. The galaxies are known to be in the business of

manufacturing stars. A single galaxy can contain millions of stars, all of which radiate from

the center of the galaxy. If one reasons from what is known of the physical characteristics of

the galaxy, then the operation of the galaxy can be determined.

Since all of the galaxies have a definite size, what limits the size of a galaxy? It would

appear that the individual stars in the galaxy use up their fuel content, or the protons that

make up the stars, and becomes a colder object that does not give off light. In the process, a

star may also change from being composed of protons into being composed of atoms. The

atom, such as those that make up the Earth and the other planets, are an intermediate stage

where the atoms contain some energy, but far less than the protons that make up a star.

These cold, lifeless stars continue to expand beyond the visible galaxy. Whether they are the


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size of a star or as tiny as a photon, these particles continue to lose their heat value until they

reach the absolute zero. When approaching the absolute zero mark, it is known that atoms

lose their ability to stay together as a unit and easily separate into what must be photons or

even magons. Gravity pushes these intergalactic particles out from the galaxy at speeds far

exceeding the speed of light. This process will be explained later after the other universe

components are discussed.

As mentioned earlier, stars form in the hub of the galaxy. As the star forms, its speed

reduces from an excess of the speed of light down to the speed that stars are known to

travel. The stars created may be large or small depending on the amount of material available

at the time they are formed. Some stars as small as the Earth, for example, may be created,

but quickly burn out and are not obvious, though, in recent years, scientists have been

detecting the presence of planetary objects around stars. Other stars may be formed close

together and will form a pair that circulates around a common center.

What all of these stars have in common is that they are all made of protons. They

might even be called super-protons because they are made of photons that have a much

greater energy than the photons that make up the protons here on Earth. Earthly protons

have a very low energy content.

The stars maintain a more or less spherical shape because they spin slowly on their

polar or A-B axis. They are said to release its energy by an atomic reaction where two

hydrogen atoms combine to form a helium atom. A more likely prospect is that the super-

protons that make up the star self-destruct or, when given an added impulse from the

exploding proton above it, proceeds to convert almost all of its energy into photons. A star,

such as the sun, may trap a few fragments of the super-proton. It then uses a device to pull


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out those fragments and scatter them into space. Otherwise, they might eventually clog up

the system of continual radiation that is carried out by the star.

Photons radiate out in all directions when a proton on the surface of the star self-

destructs. Half of the radiation is aimed back at the star itself. It is this force that keeps the

star in containment. The force of gravity alone would be nowhere near enough to keep the

contents of the star contained. If it is understood that the self-destructing proton sends

photons in every direction, then it is understandable that the photons leaving the star travel

at the same speed. That speed is independent of the speed of the star. The direction that the

star or galaxy is traveling has no bearing on the dark line shift of the spectrum of that

particular star. Only the amount of time that the photon has been traveling determines the

shift in the black lines.

It has been observed that not all stars have the same spectrographic imprint. Newer

stars that are closer to the hub of the galaxy have a distinct blue color to them. Other stars

are yellow and some are red. This aging process continues as the star moves away from the

center or hub of the galaxy. Finally, at some point, the star exhausts its content of super-

protons and converts to a body made up of atoms. Such a star becomes a dark body or a

black body and will continue to move away from the galaxy in the plane of the galaxy as well.

In discussing the makeup of the star, the protons constituting it are spoken of as

super-protons. This seems a logical assumption when one sees that the stars energy in the

form of photons comes from the middle or upper range of the photon spectrum. In other

words, photons of the more powerful variety make up the protons of the star. The sun, for

example, puts out very little energy below the infrared range.

Part of the process of the making a star includes causing the outer layer of super-

protons to self-destruct, initiating a process that goes on for billions of years. In the case of a


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very small star, such as one that is the size of Earth or the inner planets, they burn up their

super-protons very quickly and are reduced to a cold, hard shell that very gradually continues

to reduce the amount of heat in the interior. The photons that make up the atoms have a

very low energy content, such as the ones on Earth. As they move out into space beyond the

galaxy, they lose whatever energy they might have.

Part II of the paper discusses the physical characteristics of the photon. At the upper

end of the spectrum of photons, one sees the photons to be large, disc-shaped, and twisting

at a great rate. At the opposite end, they are seen as being small, more or less spherical as the

center of the larger photon would have been, and twisting at a much slower rate.

In addition, the speeds of the photons vary. The high-end photon travels faster than

the one that eventually becomes part of an atom. The difference in speed of the great

majority of photons is very slight by human standards. For example, when one discovers a

nova, or an exploding star, the first light from it is heavily in the blue sector. As time goes

on, the other colors appear until finally the red color is the last of the visible spectrum to be

seen. The reason the colors are spread out in that fashion has nothing to do with gravity, but

with the speed of the different colors of light. As Newton suggested, each color of light has

its own speed. If one compares how long it takes to full brightness compared to the distance

away of the star, a difference in speed between blue light and red light is four meters per

second. As one goes down the spectrum to the range of long radio waves, they are

measurably slower than the visual photons.

The introduction states that the photon has as many components as there are

protons in a star. This gets down to a size far below whatever the human sensory system

could respond to. These component parts of the photon have been labeled magons

because they are the substance of magnetism. They compose a photon much the way that


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protons compose a star. The magons on the surface of the photon may self-destruct in

much the way that the super-protons do in a star. When they self-destruct on the surface, the

magons produce gravits, the substance of gravity. These gravits travel at speeds far, far

beyond the speed of light. They are exceedingly small, but make up for their size by their

vast numbers. The magons on the surface of the photon are happy to create gravits and

speed the photon on its way.

The question arises, what happens when a photon is created and is trapped in a space

where it cannot move and is under extremely high pressure? In this instance, the magons

sort of slough off from the photon and gather in little clusters. These clusters of magons are

known as magnetism. They have little traveling power of their own, but are pushed and

pulled by other forces. In the case of the Earth, the pressure leads these magon clusters to a

weak spot in the crust where they leave the Earth, but are then subject to bombardment by

gravits from outer space. This causes them to flow back over the Earth and eventually

become part of the Earths mantle.

Gravits are seen as exceedingly tiny and exceedingly speedy little objects. One of the

first observations to be made of gravits is that they have the photon as their source; where

there are more photons, there is more gravity. Gravits tend to fly off in a straight line, but

soon they meet another gravit and the two collide. Every time there is a collision, there is a

change of direction for the two gravits involved. This leads to the situation where gravits are

going in all directions at any given moment. However, where there is more light, the gravits

will be thicker. Since the most light is in the galaxy, the effect of gravity is to push very

slightly everything away from the galaxys center. In Part IV, the paper will show how all

these components of the universe interact and make a complete system.


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Part IV Bringing it all Together: How the Universe Works on a Day-to-Day Basis

Before describing how the universe works, it is best to review what has gone before.

Here are some of the basic points:

1) The introduction asserted that the universe does not have to conform to what isknowable though the human senses; limiting the universe to that knowledge is

the same kind of mistake as assuming that the Earth is the center of the universe.

2) In recent years, electricity and magnetism have been combined with the spectrumof photons to form the electromagnetic spectrum. This confuses the issue.

Magnetism and electricity are a different level of behavior all together from that

of photons. This paper treats the spectrum of photons separately.

3) Reasoning from what is known of the behavior of light or photons, this paperproduces a physical description of the photon. The photons size varies from a

large, disc-shaped body at the high end to a small, spherical body at the lower

end of the spectrum. The photon ages from the large, disc-shaped to the small,

spherical-shaped over a period of millions or even billions of years.

4) Going to the largest objects in the universe, the previous parts of the paper usesreason from the observed physical aspects of the galaxy to make inferences about

how the galaxy might behave. One may conceive the galaxy as a huge factory that

recycles old, worn out parts and produces new, high-energy stars. They construct

stars of high potency protons, not of the worn down type of proton that exists in

atoms and molecules. These are called super-protons to distinguish them from

the protons of atoms.

5) Photons of the higher end of the photon spectrum make up the stars super-protons. Stars radiate only a very minimal amount of low-end photons.


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6) The photon consists of as many sub-parts or components as there are super-protons in a star. The photons components are named magon because they

are the essential substance of magnetism. The surface of the proton causes

magons to radiate just as the surface of the star causes photons to radiate. The

radiation from the photon is the essence of gravity and has been labeled

gravits.

With all of these reasoned assumptions at hand, it is time to put order to the

universe. The chart on the following page illustrates the universes six major components.

(Please see figure 5) Since there is no way of showing the huge disparity of size, these

components are simply ranked from largest to smallest and fall in one of two groups. The

first group, starting with the galaxy, is called structors. The structor may either be a

constructor or a destructor. In the case of the galaxy, it is both a constructor and a

destructor. The other group is labeled travelers because they seem to have a great deal of

motion compared to the structors. The structors are the galaxy, proton, and magon. The

travelers are star, photon, and gravit.


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Figure 5. The Six Components of the Universe


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Starting from the top of the chart, the galaxy consists of a little bit of everything else

in the universe, but a major component of the galaxy and the product of the galaxy is the

star. Super-protons, in turn, make up the star and consist of high potency photons. The

photons are composed of magons and these, in turn, radiate gravits. Because of this

radiation, where there is more light, there is more gravity. The most light and the most

gravity are within the galaxy.

The photons and the gravits spread out as they travel. Gravits spread out in all

directions from every photon and every photon spreads out from the star from which it

came. While the photon continues on past the boundary of the galaxy and, even in

intergalactic space, it continues to radiate gravits. Light radiates in all directions from the

galaxy, but it is strongest or in greatest concentration in the plane of the galaxy. This may not

be readily evident because much dark matter material is also in this galactic plane and may

obscure the light. Yet, at the same time, this light is pushing the dark matter and dark energy

away from the galaxy. The so-called dark matter and dark energy are substances that have

lost all of their internal heat and are approaching absolute zero. At that temperature or even

colder, the particles of matter or energy no longer have the power to pull together. The

particles of dark matter or dark energy may retain their shape because they have no other

option.

When the opportunity does present itself, they will separate into their many

components even down to the level of the magon or the gravit and perhaps some portion of

photons. This mixture of gravits, magons, photons, and remains of protons and even of

stars continues to move outward in the plane of the galaxy until it crosses the radiation

emanating from the plane of a different galaxy. This mixture may travel outward in the plane

of the galaxy for even billions of years.


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One or more gigantic vortexes form when emanations from one galaxy cross the

path of emanations from another galaxy. These vortexes are the beginning of a new galaxy.

These vortexes, like the whirlpool in a stream, pull the fine matter in toward the center of

the vortex and cause it to speed up. This matter moves at a far greater speed than the speed

of light. As the vortex pulls these minute particles in, they condense and form photons. The

speed of the minute particles converts to potential. These photons then move away from the

center of the vortex and condense into protons. They again exchange speed for potential.

The protons that are created consist of high-energy type. That is, the photons composing the

proton are the more powerful photons. As the super-protons move out from the center of

the vortex, they condense into stars. The size of the star depends on the amount of material

available at the time of its formation. As the star forms, it becomes much larger and is

thrown out from the center of the vortex even farther than the photons and the super-

protons. As the star moves out from the center, by some process, it ignites on its surface and

holds together by the continual destruction happening on its surface.

So, the galaxy takes all the worn out material, places it into a vortex that, more or

less, rejuvenates the material, and makes it over into high-energy stars. The process

continues on down the line until the star produces photons that in turn produce gravits. This

relationship can be shown in the following equation:3

The sum of the substance of a star (or super-protons)/the speed of the star2 =

The sum of the substance of a photon (or magons)/the speed of the photons2 =

The sum of the substance of a gravit/the speed of the gravit2

This equation takes Einsteins original matter = energy equation one-step further to

include gravity. Also, the substance of a star substitutes for matter in this equation. In

3 Letters or symbols may be substituted for the words in the equation.


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elementary algebra, if a=b and if b=c, then c=a, then this complete circle illustrates the

continual renewing process of universe over billions of years. So, one winds up with a

universe that one cannot the see the end of and a process one cannot know the beginning of

or the end of.

In the chart of the six major elements of the universe, the atom and the molecule

were set to one side of the proton. (The atoms and molecules appear as part of the aging

process of the proton.) A proton ages when the photons that makes up the proton ages. As

mentioned earlier, the top-end or high-energy photon is large, relatively disc-shaped while

the aged and worn down ones are small spheres. Atoms can only be made from these worn

out protons and form the protons of atoms. These protons are as more or less spherical in

shape. Fragments of protons that fill the space between the protons in an atom are

recognized as neutrons.

The third component of the atom is the magon cluster. These clusters form an

atmosphere or envelope around the nucleus of the atom and also permeate through the

nucleus. The forth component of the atom is the electron, a particle composed of photons

that are somewhat more active than the photons that make up a proton. The electrons circle

the nucleus just outside of the envelope or atmosphere of magon clusters.

When a photon, light, or energy crashes into an atom in everyday life, it is somewhat

comparable to a shooting star or a spec of dust that enters the Earths atmosphere. It shows

up as a bright light as the dust particle burns or converts to atoms. When the photon

traveling at the speed of 300,000 kilometers per second crashes into the atmosphere of the

atom, its outer layers burn off as the photon circles through the magon cluster atmosphere.

It then reduces to a photon similar to the ones in the proton of the atom.


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The magons released into the atmosphere of the atom cause the atmosphere to swell.

A single photon would produce a negligible result, but millions or billions of photons would

cause the atmosphere to swell and then the circling electrons would dip into the atmosphere

and pick up magon clusters as it passed through it. This would cause some of the photons in

the electron to energize to a higher state and they would leave the atom. As an aside, if one

follows this line of reasoning, a battery could be conceived of as composed of atoms or

molecules that allow the expansion of the magon cluster atmosphere without being depleted

by the surrounding electrons. In other words, the electrons orbit would expand as the

atmospheric envelope expanded.

Magons have been put forward as the components of the photon. There is no hard

evidence to tell what the magon is like. One can only guess from the behavior of magnetism

that it is in the group of structors, not of the travelers. It can be pushed or pulled by other

forces, but it does not seem to have much mobility on its own account.

Surface magons of the photon convert to gravits that are exceedingly fast and

exceedingly tiny. They fill space both within and between galaxies. Thus, the circle is

completed and one sees the universe as a self-renewing entity.


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Part V Evidence and Tests That Will Support or Deny NuNu Mechanics Position

For many years, the speed of light has been treated as a constant. It is the contention

of this essay that each photon of light has its own speed. The differences in speed are not

great by human standards, but then the size of photons is not great by the same standards.

The best measure of the speed of light is when the light travels a long distance.

Earth-bound measures of the speed are extremely brief and do not take into account the

acceleration time. A slightly better measure would be calculating the amount of time to the

moon and back. Using a signal from a spacecraft at the outer reaches of the solar system

would be an even better measurement of speed. This spacecraft can send back information

signals at two disparate locations on the spectrum. The signal that is emitted from a higher

location on the spectrum would travel faster and begin to overlap the slower signal from

lower on the spectrum. Similarly, if the higher signal were issued first and then the lower

signal, the gap between the two signals would increase. The greater the distance traveled, the

greater the overlap or gap would be.

This essay has maintained that the size and shape of photons vary as well as the

speed. The larger, flatter, speedier photons are at the high end while the smaller, spherical,

and slower ones are at the lower end of the spectrum.

The evidence of the varying speeds of photons comes from the study of novas. In

1987, a nova was observed at an observatory in Chile. U.S. astronomers were anxious to

study the nova, but by the time they arrived at the Chilean observatory five days later, the

nova had reached maximum brightness and had begun to fade. The nova was determined to

be 875,000 light years away. The disappointed astronomers pointed out that other nova had

taken much longer to reach full brightness. They cited two examples that seemed to have the

best data. The first took fourteen days to full brightness and was 1.5 million light years away.


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The second took eighteen days to full brightness and was 2.0 million light years away. The

time to brightness and the distance away of the three novas are graphed in figure 6:

Figure 6. Chart of observed novas distance versus the number of days to full brightness

The days to full brightness is measured from the first awareness of the nova to full

brightness when all of the visual red is measured. There are unknowns such as how long a

time the novas were expanding before their discovery, but still, they show a great consistency

between time to brightness and distance. Doing the arithmetic, the blue light photons must

travel four meters a second faster than the red light photons. The other visual colors are

spread out between the blue and the red. These are tiny differences by human standards, but

lots of room for independent photons to travel without coming near the other photons.


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A further study of the correlation between time to brightness and distance are

needed. In January of 2008, the people at NASA announced that the Hubble Telescope had

observed a new nova. It was newsworthy because the Hubble observed the increasing

brightness in the ultraviolet before any change in the visible light could be recognized.

NASA gave no further details and told reporters to wait for the formal report for more

information. That report should be able to support or deny the position of this paper.

This paper has taken the position that magnetism is based on magons, the

components of photons. There are as many magons in a photon as there are protons in a

star. Magnetism occurs when free photons are created under a condition of extreme heat and

extremely high pressure, such as in the inner portions of the Earth. Because of the extremely

high pressure, the free photons cannot travel nor can they convert their surface magons into

gravits as would happen if they were traveling at roughly 300 million meters per second. The

surface magons lose their potency and are sloughed off in magon clusters. These clusters

migrate or are pushed into areas of least pressure. In the case of the Earth, a weak spot on

the outer shell allows the magon clusters to be forced out of the Earth. The clusters then

encounter gravits that spread the clusters around the Earths surface. Magon clusters are

recognized as magnetism.

General Electric Industries has experimented with high temperature, high-pressure

vessels for over fifty years. Other institutions have also been experimenting in this realm.

They have been able to produce conditions powerful enough to create diamonds. This

pressure should be enough to create magon clusters.

One problem is that the chambers of the device are so tiny. They might not be able

to create magon clusters that can reach the outside of the chamber. An extremely sensitive

gauge would be needed to detect their presence. The tungsten carbide chamber wall might


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absorb the clusters, unless the high heat and pressure were maintained for a lengthy period.

The magon clusters might escape the chamber along the seams of the plates that form the

chamber. If an electric current generates heat in the chamber, this current could also

produce magon clusters. Any measure of escaped magon clusters must avoid those clusters

caused by the electric current.

This paper has maintained that gravits, the substance of gravity, are produced by

photons as the photons age. Where there is more light, there is more gravity. In the universe,

the greatest amount of light is in the galaxies; hence, it has the greatest amount of gravity.

The greater the distance from the center of the galaxy, the more spread out light, hence

gravity, becomes. A downward slope is created so to speak; any object is moved away from

the center of the galaxy at an accelerated rate.

In the case of the Milky Way Galaxy, its center has been determined by astronomers

to be in the direction of, but well beyond the constellation Sagittarius. The center is not

observable because of the dark matter of various sorts that exists between the Earth and the

center of the galaxy.

One astronomer observed or calculated that the planets in the solar system are

closest to the sun when they are between the sun and the center of the galaxy. They are then

farthest from the sun when the sun is between the planet and the center of the galaxy. Other

astronomers have questioned this observation. If it turns out to be true that the planets are

closest to the sun when they are between the sun and center of the galaxy, this would be a

confirmation of the theory of gravity expressed in this paper. That is, gravity pushes objects

from the center of the universe, but photons and gravits from the sun counter the gravity

from the rest of the galaxy. If gravity, in fact, pushes the planets toward the sun when the

planets are between the sun and the center of the galaxy and away from the sun when the


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planet is opposite, then the same also may be true for the electrons that orbit a nucleus in an

atom.

Although we continue to discover new information about our own existence, we live

in a universe whose extent we cannot see, whose origin we cannot know, and whose purpose

remains a mystery.

nunu mechanics

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