nur irfah mohd pauzi

UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

NUR IRFAH MOHD PAUZI

FK 2013 129

CHARACTERIZATION OF DUMPING SOIL AND SETTLEMENT PREDICTION USING MONTE

CARLO APPROACH

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CHARACTERIZATION OF DUMPING SOIL AND

SETTLEMENT PREDICTION USING MONTE

CARLO APPROACH


DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

2013

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CHARACTERIZATION OF DUMPING SOIL AND SETTLEMENT

PREDICTION USING MONTE CARLO APPROACH

By

NUR IRFAH BINTI MOHD PAUZI

Thesis Submitted in Fulfillment of the Requirement for the

Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School

Universiti Putra Malaysia

April 2013

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Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfillment of

the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

CHARACTERIZATION OF DUMPING SOIL AND SETTLEMENT

PREDICTION USING MONTE CARLO APPROACH

By


APRIL 2013

Chairman : Professor Husaini Omar, Ph.D.

Faculty : Engineering

Failures at the dumping sites are usually associated with settlement. Differential

settlements of dumping soil cause leaking of methane gas to the air and infiltration of

leachate to the river which are dangerous to human and environment. Settlement of

dumping soil occurs for many years due to biodegradation process and creep. The

behaviors of dumping soil are to be investigated and characterized so that the settlement

could be predicted using Monte Carlo approaches. Dumping soil contains

heterogeneous material such as concrete debris, decayed wood, clay, silt, sand and

gravel. Dumping soil are characterize based on its characteristics such as Category I:

soil like and non soil like, Category II: waste types and Category III: waste or soil. The

importance of dumping soil characterization are that it helps the engineer to

differentiate between soil and non soil like, the types of waste and to determine whether

the soil mostly contains waste or soil. Settlement of dumping soil is very challenging to

be evaluated and modeled since the settlement are non-uniform due to the different

content of the soil. Waste materials were decomposed by the bacteria biodegrades the

organic content in the waste would cause settlement. The settlement rate is assumed to

be the amount of subsidence that is directly proportional to the amount of solids

solubilized. Five settlement models used to calculate the settlement of dumping soil at

Kuala Lumpur open dumping area were reviewed. These models are soil mechanics

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based model, Bjarngard and Edgers model, Power Creep function, hyperbolic function

and rheological function. These five models are simulated using Monte Carlo

approaches. Monte Carlo simulation is a method employed an algorithm that must be

used with repeated random sampling of uncertainty for ca. 50-5000 number of iterations

in order to obtain the parameters such as primary compression ratio (Cc*), secondary

compression ratio (C𝛼), compressive stress(Δ𝜎) and ultimate settlement (Sult)of the soil

at the dumping area. It is predicted that the final settlement of dumping soil can settled

up to 20% to 30% of initial fill height. The expected outcome of the research is

settlement prediction model of closed dumping area for post-development using Monte

Carlo simulation. The predicted settlement by Monte Carlo simulation method could

save time and cost. It could also be used by geotechnical engineers to determine the

preliminary settlement. Moreover, it gives preliminary total settlement value for the

design engineer and decision maker to decide on the remedial works and the depth of

foundation level for post-development.

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Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai

memenuhi keperluan untuk Ijazah Doktor Falsafah

KRITERIA TANAH SISA DAN RAMALAN MENDAPAN TANAH

MENGGUNAKAN KAEDAH MONTE CARLO

Oleh


APRIL 2013

Pengerusi : Professor Husaini Omar, Ph.D.

Fakulti : Kujuruteraan

Kegagalan yang berlaku di tempat pelupusan sisa selalunya dikaitkan dengan

mendapan. Ketidakseimbangan mendapan tanah sisa boleh menyebabkan kebocoran gas

methane dan bahan larut resap daripada sisa buangan ke udara dan air yang boleh

mengancam nyawa manusia dan alam sekitar. Mendapan tanah sisa yang berlaku

selama beberapa tahun adalah disebabkan oleh proses biodegradasi dan rayap. Tindak

balas mendapan tanah sisa akan disiasat dan dikategorikan supaya mendapan tanah sisa

dapat diramal dengan menggunakan kaedah Monte Carlo. Tanah sisa mengandungi

bahan-bahan yang heterogenus seperti ketulan konkrit, kayu yang reput, tanah liat,

tanah kelodak, batu dan pasir. Berdasarkan kajian, tanah sisa boleh dikategorikan

kepada 3 categori mengikut kriteria yang terdapat pada tanah sisa tersebut iaitu Kategori

I: tanah dan bukan tanah, Kategori II: jenis sisa dan Kategori III: sisa atau tanah.

Kepentingan untuk menentukan kriteria tanah sisa ini adalah kerana ia membantu

jurutera untuk membezakan antara tanah atau bukan tanah, jenis sisa yang terdapat

dalam kandungan tanah itu dan untuk menentukan bahawa tanah itu mengandungi

paling banyak sisa atau tanah. Ia juga akan menjadikan satu ketentuan bahawa tanah

tersebut adalah jenis tanah sisa dengan 3 jenis kategori tadi. Mendapan tanah sisa adalah

paling mencabar untuk dinilai dan dimodel kerana mendapan tanah tersebut tidak sekata

oleh kerana kandungan yang heterogenus di dalam tanah sisa itu. Tanah sisa akan

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dibiokomposkan oleh bakteria dengan proses biodegradasi bahan organik di tanah sisa

yang boleh menyebabkan berlakunya mendapan. Kadar mendapan tanah sisa adalah

dianggarkan sama dengan kadar penurunan di mana ia berkadar terus dengan

kandungan pepejal yang larut/terbiodegradasi. Terdapat lima jenis model mendapan

tanah sisa yang telah dikenalpasti untuk mengira medapan tanah sisa di kawasan

pembuangan terbuka di Kuala Lumpur. Model-model tersebut adalah Model

berdasarkan Mekanik Tanah, Model Bjarngard dan Edgers, Fungsi Kuasa Rayap,

Fungsi Hiperbolik dan Fungsi Reologi. Kelima-lima model tersebut disimulasikan

menggunakan kaedah simulasi Monte Carlo. Kaedah Monte Carlo yang menggunakan

konsep algoritma diaplikasikan bersama sampel rawak yang berulang untuk

menentukan parameter ketidakpastian pada 50-5000 nombor iterasi supaya parameter

seperti nisbah kompresi primer (Cc*), nisbah kompresi sekunder (C𝛼), tekanan

kompresif (Δ𝜎) dan mendapan tertinggi(Sult) pada tanah sisa dapat ditentukan. Ianya

diramalkan bahawa mendapan terakhir untuk tanah sisa boleh mencapai sehingga 20%

ke 30% daripada tinggi tanah tambus yang asal.Hasil daripada penyelidikan ini adalah

model ramalan mendapan tanah sisa untuk tapak pembuangan yang telah tutup supaya

boleh digunakan untuk pembangunan yang baru dengan menggunakan kaedah simulasi

Monte Carlo. Ramalan mendapan menggunakan kaedah simulasi Monte Carlo telah

menjimatkan masa dan kos untuk menentukan mendapan tanah sisa di tapak

pembuangan sisa terbuka. Ia juga boleh digunakan oleh jurutera geoteknik untuk

menentukan mendapan awal. Disamping itu, ia juga memberikan nilai mendapan awal

tanah untuk jurutera pereka dan pembuat keputusan dalam menentukan kerja-kerja

pembaik pulih yang boleh dilakukan sebelum pembangunan yang baru boleh

dilaksanakan.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, praise is due to Allah almighty with his compassion and mercifulness that

allowing me to finish this PhD studies within the time frame given. I would like to

acknowledge Universiti Tenaga Nasional for my scholarship (2010 -2013), which gave

me the opportunity to obtain PhD in Geotechnical and Geological Engineering in UPM.

Special appreciation goes to my supervisory committee, Prof Dr Husaini Omar, Prof Dr

Bujang Kim Huat, Dr Zainuddin Md Yusoff, and Dr Halina Misran for the supervisions

and constant support. Their invaluable help of constructive comments and suggestions

throughout the experimental and thesis works have contributed to the success of this

research. Sincere big thanks to all my lecturers at UPM and my colleagues at Civil

Engineering Department, UNITEN. Special thanks to all my friends in PhD/Master

course at Faculty of Engineering for their kindness and moral support.

Last but not least, my deepest gratitude goes to my beloved parents, Mohd Pauzi Abdul

Hamid, Dr Nik Nawal Nik Mohd Adeeb, and especially my husband, Mohd Shahril Mat

Radhi and our daughter, Nurul Izzah Sofea for their endless love, prayers and

encouragement. Thank you.

Nur Irfah Mohd Pauzi

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I certify that an Examination Committee met on 1st April 2013 to conduct the final

examination of Nur Irfah Mohd Pauzi on her thesis entitled “Characterization of

Dumping Soil and Settlement Prediction using Monte Carlo Approach” in accordance

with the Universities and University Colleges Act 1971 and Constitution of the

Universiti Putra Malaysia [P.U.(A) 106] 15 March 1998. The Committee recommends

that the students be awarded the Doctor of Philosophy.

Members of the Thesis Examination Committee were as follows:

Shattri Mansor, PhD

Professor

Faculty of Engineering


(Chairman)

Thamer Ahmed Mohamed, PhD

Professor



(Internal Examiner)

Ratnasamy Muniandy, PhD

Professor



(Internal Examiner)

Vernon Schaefer, PhD

Professor

College of Engineering,

Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering

Iowa State University of Science and Technology

United States of America

(External Examiner)

________________________

NORITAH OMAR, PhD. Associate Professor and Deputy Dean

School of Graduate Studies


Date: 19th September 2013

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This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been

accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The

members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows:

Husaini Omar, PhD

Professor,

Faculty of Engineering,


(Chairman)

Bujang Kim Huat, PhD

Professor and Dean,

School of Graduate Studies,


(Member)

Zainuddin Mohd Yusof, PhD

Faculty of Engineering,


(Member)

Halina Misran, PhD

Mechanical Engineering Department,

University Tenaga Nasional

(Member)

_______________________

NORITAH OMAR, PhD. Associate Professor and Deputy Dean

School of Graduate Studies



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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for quotations and

citations which have been duly acknowledge. I also declare that it has not been

previously and is not concurrently, submitted for any other degree at Universiti Putra

Malaysia or at any other institution.

________________________



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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT ii

ABSTRAK iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vi

APPROVAL SHEETS vii

DECLARATION ix

LIST OF TABLES xiv

LIST OF FIGURES xvii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxvi

CHAPTER

1. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 General Background 1

1.2 Problem Statement 5

1.3 Research Aims and Objectives 7

1.4 Scope and Limitation 8

1.5 Significance of Study 9

1.6 Expected Outcome of the Research 10

1.7 Thesis Organization 10

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 13

2.1 Introduction 13

2.2 Composition of Dumping Soil 16

2.2.1 Composition of Dumping Soil in Malaysia 16

2.2.2 Composition of Dumping Soil in Asian Region 19

2.2.3 Composition of Dumping Soil in European and US 21

2.3 Comparison between Landfill and Open Dumping Method 24

2.4 Settlement Scenario at Landfill/Open Dumping Area 26

2.5 Dumping Soil Geotechnical Engineering Properties 30

2.6 Waste Classification System 31

2.7 Particle Size Distribution of Dumping Soil 34

2.8 Hydraulic Conductivity of Dumping Soil 36

2.9 Moisture Content 37

2.10 Compressibility 38

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2.10.1Primary Compression 40

2.10.2 Secondary Compression 41

2.10.3 Total Compression 42

2.11 Shear Strength of Dumping Soil 43

2.12 Settlement Model of Dumping Soil 46

2.12.1 Soil Mechanics Based Model 47

2.12.2 Empirical Model 49

2.12.3 Rheological Model 52

2.12.4 Settlement Model Incorporating Biodegradation 52

2.12.5 Constitutive Model for Long Term Prediction of 57

MSW Settlement

2.12.6 Numerical Model for Settlement Prediction 59

2.12.7 Monitoring and Modelling of Long Term Settlement 60

2.12.8Comparison of Settlement of Waste soil Model 61

Between Landfill and Open Dumping Method

2.12.9 Future Trends of Settlement Prediction 63

2.13 Integrated of Electrical Resistivity Method and Borehole 68

Logging for Determining the Heterogeneous Content of

Dumping Soil

2.14 Summary of Key Issues 75

3. METHODOLOGY 79

3.1 Introduction 79

3.2 Methodology of Research 79

3.3 Study Area 82

3.4 Site Investigation 84

3.4.1 Site Observation 88

3.4.2 Electrical Resistivity Method 94

3.5 Borehole Logging Method 96

3.6 Data Collection 97

3.7 Determination of Dumping Soil Characterizations 100

3.7.1 Category I and III: Determination of DS Composition 105

3.7.2 Category I and II: Determination of DS Specific 107

Gravity

3.7.3 Category II: Determination of DS Chemical 108

Composition

3.7.4 Category I: Determination of DS Compressibility 110

3.7.5 Category I and II: Determination of DS Shear 111

Strength

3.7.6 Category I: Determination of DS Compaction 112

3.7.7 Category I: Determination of DS Unconsolidated 115

Undrained

Triaxial Test

3.8 Statistical Analysis of Settlement Model Parameters of DS 117

3.9 Determination of Settlement Prediction of Dumping Soil using 118

Monte Carlo Simulation Approaches

3.9.1 Model Calibration of Monte Carlo Simulation 121

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3.9.2 Model Parameters of Settlement Predictions of DS 125

3.10 Validation of Dumping Soil Settlement Prediction 130

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 131

4.1 Introduction 131

4.2 Soil Sub-Surface Profile at Sri Hartamas Dumping Area 131

4.2.1 Borehole Logging Analysis 132

4.2.1.1 Analysis of BH1 134





4.2.1.6 Discussion on Borehole Logging 137

Interpretation

4.2.2 Electrical Resistivity 2D Imaging Analysis 139

4.2.2.1 Resistivity Analysis Line 1 139

4.2.2.2 Resistivity Analysis Line 2 142

4.2.2.3 Interpretive of Resistivity 2D image for 143

Line 1 and Line 2

4.3 Integrated Approach of Determining Heterogeneous Layers of 145

Dumping Area

4.4 Category I: Geotechnical Properties of Waste Soil 147

4.4.1 Category I and III: PSD Curve 148

4.4.2 Category I and II: Specific Gravity 152

4.4.3 Category II: Mineral Composition 154

4.4.4 Category I: Compressibility 174

4.4.5 Category I and II: Shear Strength 180

4.4.6 Category I: Compaction 188

4.4.7 Category I: Unconsolidated Undrained Triaxial 191

Strength

4.4.8 Normalization of Geotechnical Parameters 200

4.5 Statistical Approach of Settlement Parameters 202

4.5.1 Scatterplot Analysis of Settlement and PSD curve 204

4.5.2 Scatterplot Analysis of Settlement and Shear Strength 205

4.5.3 Scatterplot Analysis of Settlement and Compaction 206

4.5.4 Scatterplot Analysis of Settlement and Triaxial 207

Strength Parameters

4.5.5 Scatterplot Analysis of Settlement and Borehole 208

4.5.6 Scatterplot Analysis of Settlement and Electrical 209

Resistivity Data

4.5.7 Scatterplot Analysis of Settlement and Specific 210

Gravity

4.5.8 Scatterplot Analysis of Settlement and XRD 211

4.6 Statistical Modeling for Settlement of Dumping Soil 212

4.6.1 Soil Mechanics Based Model 213

4.6.2 Bjarngard and Edgers Model 218

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4.6.3 Power Creep Function 225

4.6.4 Hyperbolic Function Model 231

4.6.5 Rheological Model 237

4.7 Probability of Dumping Soil Settlement by Monte Carlo 243

Simulations Method

4.7.1 Settlement Prediction by Soil Mechanics Based 244

Model

4.7.2 Settlement Prediction by Bjarngard and Edgers Model 252

4.7.3 Settlement Prediction by Power Creep Function 259

4.7.4 Settlement Prediction by Hyperbolic Function 265

4.7.5Settlement Prediction by Rheological Model 272

4.8 Validation of Predicted Settlement by Monte Carlo 278

Simulations

4.8.1 Monte Carlo Simulations and Excel Spreadsheet 279

4.8.2 Monte Carlo Simulation and Others Model for 281

Prediction of waste settlement

4.9 Summary on Settlement Prediction by Monte Carlo 289

Simulation

4.10 Characterization of Dumping Soil 292

4.11 Settlement Evaluation Statement and Risk Level 302

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 307

5.1 Conclusions 307

5.2 Major Findings 309

5.2.1 Characterization of Dumping Soil 309

5.2.2 Total Settlement of Dumping Soil 310

5.2.3 Settlement Prediction of Dumping Soil by Monte 312

Carlo Simulation Method

5.3 Minor Findings 314

5.3.1 Statistical Approach in Determining Factors 314

Influencing Settlement

5.3.2 Risk Level and Suggestion Work 315

5.4 Future Studies 316

REFERENCES 317

APPENDIX 1: SIEVE ANALYSIS TEST 324

APPENDIX 2: SPECIFIC GRAVITY 328

APPENDIX 3: CONSOLIDATION TEST 330

APPENDIX 4: DIRECT SHEAR TEST 334

APPENDIX 5: COMPACTION TEST 344

APPENDIX 6: TRIAXIAL TEST 347

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APPENDIX 7: HAND AUGER METHOD AT BUKIT CHUPING 352

BIODATA OF STUDENTS 355

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 359

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

2.1 Types and number of disposal site in Malaysia 15

2.2 Average composition of weight percentage of components in MSW 18

Generates by various sources in Kuala Lumpur

2.3 Waste composition from various Asian countries 21

2.4 Percentage of Five Major Components of MSW in various countries 21

2.5 Percentage of Five Major Components of MSW in UK, European 24

Countries and United States of America

2.6 Description of class category 24

2.7 Waste Components for Classification 32

2.8 Classification system of dumping soil 34

2.9 Waste compression mechanisms and factors controlling magnitude of 38

settlement

2.10 Secondary parameters for MSW materials 42

2.11 Measured shear strength parameters from Literature Review 44

2.12 Review of methods for measuring shear behavior of MSW 45

2.13 Comparison of Settlement of Waste Model for Landfill and Open 62

Dumping

2.14 Settlement model and software for settlement prediction 65

2.15 Electrical resistivity range for different types of formation 71

3.1 Total numbers of samples for dumping soil characterizations from 100

Dumping area Sri Hartamas and Bukit Chuping area

3.2 Classification of dumping soil 103

3.3 Monte Carlo simulations by Risk Amp software at N=50 number of 120

iterations

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3.4 Settlement value, mean and standard deviation of the calibration model 124

3.5 Comparison of Monte Carlo approach and Excel Spreadsheet 125

3.6 Monte Carlo parameters for Soil Mechanics Based Model 126

3.7 Monte Carlo parameters for Bjarngard and Edgers model 127

3.8 Monte Carlo parameters for Power Creep Function 128

3.9 Monte Carlo parameters for Hyperbolic Function Model 128

3.10 Monte Carlo parameters for Rheological Model 129

4.1 Borehole number, depth, SPT and standing water level 133

4.2 Electrical resistivity range for different types of formation 141

4.3 Sub-surface profiles of Line 1 141

4.4 Sub-surface profiles of Line 2 144

4.5 Grain size for different types of soil 148

4.6 Average soil composition of dumping soil and normal soil 148

4.7 Average Coefficient of uniformity and coefficient of curvature for 150

dumping soil

4.8 Coefficient of uniformity and coefficient of curvature for normal soil 151

4.9 Composition of Dumping Soil in Sri Hartamas Dumping Area 152

4.10 Specific gravity data 153

4.11 General specific gravity of soils 154

4.12 Percent by weight of mineral composition in SHL 1 sample 160



4.15 Percent by weight of mineral composition in BK 1 sample 169



4.18 Compressibility of Dumping Soil at 0.03kN Loading 176

4.19 Compressibility of Dumping Soil at 0.05 kN Loading 176



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4.22 Typical measurement of Shear Displacement, Normal Displacement and 181

Proving Ring Dial of Dumping Soil

4.23 Shear Strength parameters for WS and NS 183

4.24 Deformation and Deviator Stress Data at σ3= 40 kN/m2 191




4.28 Triaxial Data on Minor Principal Stress, Maximum Deviator Stress and 195

Maximum Deviator Stress and Major Principal Stress

4.29 The undrained strength parameters of dumping soil, normal soil, and fresh 200

Landfill soil based on triaxial testing.

4.30 Normalization Data Analysis 201

4.31 Scatterplot Parameters Relating to Settlement 203

4.32 Statistical parameters for Soil Mechanics Based Model 216

4.33 Statistical parameters for Bjarngard and Edgers model 222

4.34 Statistical parameters for Power Creep Function 229

4.35 Statistical parameters for Hyperbolic Function Model 235

4.36 Statistical parameters for Rheological Model 240

4.37 Monte Carlo simulation of Soil Mechanics Based Model 245

4.38 Monte Carlo simulation of Bjarngard and Edgers model 253

4.39 Monte Carlo simulation of Power Creep function 260

4.40 Monte Carlo simulation of Hyperbolic function 266

4.41 Monte Carlo simulation of Rheological Model 273

4.42 Comparison of Monte Carlo simulation prediction and 279

Excel Spreadsheet

4.43 Soil Engineering Parameters from Published Settlement Model 283

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4.44 Monte Carlo simulation to determine total settlement of open dumping 285

4.45 Percentage difference between Monte Carlo simulation model and 287

published settlement model

4.46 Category I: Non-Soil like Behavior 293

4.47 Category I: Soil Like Behavior 294

4.48 Category II: Waste Types 295

4.49 Category III: Soil or Waste Types 295

4.50 Category I: Soil like or non soil like of Sri Hartamas Dumping Soil 296

4.51 Category I: Soil like or non soil like of Sri Hartamas Dumping Soil 297

4.52 Category II: Waste Types of Sri Hartamas Dumping Soil 299

4.53 Category II: Waste Types of Sri Hartamas Dumping Soil 300

4.54 Category III: Soil or Waste Types of Sri Hartamas Soil and Bukit Chuping 301

Soil

4.55 Settlement Evaluation Statement and Level of Risk 302

4.56 Suggestion work for Settlement of Dumping Soil 304

4.57 Total settlement and level of risk of open dumping area, Sri Hartamas, 305

Kuala Lumpur by Statistical Method at N=16

4.58 Total settlement and level of risk of open dumping area, Sri Hartamas, 306

Kuala Lumpur by Monte Carlo Simulation at N=50

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

2.1 The illegal dumping of waste which was left lying in Jalan Besar Medan 14

Medan Selera Bendahara, Batu Caves

2.2 Construction wastes are the main component in the illegal dumping waste 19

2.3 Composition of UK MSW (1935-2000)

2.4 Settlement on the pavement surface at the parking lot of Tampa, Florida 27

USA

2.5 No settlement or sign of distress on the garden of the reused landfill, 27

City of Tampa, Florida, USA

2.6 Erosion and settlement clearance at Hanes Mill, Landfill, USA 28

2.7 Settlement of man-made landfill in 1986 due to earthquake at Marina, 29

USA

2.8 Settlement of man-made landfill in 1986 due to earthquake at Marina, 30

USA

2.9 Typical gradation curve for shredded municipal solid waste 35

2.10 Electrical resistivity method used to detect contaminated plume in a 74

dumping soil (a) 2D electrical mapping which was accumulated for 5 years

in Pera Galini, Greece (b) 2D electrical mapping which was accumulated

for 8 years in Pera Galini, Greece

3.1 Methodology of the Research 80

3.2 Waste disposal area in Peninsular Malaysia 83

3.3 Site location of Sri Hartamas open dumping area 85

3.4 Topography of the Study Area 86

3.5 Study area (a) hydrogeological map and (b) location in Peninsular 87

Malaysia Map

3.6 Location of collected samples at Bukit Chuping, Perlis 88

3.7 Layout plan and the locations of leachate and water ponding of open 90

dumping of Kuala Lumpur area

3.8 Cavity area at the cut slopes beside the landfill area (a) Cavity area 91

from a distance (b) Closed view of cavity area (c) Cavity area has been

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filled with wood from construction materials and (d) No groundwater

is observed inside the cavity.

3.9 Cloudy water at the dumping area (a) The location of the cloudy water, 92

(b) Cloudy water leaking from under surface, (c) Contaminated water

3.10 Excavated area, (a) excavated area located on the left of the dumping site 93

from the entrance, (b) the excavated area filled with water, (c) and (d)

closed view of excavated area

3.11 Layout plan and electrical resistivity Line 1 and Line 2 95

3.12 Site Investigation Plan Map in open dumping Sri Hartamas, KL, 97

Malaysia

3.13 Location of the collected sample with the sampling grid at open dumping 99

Sri Hartamas, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

3.14 Grid point method of sampling for Sample Location 1 99

3.15 Dumping Soil (Sri Hartamas, Dumping Area, Kuala Lumpur) 102

3.16 Normal Soil Sample (Bukit Chuping, Not Dumping area, Perlis) 102

3.17 Gold coated soil samples 109

3.18 Procedure of chemical composition determination using SEM-EDX 109

3.19 Compaction test apparatus using Standard Proctor Test 114

3.20 Compaction curve for fresh municipal solid waste 114

3.21 Calibration simulation of N=50 for SMBM model 121





4.1 Water movement on the layout plan based on contour of the plan 133

4.2 Sub-surface profiles of dumping soil layers in BH2, BH3 and BH4 at 137

Sri Hartamas dumping area

4.3 Sub-surface profiles of dumping soil layers in BH1, BH3 and BH5 at 138

Sri Hartamas, dumping area

4.4 Resistivity 2D image for Line 1 140

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4.5 Resistivity 2D image for Line 2 143

4.6 Comparison between borehole BH 5 and electrical resistivity for Line 1 146

And Line 2

4.7 Particle size distribution of dumping soil 150

4.8 Particle size distribution of dumping soil and normal soil 151

4.9 Scanning Electron Microscope Image of SHL 1 sample 155



4.12 Scanning Electron Microscope Image of BK 1 sample 157



4.15 XRD analysis on mineral composition in Sample SHL 1 for 159

Spectrum 1 to Spectrum 4








Spectrum 6





4.22 XRD analysis on mineral composition in Sample BK 1 for 167








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4.27 Displacement versus Square Root of Time for SHL 1 178



4.30 Displacement versus Square Root of Time for Normal Soil and 179

And Dumping Soil (WS)

4.31 Shear stress vs. Shear Displacement for Dumping Soil 185

4.32 Shear stress vs. Shear Displacement for Normal Soil 186

4.33 Shear stress vs. Shear Displacement for NS and WS 186

4.34 Shear stress vs. Strain for WS 187

4.35 Shear stress vs. Strain for NS 187

4.36 Shear stress vs. Strain for NS and WS 188

4.37 Compaction curve of dumping soil 189

4.38 Compaction curve for two different soils such as Dumping Soil (SHL 1, 190

SHL 2, SHL 3) and Normal Soil (BK1, BK2, BK3)

4.39 Mohr’s circle of waste soil (SHL 1) with σ3 = 60 kPa, σ3 = 80 kPa and 196

σ3 = 100 kPa


σ3 = 100 kPa


σ3 = 100 kPa

4.42 Mohr’s circle of waste soil (BK 1) with σ3 = 60 kPa, σ3 = 80 kPa and 198

σ3 = 100 kPa


σ3 = 100 kPa


σ3 = 100 kPa

4.45 Scatter plot of. Settlement (mm) vs. PSD (%) 205

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4.46 Scatter plot of Settlement (mm) vs. Shear stress (kPa) 206

4.47 Scatter plot of Settlement (mm) vs. Dry density (kg/m3) 207

4.48 Scatter plot of Settlement (mm) vs. Major Principal Stress (kPa) 208

4.49 Scatter plot of Settlement (mm) vs. Borehole Log (m) 209

4.50 Scatter plot of Settlement (mm) vs. Electrical Resistivity (m) 210

4.51 Scatter plot of Settlement (mm) vs. Specific Gravity 211

4.52 Scatter plot Settlement (mm) vs. XRD 212

4.53 Statistical Model Spreadsheet of Soil Mechanics based model 213

4.54 Settlement vs. Number of Iteration (Case 1) 214


4.56 Scatterplot with histogram against settlement (Case 1 versus Case 2) 215

4.57 The 3D plot using area plot of case 1 versus case 2 217


4.59 Statistical Model Spreadsheet of Bjarngard and Edgers model 219







4.66 The 3D plot using area plot of N iterations against Case 1 and Case 2 224

4.67 Statistical Model Spreadsheet of Power Creep Function model 226







4.74 Statistical Model Spreadsheet of hyperbolic function model 232

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4.79 The 3D plot using Area Plot of Case 1 versus Case 2 236

4.80 Statistical Model Spreadsheet of rheological model 238







4.87 Percentile Distribution and Histogram data for Case 1 (i) N = 5000 247

Iterations

4.88 Percentile Distribution and Histogram data for Case 1 (ii) N = 1000 247

Iterations

4.89 Percentile Distribution and Histogram data for Case 1 (iii) N = 500 248

Iterations

4.90 Percentile Distribution and Histogram data for Case 1 (iv) N = 100 248

Iterations

4.91 Percentile Distribution and Histogram data for Case 1 (v) N = 50 249

Iterations


Iterations


Iterations


Iterations


Iterations

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Iterations


Iterations


Iterations


Iterations


Iterations


Iterations


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Iterations


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Iterations


Iterations


Iterations


Iterations


Iterations


Iterations


Iterations


Iterations


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4.137 Comparison on settlement by Excel Spreadsheet and settlement by 281

Monte Carlo simulation

4.138 Total settlement versus Settlement model for published model 286

And Monte Carlo simulation model

4.139 Total Settlement from Monte Carlo Simulation and Published Model 288

4.140 Radar graph plot relating the 5 settlement models based on published 289

Model and Monte Carlo simulations

4.141 Settlement versus time for PCF model 290

4.142 Level of Settlement based on Monte Carlo simulations and Statistical 291

Modeling for Line 1

4.143 Level of Settlement based on Monte Carlo simulations and Statistical 292

Modeling for Line 2

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Cc* Primary compression ratio

Cα Secondary compression ratio

Cα1 Intermediate coefficient of secondary compression

Cα2 Final coefficient of secondary compression

c cohesion

BEM Bjarngard and Edgers Model

DS Dumping Soil

EDX Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy

H Initial thickness of waste

HF Hyperbolic Function

Km kilometers

KN kilo Newton

L, l Length

MPa Mega Pascal

m meters

mm millimeters

MSW Municipal Solid Waste

NS Normal Soil

SEM Scanning Electron Microscope

SMBM Soil Mechanics Based Model

PCF Power Creep Function

RM Rheological Model

t1 time for initial compression

t2 time for intermediate compression

t3 time for total period of time

Angle of internal friction

σ2 variance

σ standard deviation

μ mean/Average value

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Background

Failure of landfill/dumping area usually associated with settlement. Koerner and Soong

(2000) and Jones and Dixon (2003) provide information on a range of landfill failures.

High profile failure includes Kettleman Hills, USA (Seed et al., 1988; Byrne, 1994),

Bulbul Drive, South Africa (Brink et al., 1999), Cincinnati, USA (Eid et al., 2000; Stark

et al., 2000), Dona Juana, South American (Hendron et al., 1999) and Payatas,

Philippines. There are many other failures that do not get reported since the failures

occur at dumping area with no human casualties. The failure of landfill/dumping area

are caused by settlement of dumping soil.

Dumping soil can be defined as that soil that contains concrete debris, decayed wood,

paper, clay, silts, sand and gravel. The difference between dumping soil and normal soil

is that the dumping soil contains waste materials as much as 30% to 35%. Other than

that it also consists of sand, silt, clay and gravel. The waste material grain particle size

is in the range of 2 to 6 mm of sieve size with the content of 30% to 35% of waste.

Dumping soil is not residual soil. Dumping soil originates from the waste material that

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was dumped at the dumping area. The waste which has gone through sedimentation

process, chemical reaction between the waste and rainfall, and biodegradation of waste

that causing the waste to become dumping soil.

By literature search, settlement of dumping soil occur due to these four

attributes namely (1) physical and mechanical processes that includes the reorientation

of particles, movement of fine materials into larger voids and collapse of void spaces,

(2) chemical processes that include corrosion, combustion and oxidation, (3) dissolution

process that consist of dissolving soluble substances by percolating liquids and then

forming leachate, (4) biological decomposition of organics with time depending on

humidity and the amount of organic present in the waste (Sivakumar Babu et al, 2010a).

Moreover, the occurrence of differential settlement due to inhomegeneity of solid

wastes promotes other problems such as water ponding on the soil surface and

accumulation of water on the drainage layer, hence increasing the rate of water

infiltrations into the waste and leachate formation. The understanding on the settlement

behavior of dumping soil of dump area is becoming essential in Malaysia, since there

are many dumping area to be reused for new constructions where the settlement issues

should be considered.

There are three main stages of settlement in dumping soil, namely, initial

compression, primary compression and secondary compression. Initial compression,

which is defined as settlement that occurs immediately, when an external load is applied

to a dumping soil. It is generally associated with the immediate compaction of void

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space and particles due to an applied load. Primary compression is consolidation due to

the dissipation of pore water and gas from the void spaces. In general, it occurs 30 days

after final load placement. Secondary compression is due to creep of the waste skeleton

and biological decay. In general, settlement due to secondary compression accounts for

a major portion of total settlement of dump area and occurs over many years (El-Fadel

and Khoury, 2010).

Numerous studies have been previously conducted on the geotechnical

properties of dumping soil so that settlement can be evaluated (Landva and Clark, 1990;

Fasset et al., 1994; Gabr and Valero, 1995; Kavazanjian, 2001; Hossain, 2002; Dixon et

al., 2005, Zekkos, 2005). A constitutive model is proposed by Sivakumar Babu et al.,

(2010) to describe the stress-strain behavior of waste type of soil under loading using

the critical state of soil mechanics framework. Many mathematical model and

settlement model has been developed to simulate settlement mechanism at landfill area

(Sowers (1973); Bjarngard and Edgers (1990); Hossain and Gabr (2005); Yen and

Scanlon (1975); Edil et al. (1990); Ling et al. (1998); Gibson and Lo (1961); Park and

Lee (1997); Hettiarachchi et al. (2009); Marques (2001) and Sivakumar Babu et al.

(2010). However, not many focus on settlement prediction of the dumping soil based on

Monte Carlo simulation approaches and not many settlement model focuses to the

dumping area in Malaysia. This study would attempt to establish the settlement

prediction of dumping soil in two dumping area in Malaysia which is Sri Hartamas,

Kuala Lumpur and Bukit Chuping, Perlis.

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Monte Carlo methods are a class of computational algorithm that must be used

together with repeated random sampling in order to compute their results. Monte Carlo

methods are usually used together with computer software to simulate the physical and

mathematical systems. This method tends to be useful to compute an exact result with a

deterministic algorithm. Monte Carlo method are especially useful for simulating

systems with many coupled degrees of freedom such as fluids, disordered materials,

strongly coupled solids and cellular structure. Monte Carlo is also used to model

phenomena with significant uncertainty inputs such as the calculation of risk in

business. The Monte Carlo method is further explored to be used as dumping soil

settlement prediction so that the total settlement could be determined. The dumping soil

settlements are to be studied at the open dumping area rather than landfill because of

terms that was widely misused in Malaysia.

A site may refer to “landfill” when in fact it is an “open dumping” (Idris et al., 2004)

due to the differences in the operational aspect of landfill is unclear. There were 77

open dumps, 49 controlled tipping and only 35 landfill in Malaysia (Idris et al., 2004).

Besides illegal dumping, landfilling is the only method used for the disposal of

municipal solid waste in Malaysia, and most of the landfill sites are open dumping

areas, which pose serious environmental and social threats (Yunus and Kadir, 2003).

The open dumping will increase over time because the population in Malaysia has been

increasing at a rate of 2.4% per annum or about 600,000 per annum since 1994. With

this population growth, the municipal solid waste generation also increases. In 2003, the

average amount of municipal solid waste generated in Malaysia was 0.5 -0.8

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kg/person/day. It has increased to 1.7 kg/person/day in major cities (Kathirvale et al.,

2003). By the year 2020, the quantity of municipal solid waste generated was estimated

to have increased to 31,000 tons.

The increased in waste generated would become a problem since the land price

has increased and the spaces allocated for disposal site are limited in urban area due to

increase in population. Thus more illegal open dumping sites would be generated. These

illegal open dumping sites are studied to determine the characteristics and to predict

future settlement of dumping soil after the closure of the dumping area. The abandoned

landfill would pose serious hazards where differential settlement would occur.

Differential settlements would result in problems such as surface ponding, and

development of cracks. The decomposition of dumping soil would generate gas;

leachate and refuse settlement. The differential settlements of dumping soil are cause by

different composition of waste. Thus, we need to characterize the dumping soil in order

to understand its behavior.

1.2 Problem Statement

The problem statements of this research are as follows:-

a) Dumping area consists of many layers of soil strata which may consist of clay,

silt, gravel, sand, decayed wood and waste layers. The heterogeneous content of

dumping soil is not easy to characterize. The characterizations of dumping soil

need to be determined so that the closed dumping area could be reused for new

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constructions. Nowadays, there are increases in the population which will

generate the waste. An increase in waste generation would increase the numbers

of open dumping area (Kathirvale et al., 2003). Thus, the land for new

development would not be enough and need to be reused. This study will help in

predicting the settlement of dumping soil at closed or abandoned open dumping

area. The determination of dumping soil characterizations are conducted in

Malaysia area for this study since there are not many research works has been

done on dumping soil characterizations in Malaysia. The Sri Hartamas were

chosen to be the study area because that area is to be developed for new

substation which was meant to supply electricity for the resident area. Thus the

settlements need to be predicted at the Sri Hartamas area before new

constructions are to be constructed. Another area is Bukit Chuping area which is

not the dumping area so that the soil with natural content could be studied as

controlled parameters.

b) Numerous studies have been previously conducted on the geotechnical

properties of dumping soil however there are problems in the uncertainty of the

data. The uncertainty parameters are such as Cc* (primary compression ratio),

Cα (secondary compression ratio), Δσa (primary compressibility stress), Δσb

(secondary compressibility stress) and Sult (ultimate settlement) are not easy to

be evaluated. The range for the uncertainty need to be established and evaluated

based on the performance comparison of settlement prediction models in various

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landfill types (Park et. al., 2007). This study is attempted to use the Monte Carlo

simulation to choose the range for the uncertainty.

c) The available data for determining geotechnical parameters of dumping soil are

not many. One site may consist of 5 to 10 boreholes. The sampling may only be

about 20 samples to be used for settlement calculation of geotechnical

parameters. Hundreds or more data of geotechnical are needed in order to

improve accuracy of the settlement computation and settlement prediction. The

Monte Carlo Simulation has the capabilities to simulate the range of

geotechnical properties for settlement calculations and predictions.

1.3 Research Aims and Objectives

The main research aim is to determine the dumping soil characterization and settlement

prediction using Monte Carlo approaches. The characterizations are important in the

determining the behavior of dumping soil for post closure of the dumping area. The

settlement needs to be predicted so that the risks of settlement are known before

construction of the new project. The research objectives developed in order to achieve

the research aims are as follows:-

I. To characterize dumping soil settlement based on its categories such as soil like

or non soil like properties, waste types and soil or waste

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II. To calculate and evaluate settlement based on dumping soil settlement model

III. To predict settlement by Monte Carlo simulation approaches and validate

dumping soil settlement

1.4 Scope and Limitation

The study focuses on the determination on the characterization of dumping soil and

prediction of dumping soil settlement using Monte Carlo approaches. The

characterizations of dumping soil are based on its category such as soil like or non soil

like, waste types and waste or soil. The data on the geotechnical properties, mineral

composition and particle size distribution would determine the category of the dumping

soil. The characterizations are done to confirm the soil consists of waste and settlements

that occur are due to the waste that consists most of the dumping soil.

Once characterization has been done, the total settlement of dumping soil

settlements were calculated using five settlement models such as Soil Mechanics Based

Model, Bjarngard and Edgers model, Rheological model, Hyperbolic function and

Power Creep Function model. The Monte Carlo Simulation are integrate with these 5

models to simulates hundreds and more data for better accuracy in predicting the total

settlement at the open dumping area.

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The limitations of the study are the types of bacteria that decomposed the waste.

Different types of bacteria would decompose the waste in different rate of

decomposition depending on the types of waste. The urban area tends to have more

plastic waste compared to organic matter. Plastic are not easy to degradable compared

to organic waste. This study would not investigate the types of bacteria to decompose

the waste with different rate of settlement.

1.5 Significance of Study

a) The characterization of dumping soil would help the operator of

landfill/dumping area to maintain and monitor long-term settlement of the

landfill/dumping area in Malaysia.

b) To help geotechnical engineer to understand the behavior of waste settlement at

the closed dumping area in Malaysia

c) To characterize the dumping soil into category I, II and III at open dumping area

in Malaysia so that the geotechnical properties of dumping soil in Malaysia

could be established for long term monitoring and future development

d) To predict settlement at open dumping area so that the dumping area could be

used for future constructions where the land are very limited to be used for

dumping area with increase of solid waste generations and populations.

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1.6 Expected Outcome of the Research

The expected outcomes from the research are the development of characterization of

dumping soil category based on the behavior of waste or soil and the settlement

prediction via Monte Carlo approaches. The total settlement is the output from the

settlement analysis. The potential to settle of dumping soil settlement are assessed based

on the total settlement determine from the settlement model. Settlement evaluation

statement and the level of risk for the calculated total settlement would give the

suggestion work that could be applied at the dumping area. This suggestion work could

be used as preliminary decision on managing the dumping soil settlement problems at

the open dumping area.

1.7 Thesis Organization

The thesis is divided into 5 chapters. The chapters are organized as follows:-

I. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, the introductions about settlement at open dumping area. The

objectives, the problem statement, scope and limitation, expected outcome of the

research and thesis organization are also defined in this chapter.

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II. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, the composition of dumping soil in Malaysia is compared with

Asian region, and European country. The summary of the composition is made

based on the comparison. The composition of waste is compared as to know the

difference in the content of the waste for different countries. The review on the

geotechnical properties of dumping soil are also included in this chapter based

on the previous researcher. The geotechnical properties such as moisture

content, waste classification system, particle size distribution, hydraulic

conductivity, compressibility for primary settlement, secondary settlement and

total settlement, shear strength, and settlement model of MSW. The settlement

model for landfill method is compared with the settlement model for open

dumping method.

III. CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

This chapter explained on the methodology of the research. The characterization

based on geotechnical properties of dumping soil are obtained from the

experimental work. The experimental work involves are sieve analysis test,

specific gravity test, SEM-EDX test, compaction test, consolidation test, direct

shear test and triaxial test. The electrical resistivity test and borehole logging test

are also used in this research to characterize the heterogeneous content of

dumping soil layers at dumping area. The methods on integration of Monte

Carlo simulation to calculate settlements and probability are also explained.

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IV. CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter described the results and discussions of the dumping soil settlement

characterization, the dumping soil settlement calculation for determining the

total settlement. The modeling of dumping soil settlement are also analyzed and

discussed by integrating existing model and simulation of the model using

Monte Carlo simulation. The data interpretations and discussions are also

included in this chapter.

V. CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The conclusion and recommendations of the research is concluded in Chapter 5.

The major findings, minor findings and future studies are described in this

chapter.

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