COAL CITY UNIVERSITY,EMENE, ENUGU

ELS 121: BASIC GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION

INSTRUCTOR: AKINOLA SAMUEL AKINTAYO

GENERAL OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE

This course equips students with knowledge on the basic elements of grammar, exploring topics such as parts of speech, tenses, concord, and the basics of effective writing. The overarching goal of this course is to enable the students to make an intelligible use of grammar in written communication.

COURSE CONTENT

o Tenseso Concordo Effective Punctuationo Morphologyo Phrases, Clauses, and Sentenceso Principles of Effective Writingo Paragraph Development

TOPIC 1: TENSES

A tense is any of the forms of a verb that may be used to show the time of the action or state expressed by the verb (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 8th Edition). Simply, tense gives an accurate revelation of the time of an action as performed by a subject. In essence, it is that element of grammar that relates action to time.

There are 3 groups of tenses in the English language: the Present, Past, and Future tenses. Each group has four types, resulting in twelve (12) tense types in the English Language 12 types of tenses in English language.

PRESENT TENSES

The present tenses in English are the simple present tense, present progressive tense, present perfect tense, and present perfect progressive tense.

THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

This is used to express action that is happening at the moment of writing. It is also used to express habits and facts. For example:

1. Humans sleep.

2. The sun rises and sets daily.

3. Nigeria is in Africa.

4. Children play on that field.

THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

This is used to express an action that is ongoing at the moment of writing. For example:

1. Ada is sleeping.2. The bush is burning.

THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

This is used to express an action that began in the past and has been completed. For example:

1. The children have eaten all the mangoes.2. Amaka has completed her homework.

THE PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

This is used to express an action that begun in the past and is ongoing in the present. For example:

Sylvia has been washing her clothes since morning.Buhari has been ruling Nigeria since 2014.

Please note the consistent appearance of ‘has been’ as a marker of the present progressive tense.

PAST TENSES

THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE

This is used to express finished actions. For example

1. She slept deeply.2. He ate hungrily.3. She sang loudly.

THE PAST PROGRESSIVE TENSE

This is used to express an action that was ongoing at a time before another action occurred in the past. For example:

1. I was eating when Ruth arrived.2. We were playing when he walked in.

THE PAST PERFECT TENSE

This is used to express an action that was completed in the past. For example:

1. The children had slept by the time their mother arrived.2. The plane had taken off before Chike got to the airport.

THE PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

This is used to express an action that was ongoing in the past and which continued until another action occurred in the past. For example:

1. Oxford University had been existing for 500 years before the University of Nigeria was founded.

2. Don Moen had been producing albums long before Frank Edwards released his first single.

FUTURE TENSES

THE SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

This is used to express action that will happen once in future. For example:

1. I will eat rice for lunch.2. I will give you 20000 dollars by April.3. Daddy will visit me on Saturday.

Please note the consistent appearance of ‘will + present form of verb’ to mark the simple future tense.

THE FUTURE PROGRESSIVE TENSE

This is used to express an action which will begin and be ongoing in the future. For example:

1. I will be singing at the next Global Concert.2. My first daughter will be studying at Harvard University by age 20.

THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

This is used to express an action that will be completed before another action begins in the future. For example:

1. President Buhari will have ruled for four years before the 2019 general elections.2. Queen Elizabeth will have ruled for 60 years by the time the next Royal Festival

begins in June.3. The players will have trained for four hours before the match starts at noon.

THE FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

This is used to express an action that will be ongoing until a later time in the future.

1. In June 2018, I will have been studying at the Coal City University for a year.2. By noon tomorrow, our plane will have been flying for 48 hours.

SUMMARY

Tenses simply relate action to time. There are twelve tenses in the English which are situated in either the present, past, or future context.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Use each of the tenses discussed above in sentences.

TOPIC 2: CONCORD

Concord is an aspect of grammar that deals with the correct matching of subjects and verbs in sentences. When the right subject is matched to the right verb, a concord is achieved. When subjects and verbs are mismatched a discord is achieved. It is also known as grammatical agreement. In concord, a subject is a noun or pronoun that performs the verb while the verb is a word that shows action (runs, kills sleep, hits) or state of being (is, are, am, were) (Strauss, 2008).

There are rules that guide the correct use of concord in English. Strauss (2008) highlights a fourteen (14) concord rules as follows:

Rule 1: Two singular subject connected by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ require a singular verb. For example:

My aunt or uncle is arriving today.

Rule 2: Two singular subjects connected by ‘either/or’ or ‘neither/nor’ require a singular verb.

Neither Sylvia nor Vicky is attending the party.

Rule 3: When ‘I’ is one of the two subjects connected by ‘either/or’ or ‘neither/nor’, put “I” as a second subject and follow it with the singular verb ‘am’. For example:

Neither Ruth nor I am going there.

Rule 4: When a singular subject is connected by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ to a plural subject, put the plural subject last and use a plural verb. For example:

1. The bowl or the plates go on the black shelves.

2. The boy or the girls are coming tonight.

Rule 5: When a singular and plural subject are connected by ‘either/or’ or ‘neither/ nor’, put the plural subject last and use a plural verb. For example:

Either the boy or the girls are coming.

Rule 6: As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by ‘and’. For example:

1. Sylvia and Ebenezer are here. 2. The food and drinks are ready.

Rule 7: When a subject is separated from the verb by words such as ‘along with’, ‘as well as’, ‘besides’, or ‘not’, ignore these words and use either a singular or a plural verb, as dictated by the nature of the subject. For example:

The governor, as well as his assistants, is here.

Rule 8: Please note that the following pronouns are singular and require singular verbs: each, everyone, every one, anyone, anybody, someone and somebody. For example:

1. Each of the girls sings well. 2. Every one of the cakes is gone.

Rule 9: When using words that indicate portions: percent, fractions, part, majority, some, all, none, remainder etc., the kind of verb to be used is determined by the noun (subject) that comes after ‘of’. If the noun that comes after ‘of’ is singular, use the singular verb, and if it is plural, use a plural verb. For example:

1. Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared. 2. Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared.3. One third of the city is unemployed. 4. One third of the people are unemployed.

Rule 10: When either and neither are subjects, they always take singular verbs. For example:

1. Neither of them is available speak right now.2. Either of us is capable of doing the job.

Rule 11: Always use a singular verb with sums of money or period of time.

1. Ten pounds is a high price to pay.2. Five years is the duration for the programme.

Rule 12: In sentences that involve pronouns such as ‘who’, ‘that’ or ‘which’, the verb to be used is determined by the noun that comes before them. For example:

Elvis is one of the scientists who work here.

Rule 13: When using collective nouns such as team and staff, the type of verb to be used depends on your contextual use of such nouns. For example:

1. The staff is in a meeting. Here, the employees are regarded as one unit –staff.2. The staff are arguing over the matter. Here, the employees are regarded as

individuals.

Rule 14: When a sentence begins with ‘here’ or ‘here’, the subject always follows the verb. For example:

1. There are four hurdles to cross. 2. There is one river to cross. 3. Here comes the man.

SUMMARY

Concord governs correct subject-verb matching. It is important for correctness and clarity in written and spoken English. There are rules that govern the appropriate use of concord, some of which have been discussed above.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Attempt memorizing all the concord rules discussed above.

TOPIC 3: EFFECTIVE PUNCTUATION USAGE

Punctuation is a crucial tool in written communication. A misuse of punctuation marks could alter the meaning that the writer intends to communicate. The following are recommendations on the appropriate use of common punctuation marks by Strauss (2008):

THE PERIOD OR FULL STOP (.)

Rule 1. Use a period at the end of a complete sentence that is a statement. For example:

The governor is here.

Rule 2. If the last word in a sentence ends in a period, do not follow it with another period. For example:

My hobbies are singing, dancing, reading, etc.

Rule 3. Use a period after an indirect question. For example:

She asked about her brother.

THE COMMA (,)

Rule 1: Use a comma to separate two adjectives that can be joined with ‘and’. For example:

He is a strong, healthy man.

Rule 2: Use commas before or around the name or title of a person being directly addressed. For example:

Would you, Ruth, please come with me ?

Rule 3: Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year and put a comma after the year. For example:

Ngozi was born on February 14, 1993, in Georgia, USA.

Rule 3b: If any part of the date is omitted, leave out the comma. For example:

We met in December 2017 at a conference in London.

Rule 4: In a sentence that contains a statement and a question, use a comma to separate the statement from the question. For example:

‘I can leave now, can’t I ?’

Rule 5: Use a comma to separate the contrasting parts of a sentence. For example:

This is my house, not yours. The shoes belong to me, not to Sylvia.

Rule 6: Use a comma when your sentence begins with introductory words such as well, now, or yes. For example:

Well, we are close for today. Yes, I agree with you. Now, let’s begin.

QUESTION MARK (?)

Rule 1: Use a question mark only after a direct question. For example:

What is your name? Will you go with me?

Rule 2: Use a question mark when a sentence is half statement and half question. For example:

You like beans, don’t you?

EXCLAMATION MARK OR POINT (!)

Use exclamation marks to show surprise or emphasis. For example: Wow, this food is so delicious!

Note: Do not use the exclamation mark in a formal business letter.

QUOTATION MARK (“ ”)

Rule 1: When using quotation marks, place your periods, and commas within the quotation mark. For example:

She said, “hurry up.” She said, “ he said, ‘hurry up.’ ”

Rule 2: Place your question mark within the quotation mark as well, if the question mark goes along with the quote. For example:

She asked, “will you still be my friend?”

Rule 3: Use quotation marks to present direct quote only. For example:

“When will you be here?” he asked. (Direct quote) He asked when will you be there. (Indirect quote)

APOSTROPHE (’ )

Rule 1: Use the apostrophe with contractions. Always place the apostrophe at the point at which the letter is removed in the contraction (is not = isn’t; cannot = can’t; does not = doesn’t). For example:

You are right = You’re right. He is here = He’s here.

Rule 2: Use your apostrophe to show possession. For example:

Akin’s jet, Esther’s yatch, Girls’ guild, Boys’ toys

Rule 3: To show plural possession, make the noun plural first, then place the apostrophe immediately after the plural form of the noun. For example:

Two women’s share

Rule 4: To show possession for a singular compound noun, place the apostrophe at the end of the word. For example:

Mother- in- law’s car , Editor – in – chief’s pen

Rule 5: Never use an apostrophe to show possession on a possessive pronoun. For example:

The book is hers, not yours.

SUMMARY

Punctuations marks are important components of written communication. Certain rules govern their appropriate usage, some of which have been discussed above.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Create sentences and apply the rules that have been discussed above in them.

TOPIC 4: MORPHOLOGY

LETTERS

MORPHEMES

WORDS

PHRASES

WORDS

CLAUSES

SENTENCES

Letters are orthographic units that constitute the writing system of a language. They are simply building blocks for words and sentences. A morpheme is a smallest unit of a word. It is the smallest piece of a word that contributes meaning to that word (Oiry, 2009). It is a distinct part of a word that communicates sense. Phonemes are sounds that create a differentiation in the meaning of words.A word is an intelligible combination of morphemes.A phrase is a combination of words that does not contain a finite verb and which cannot express complete meaning, on its own. e.g. The dark lady, on the bus, from south Africa. The clause is a combination of words that usually contain a subject-verb combination and is capable of expressing complete thought. A sentence is a combination of words that expresses a complete thought. It is usually made up of clauses and contains at least one main clause. Sentences can be classified based on function and form. Sentence types based on function: imperative, declarative, interrogative, exclamatory. Sentence types based on form: simple, compound, complex, compound-complex.

MORPHEMES

Morphemes are crucial building blocks for writing in language because they are combined to form words. They represent the smallest unit of meaning in words.

TYPES OF MORPHEMES

Free morpheme: This is a morpheme that can stand on its own. It could also be called an independent morpheme. A free morpheme can also be an entire word (Oiry, 2009). Example: cat, black, ice, etc.

Bound morpheme: It is a morpheme that cannot stand on its own to communicate a complete meaning. It must be attached to a free morpheme to communicate a full meaning. Example: Prefixes such as un, dis and suffixes such as est, ment, ion etc.

richer- rich+ er , strongest- strong + est, disloyal - dis+loyal, etc

Root morpheme: This is a central or primary morpheme that bears the root meaning of the word being considered. e.g. ‘employ’ in un+employ+ment. A lot of free morphemes are root morpheme.

Furthermore, Packer (2001) describes the types of morphemes as follows:

MORPHEME

Free Bound Free Bound

e.g. e.g.

Nouns Prepositions Inflectional Derivational

Verbs Articles

Adjectives Conjunctions

Lexical morphemes are morphemes that have meaning by themselves; alone they make sense.

Lexical Grammatical

Grammatical morphemes simply show the relationship between other morphemes. So, we could say that lexical morphemes are semantically independent while grammatical morphemes are relational.

Free lexical morphemes can stand alone and make complete sense. Common examples include nouns, verbs and adjectives: e.g. boy, come, quick, slow, etc.

Bound lexical morphemes: These are morphemes that have meaning by themselves but must occur with free morphemes to communicate complete sense. e.g Anti, dis, mal, -vert, -clude, -port.

Free grammatical morphemes: are morphemes that can stand alone and make grammatical sense but must be used with other morphemes to communicate complete semantic sense. These include preposition, article, conjunctions, e.g. at, under, the, an, because, and, in, etc.

Bound grammatical morphemes must be used in combination with another morpheme to communicate complete meaning. On their own, they communicate no sense. They are commonly known as affixes and of two types: inflectional bound grammatical morphemes and derivational bound grammatical morphemes.

Inflectional Bound grammatical morphemes: In the English language, there are eight inflectional Bound Grammatical Morphemes (Packer, 2001). They are as follows:

i. [Plu] = plural; added to nouns

Boys + [Plu] = Boys

Boys + ‘S’ = Boys

Sheep + [Plu] = Sheep

Man + [Plu] = Men

Child + [Plu] = Children

woman + [plu] = women

ii. [POSS] = Possessive; added to noun and pronouns

Boys’ = boy + [PLU] + [POSS]

iii. [Comp] = Comparative; added to adjectives

Old + [Comp] = Older

Strong + [Comp] = Stronger

iv. [SUP] = Superlative; added to adjective

Strongest = Strong + [SUP]

Worst = bad + [SUP]

Best = good + [SUP]

v. [PRES] = Present; added to verbs

Walk + [PRES] = walks

Buy + [PRES] = buys

vi. [PAST] = Past, added to verbs

Fly + [PAST] = flew

Blow + [Past] = blew

vii. [PAST PART] = Past + Participle, added to verbs;

Drive + [PAST PART] = Spoken

Speak + [PAST PART] = Spoken

Eat + [PAST PART] = Eaten

viii. [PREST PART] = Present Participle; added to verbs

Drive + [PRESENT PART] = Driving

Derivational Bound Grammatical Morphemes: These are simply derivational affixes. Their addition to free morphemes usually results in a change of word class or word meaning. Below are examples of Derivational prefixes and suffixes:

o ‘ize’ + a noun to form a verb: normal + ize’ = normalize

o ‘ize’ + an adjective to form a verb:

popular + ‘ize’ = popularize

marginal + ‘ize’ = Marginalize

o ‘ful’ + a noun to form an adjective

play + ‘ful’ = playful

beauty + ful = beautiful

o ‘ly’ to an adjective to form adverb

slowly + ‘ly’ = slowly

short + ‘ly’ = shortly

simple + ‘ly’ = simply

o ‘ly’ to a noun to form an adjective man + ‘ly’ = manly

friend + ‘ly’ = friendly

Derivational prefixes do not always change the word class of a root morpheme but certainly alter the meanings of the product words. i.e. change the meaning. For example, the addition of the derivational fixes seen below only produces new meanings, and does not change the word class of the product words:

dis + loyal, anti + virus = antivirus, mal + nutrition.

COMMON MORPHOLOGICAL METHODS

Morphology refers to the process by which words are formed. Common morphological methods in the English language are as follows:

Derivation: This usually this involves the addition of derivational affixes to form new words. e.g.

correct + ion = correctionmarginal + ize = marginalize

establish + ment = establishment

Category extension: This involves extending the grammatical function of a morpheme or word from one word class to another. e.g. Chair (noun) - chair (verb)Run (noun) - run (verb)Man (noun) - man (verb)Ride (noun) - ride (verb)

Compounding: This involves the combination of two words to create a new word. e.g. football, chairman, bus driver, goalkeeper, handball.

Root creation /neologism: This is simply creation or invention of new words. e.g. Google, Instagram, Whatsapp, Kodak, etc.

Blending: It involves combining two words to form a new word which has little or no trace of their separate identities. e.g. smoke+ fog = fog phone + tablet = phablet

Clipping: This involves cutting away some parts of a word to create a new word. e.g. Economics- EconsMathematics – Maths Application – App

Acronyms: This involves selection of the letters of an expression to create a new word. e.g. NAFDAC, FIFA, AIDS

SUMMARY

Morphemes are the basic building blocks of meaning in languages. They are of various types: free, bound, inflectional, etc. Morphemes are combined to form to new words through various morphological processes: clipping, blending, etc.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. What are morphemes?2. Distinguish between free and bound morphemes, with examples.3. Use for the morphological methods discussed above in creating new words.

TOPIC 5: PHRASES, CLAUSES AND SENTENCES

While letters and morphemes deal with words, phrases, clauses and sentences pertain to longer stretching of expression.

PHRASES

The Oxford Living Dictionary defines a phrase as “a small group of words that form a meaningful unit within a clause.” This means that a phrase is usually the subset of a clause and is always meaningful. In addition, a definition by the Writing Center at Lakehead University, Canada, states a phrase as “a group of two or more words usually related in meaning but with no subject or verb combination.” This reveals that a phrase might contain a subject or a verb alone. However, it does not contain both elements at a time. Furthermore, Delahunty and Garvey (2010) defines it as a grammatical unit, intermediate between a word and a clause, which may consist of just one word (its head) or its head and expression (including other phrases) that modify and compliment it. This shows that:

1. A phrase is higher than a word in hierarchy but lower than a clause and a sentence.

2. A phrase has a head.

3. A phrase could contain only its head or its head and other expressions that modify or complement it.

This also establishes that a phrase is usually made up of its head and modifiers. The head of the phrase is the central element of a phrase which defines the phrase type and to which the other elements in the phrase are attached (Delahunty and Garvey, 2010). Please note that a single word can function as a phrase i.e. as the phrase head without it accompanying modifiers. e.g.

The men who fly planes are well paid.

The underlined sentence is the head of phrase. Instead of that underlined phrase, the word ‘pilots’ can adequately function as the subject of the sentence:

Pilots are well paid.

TYPES OF PHRASES

Delahunty and Garvey (2010) present the five major types of phrases in English as follows:

1. Adverbial phrase

2. Prepositional phrase3. Adjective phrase4. Noun phrase5. Verb phrase

1. Adverbial Phrase: This phrase has an adverb as its head. It performs the functions as an adverb. e.g. modifying a verb. An adverb phrase could be accompanied by a modifier or not. The following are possible component of an adverb phrase:Adverb alone; e.g. slowly (head)Intensifier + Adverbs (quite slowly)Adverb modified by degree adverb (extremely slow)

Examples:

They surrendered peacefully. I go to the movies quite frequently. Chioma acted awfully strangely.

2. Prepositional Phrase: This phrase is headed by a preposition and performs the relational function of a preposition in a sentence. The functional structure of the prepositional phrase often consists of a preposition as head + an object or compliment which is usually a noun phrase. e.g. on the ropes, in the room, under the bridge etc.

Examples: I thank you from the bottom of my heart.

3. Adjectival Phrase: This phrase is headed by an adjective and performs the functions of an adjective in a sentence, such as modifying a noun. Common structures of adjectival phrases include:

Intensifier + Adjective: very happy, too happy, quite happy Adverb of degree + Adjective: extremely happy, really happy, annoyingly

snobbish

4. Noun Phrase: This phrase is headed by a noun and can perform the functions of a noun in a sentence: Subject of the verb, object of the verb, compliment of the subject etc. A noun phrase could contain a head alone or the head with its modifying or complimenting elements. Prepositional phrases are common post modifiers in noun phrases. e.g.

The king of England is here.

She drank a full glass of water. The black car is mine.

Please note that noun phrases that function as the compliment of the head noun are known as Appositive noun phrases . e.g.

Jeff Bezos, the current richest man in the world, is my friend.

5. The Verb Phrase: This phrase has a verb as its head. It performs the functions of a verb such as expressing action or showing state of being. According to Delahunty and Garvey (2010), a verb phrase could consist of:

Head alone: This is seen in the case of a head verb functioning as a verb phrase. Such a verb is usually an intransitive verb (i.e. a verb which does not need an object):

o Ade runs.o All the works agree.o Chike danced.

Head + auxiliaries:o They have been sleeping all night.o She is coming to the meeting today.o Jake does not tell lies.

Head + object(s)/complement: o Obi bought his mother a house.

Head + modifiers: Such combination could appear as:o They left early. (head verb + adverb)o We stayed in Enugu. (head verb + prepositional phrase)

Prepositional phrase: ‘in Enugu’ modifying head verb: stayed.o The team arrived before it started to rain. (head verb + adverbial clause)

Adverbial clause: before it started to rain, modifying head verb: arrived

o We enjoyed the meal a great deal. Noun phrase: a great deal, modifying head verb: enjoyed

CLAUSES

A clause is a group of words that can be clearly divided into subject and predicate parts and which can stand alone as an independent clause to communicate full meaning, or as a dependent clause which must be coupled to an independent clause to communicate full meaning.

TYPES OF CLAUSE

Clauses are broadly categorized as main clauses and subordinate clauses.

A main clause contains a subject and a predicate and can communicate complete meaning alone. Essentially, a main clause is a simple sentence. e.g.

She slept. They walked slowly.

A subordinate clause also contains a subject and predicate but cannot make a complete sense on its own. It has types, with these three as its quite common types:

Noun clause: This functions as a noun in a sentence. It can take the position of the subject, an object or a compliment. Example (underlined):

What you have done is unacceptable. (Subject of the verb)

Whichever colour you choose is fine.

Note: Noun clause is always before a verb or after a verb. Common beginners of noun clauses includes; who, what, why, when, whenever.

Adjective/Adjectival ClauseThis modifies a noun or pronoun and usually comes after the word it is modifying. E.gThose who cannot embrace discipline are prone to failure.The car that is parked downstairs is mine.The car that was sold last week is expensive.

Adverb/Adverbial Clause

This performs the functions of an adverb such as: showing time, place, condition, degree etc. it answers questions such as where, when, how and why. It modifies the other part of the sentence in which it occurs, providing more details. e.g.

The meeting started after the dean arrived.I gave a cheque because I was convinced.If you study hard, you will excel.

SENTENCES

A sentence is a group of related words that expresses a complete thought. Every sentence must contain at least one main clause. Sentences can be classified based on structure or function.

TYPES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE

Sentences can be classified on the basis of their clausal composition (i.e on the basis of the types of clause they contain).

1. Simple sentence: This consists of one main clause only. e.g. She slept. I love cars. Cats are cute.

2. Complex sentence: This consists of one main clause and subordinate clause (MC + SC) e.g.

I ate the cake because I was hungry.3. Compound sentence: This consists of two subordinate clauses that are joined

or linked by a coordinating conjunction. e.g. I like to run and she likes to bake. He is rich but he is very stingy.

4. Compound complex: This consists of two main clauses and at least one subordinate clause. e.g.

He is rich but he is very stingy, because he is a criminal. While Ruth was cooking, James was eating and Sylvia went shopping.

TYPES OF SENTENCES BASED ON FUNCTION

The followings are types of sentences based on the function they perform.

Declarative sentence: This is used to state a fact e.g. o ‘The sun is a great star.’ o ‘Nigeria is in Africa.’

Interrogative sentence: This is used to ask questions. e. g. o ‘What is your name?’

o ‘How old are you?’ Imperative sentence: This is used to issue orders. e.g.

o ‘Sit down.’ Exclamatory sentence: This used to express emotion such as happiness,

excitement, anger, sad. It usually ends with exclamation mark. e.g. o ‘I am so proud of you!’

SUMMARY

Phrases, clauses and sentences are higher-level building blocks of the body of written communication. Phrases are groups of related words, without subject-verb combinations; clauses are groups of related words that contain subject-verb combinations and can express complete thoughts; sentences are made up of, at least, one main clause. The different types of phrases, clauses, and sentences can be distinguished on the basis of structure and function.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. Revise all the types of phrases, clauses, and sentences, and create an example of each.

TOPIC 6: PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that discusses one main idea.

TYPES OF PARAGRAPH

Paragraph could be described as paragraphs that organize or paragraphs that expand thoughts.

PARAGRAPH THAT ORGANIZE

The following are paragraphs that writers use to organize and arrange their thoughts in writing:

Introductory paragraph: This paragraph is used to give a reader a preview of what the writer has to say. Usually, it begins the piece of writing and could

include a question, a definition, a controversial statement or a short story to stimulate the interest of the reader.

Transitional paragraph: This is used to present the author’s thought on the subject of the writing. The body of an essay is basically made up of transitional paragraphs. They are usually linked to one another by transitional words.

Concluding paragraph: This paragraph is used to give a review of what has been discussed by the writer. It is usually short and straight to the point.

PARAGRAPHS THAT EXPAND/DEVELOP THOUGHTS

Defining paragraph: This paragraph is used to give a definition of word or concept.

Explanatory or expository paragraph: This is used to provide educative or informative ideas to the reader. It is aimed at increasing the reader’s knowledge about a subject which could be a person concept or an issue. This is often used in academic materials, such as textbooks

Narrative paragraph: This is used to present ideas and facts in a sequential or chronological manner. It includes details of characters, action, location of the action, situation and the time of the action or event. It is often found in fiction and reports of events.

Descriptive paragraph: These are used to describe persons, places, things, etc. In this paragraph, words are used to appeal to the reader’s senses: touch, smell, sight, hearing etc. You can find such paragraph in a wide range of fiction and nonfiction works such as in police reports, etc.

SUMMARY

Paragraphs are sections of written communication that are made up of sentences that discuss one main idea. They are of various types and perform different functions.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. How would you define a paragraph?2. Create a descriptive paragraph of the Coal City University Campus.

TOPIC 7: PRICIPLES OF EFFECTIVE WRITING

These prescribe guidelines that writer should follow to write in a manner in which clear communication is achieved.

Clarity: This principle declares that the writer must present his or her thought in a simple, clear and unambiguous manner that aids the reader’s understanding of the idea being discussed. In essence, to be clear in writing, be simple. Clarity can be achieved through the use of short sentences and words that are easy to understand.

Conciseness: An effective writer does not use more words than is required to clearly communicate his or her idea. This principle demands that the writer should express his or her idea with as few words as possible.

Completeness: An effective writer ensures that all the points that he or she raises in a text are adequately explained. This principle demands effective paragraphing because paragraphs are blocks in the text in which the writer can be clearly and completely discuss the various aspects of an idea with the reader, using examples, evidence etc.

Correctness: This principle demands the following:o All the word in the text must be correctly spelt.o All punctuation marks must be used correctly.o All facts, figures, claims and other information presented in a text must be

accurate.o Names of persons and places stated must be correctly spelt.

The points listed above therefore demands that the writer should be a researcher who ensures the correctness of the information that he/she is presenting in the text.

o Coherence: This principle simply demands that a writer sticks to the point, topic, theme or idea that he or she raises at the beginning of the text. This means that the central idea must be consistently and logically presented throughout the text.

SUMMARY

Certain principles must be adhered to if written communication must achieve the writer’s goal. He or she must follow the principles of clarity, conciseness, completeness, correctness, and coherence for effective communication to be established.

REVISION QUESTIONS

1. What would be the consequence of a writer not following the principle of coherence in his or her text?

2. As a writer, how would you establish clarity in your written piece?

REFERENCES

Borough of Manhattan Community College . (2012). Sophisticated Sentences: The Twelve Verb Tenses of English [PDF file]. Retrieved from https://www.google.com.ng/url?url=http://www.bmcc.cuny.edu/writingcenter/upload/tenses.pdf&rct=j&sa=U&ved=2ahUKEwiZj9e_vunaAhXJA8AKHaOKBWwQFjAEegQIBhAB&q=tenses.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1CqInMCk9QbzwyTtjKbDQ4

Lakehead University. (Undated). Phrases and Clauses [PDF file]. Retrieved from https://www.google.com.ng/url?url=http://www.bmcc.cuny.edu/writingcenter/upload/tenses.pdf&rct=j&sa=U&ved=2ahUKEwiZj9e_vunaAhXJA8AKHaOKBWwQFjAEegQIBhAB&q=tenses.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1CqInMCk9QbzwyTtjKbDQ4

Oiry. (2009). Morphology [PDF file]. Retrieved from: https://www.google.com.ng/url?url=http://www.bmcc.cuny.edu/writingcenter/upload/tenses.pdf&rct=j&sa=U&ved=2ahUKEwiZj9e_vunaAhXJA8AKHaOKBWwQFjAEegQIBhAB&q=tenses.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1CqInMCk9QbzwyTtjKbDQ4

Oyerokun, S.O. (1990). “Reading for Academic Purposes”. Ibadan: Distance Learning Centre, University of Ibadan

Packer. (2001). Morphology [PDF file]. Retrieved from: https://www.google.com.ng/url?url=http://www.bmcc.cuny.edu/writingcenter/upload/tenses.pdf&rct=j&sa=U&ved=2ahUKEwiZj9e_vunaAhXJA8AKHaOKBWwQFjAEegQIBhAB&q=tenses.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1CqInMCk9QbzwyTtjKbDQ4

Strauss, J. (2008). “The Blue Book of Grammar and Punctuation”. California: Jossey-Bass