outcome-based actions in vector management

VectorsPreventing Aquatic Species Invasions in the Mid-Atlantic

Outcome-Based Actions inVector Management

Aquatic Invasive Species in the Mid-Atlantic Vector Workshop Findings

Fredrika Moser and Merrill Leffler, editors

Preventing Aquatic Species

Invasions in the Mid-Atlantic

Outcome-Based Actions in Vector Management

Aquatic Invasive Species in the Mid-Atlantic Vector Workshop Findings

Fredrika Moser and Merrill Leffler, editors

Maryland Sea Grant and the Mid-Atlantic Panel on Aquatic Invasive Species

PreventingAquaticSpeciesInvasionsintheMidAtlantic—FrameworksforVectorManagement

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AMarylandSeaGrantPublicationPublicationnumberUM‐SG‐TS‐2010‐03CoverThesephotographssuggestvariouspathwaysthroughwhichnon‐indigenousspeciesmaketheirwayintomid‐Atlanticwaters,amongthem,baitusage,ballastwaterdischarge,liveseafoodtrade,shipfouling,andhorticultureplantsforpondsandaquaria.Photographcredits,clockwisefromupperleft:Womanholdingfishshecaught(baitusage),JonathanMcKnight;shipdischargingballastwater,SERCMarineInvasionsResearchLaboratory;zebramusselscoveringacurrentmeterinLakeMichigan,NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration;seafoodstorefrontandfreshoystersforsale,PamFuller,U.S.GeologicalSurvey;recreationalboatwithshipfouling,MarylandSeaGrant;aquatichorticultureplants,AndyLazur;andsaleslistforlivemarketseafood,PamFuller,U.S.GeologicalSurvey.PapercopiesofthisMarylandSeaGrantProgramPublicationareavailablebywritingMarylandSeaGrant.Electroniccopiesareavailableonthewebat:http://www.mdsg.umd.edu/vectorworkshop/MarylandSeaGrantCollegeProgramUniversitySystemofMarylandSeaGrant4321HartwickRoad,Suite300CollegePark,MD20740

CONTENTS

Introduction........................................................................................................................................................5

AISWorkshopAgenda.....................................................................................................................................6

Bioinvasions:ManagingbyPrevention....................................................................................................8

HighlightsofPresentationsonMajorAquaticVectorsintheMid‐Atlantic .............................9

MaritimeShippingVector ............................................................................................................... 10

BallastWaterDischargePathway.................................................................................... 10

ShipFoulingPathway............................................................................................................ 11

LiveTradeVector ............................................................................................................................... 12

LiveBaitPathways ................................................................................................................. 13

AquariaPathways:Import,Wholesale,Retail,andHome.................................... 13

AquacultureandLiveSeafoodPathways...................................................................... 13

AquaticPlantPathways........................................................................................................ 14

FrameworkforVectorManagementofAquaticInvasiveSpecies............................................. 14

Outcome‐BasedPriorityActionsforSpecificAISPathways........................................................ 15

MaritimeShippingVector ............................................................................................................... 15

ShipFouling............................................................................................................................... 15

ResearchPrioritiesandInformationNeeds....................................................... 16

ManagementandRegulation.................................................................................... 16

Education/Outreach..................................................................................................... 16

LiveTradeVector ............................................................................................................................... 17

Bait ............................................................................................................................................... 17





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Aquaculture,AquaticHorticulture,Aquaria................................................................ 18




Conclusions ....................................................................................................................................................... 18

References ......................................................................................................................................................... 19

Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................................... 21

Appendices ........................................................................................................................................................ 25

WorkshopAgenda .............................................................................................................................. 25

WorkshopRegistrants...................................................................................................................... 27

DraftFrameworkofAISPriorityActionDevelopedintheVectorWorkshop ......... 31

INTRODUCTION

Theplightofournation’scoastalwatershasbecomecommonplaceinmediareportsabouttheenvironment—excessnutrients,lowoxygen,contaminatedsediments,anddepletedfisherieshaveoftendominatednewsstories.Onlyinthelasttwentyyears,however,havewecometounderstandyetanotherimpacttocoastalsystems,onethathasoftenhaddevastatingconsequences:theintroductionofuncontrollablenon‐nativespecies.Throughanetworkofpathways,diversearraysofalienspecieshavechangedourwatersheds:somehavedisruptedfoodwebsandinmanyinstanceshavecausedirreparableharm.ExecutiveOrder13112definedalienspeciesasthose“whoseintroductiondoesorislikelytocauseeconomicorenvironmentalharmorharmtohumanhealth”(ExecutiveOrder13112,1999).Someaquaticspeciesintroductionsovertimehavehadimportantsocialbenefits,suchastheintentionalintroductionofthePacificoysterCrassostreagigasandtheaccidentalintro‐ductionoftheManilaclamVenerupisphilippinarum,bothnowthebasesofmajorshellfishindustriesinthePacificNorthwest.However,mostintroductions,thevastmajorityofwhichareunintentional,resultinfewbenefitstosociety.Managementeffortstominimizetheimpactsofestablishednon‐nativespeciesarecostly—rarelydotheyresultineradication,butfrequentlytheyrequirecontinuouspopulationcontrol,suchaswiththesealampreyintheGreatLakesandPhragmitescordgrassonmuchoftheEasternseaboard.Themostcost‐effectiveapproach,bothecologicallyandeconomically,istopreventharmfulspeciesfrombeingintroducedintoecosystemsinthefirstplace.Theprinciplesofvectormanagementprovidesuchanapproach—theyholdmuchpromiseforreducinginvasivespeciesintroductionsandpreventingthelossofbiodiversityandtheeconomicconsequencesthatoftenfollow(RuizandCarlton,2003).Anintegratedprogramofpreventionthroughvectormanagementaimsatclosingthedoorsastightlyaspossibletoharmfulnon‐nativespeciesandoffersthebestprospectsagainstpreventingpotentialnewinvasions.ExecutiveOrder13112calledforthedevelopmentofmanagementplansfor“identify[ing]pathwaysbywhichinvasivespeciesareintroducedandforminimizingtheriskofintroductionsviathosepathways.”Towardstheseends,theMid‐AtlanticPanelonAquaticInvasiveSpeciesorganizedaworkshopinDecember2009thatbroughttogetherdistinguishedscientistsandpolicyleadersfromacrossthecountrytodiscusstheresearch,management,educationandpublicengagementchallenges—andopportunities—fordevelopinganaction‐basedvectormanagementframeworktopreventnewexoticspeciesintroductions.

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Theworkshop’saimwastoidentifyoutcome‐basedactionsforvectormanagementthatMid‐Atlanticstates,localgovernments,NGOs,stateandfederallegislaturesandagencies,theChesapeakeBayProgram,andindividualscouldeffectivelypursue.Participantsfirstdiscussedtwomajorvectors,(1)maritimeshippingand(2)livetrade,andtheprimarypathwaysthroughwhichnon‐nativespeciesmaketheirwayintoMid‐Atlanticwaters,definedbroadlyasthecoastaloceantofreshwaterreachesoftheregion:

• Maritimeshippingvector—itsmajorpathwaysareballastwater(BW)dischargesandshipfouling.

• Livetradevector—itsmajorpathwaysarelivebait,aquariumspecies,aquaculture,liveseafood,andaquaticplants.

Basedonformalpresentations,summaries,anddiscussionsofcurrentknowledgeaboutthesevectorsandpathways—togetherwithrelatedmattersonregulations,education,andpublicengagement—workshopparticipantsidentifiedsignificantknowledgegapsandactionsrequiredtosupportavectormanagementapproachtopreventnewbioinvasions.Inassessingthesegaps,theworkshopbeganbyexaminingprogressoverthelastdecadeincontrollingspeciesintroductionsviathepathwayofballastwaterdischarges—perhapsthesinglebestexampleofinvasivespeciesvectormanagement.ThepolicysuccessesinBWmanagementmayofferguidelinesonapplyingpreventativemanagementprinciplestothecomplexissuesofreducingbioinvasionsfromthesemorediversepathways.

AISWORKSHOPAGENDA

Inaddressingthechallengeofbioinvasionsfrommanysources,theAquaticInvasiveSpeciesMid‐AtlanticRegionalWorkshop2009“VectorManagement:APreventionSolution”setanagenda(seeAppendix)thatfirstcalledforstatusreportsonourknowledgeofmajorvectorsandpathwaysinMid‐Atlanticwaters.Whilespeakerssummarizedthestateofballastwaterregulationsandtechnologiesformeetingnewin‐portdischargestandardsin2012(see“HighlightsofPresentationsonMajorAquaticVectorsintheMid‐Atlantic”),amajorfocusofthepresentationswasonotherpathways,inparticular,shipfoulingandpathwaysthathavebeengroupedunderthelivetradevector:(1)livebaithandlinganddisposal,(2)aquariumspecies,(3)aquacultureandliveseafood,and(4)aquaticplants.Workshopparticipantsthenbrokeintosmallergroupstoidentifyspecificgapsinresearch,management,andeducationthatataminimumneededtobeclosedifstatesintheMid‐Atlanticregionaretotakeonacoordinatedprogramofvectormanagementforcontrollingnewaquaticbioinvasions.Theworkshop’sballastwaterpresentationsnotedthattwentyyearsagothezebramusselinvasionoftheGreatLakesexemplifiedhowdevastatingBWdischargeshavebeenasakeypathwayforintroducingbioinvasivespecies.Thesedischargeswiththeirdiverseassem‐blagesoforganismsfromforeignecosystemshaveledtotranslocationsworldwideof


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hundredsofspeciesofmicrobes,crustaceans,shellfish,manyotherinvertebrates,andfish.WhilethezebramusselimpactsonGreatLakesecologycatalyzedwidespreadcallsforprotectiveactionsandledtofederal/stateregulationsforreducingnewbioinvasionsviaBWdischarges,thecorrespondingimpactofbioinvasionsinEuropeanandAsiancoastalwatersgalvanizedinternationalcooperationthatledtosignificantagreementsforreducingtheimpactsofBWdischargesfromoneportintoanother(ForfurtherdetailsrefertoInternationalMaritimeOrganization,http://globallast.imo.org/).Workshopspeakersexplainedthatwhileballastwaterdischargeprotocolsnowlargelycenteronmid‐oceanwaterexchange,asometimes‐problematicprocedureforvesselstability,newonboardtreatmenttechnologiesinvariousstagesofdevelopmentwillmakeitpossibletoshiftcurrentregulationsfromoceanexchangetoarrivaldischargestandardsthatareaimedatzeroliveorganismrelease.DevelopmentoftheinternationalstandardsforshipdischargeshavebeendrivenbycleardemonstrationsofhowinvasiveorganismstransportedthroughtheBWpathwayhaveseverelyaffectedaquaticecosystems—theGreatLakes,theChesapeakeBay,theSanFranciscoBay,andtheBlack,Baltic,andCaspianseas—bothbiologicallyandeconomically.Thoughgapsstillexistinballastwatervectormanagement,thecontinualrefiningofinternationalBWdischargeregulationsisamajor“success”storyinthatitdemonstrateshowscientificunderstandingofapathwayanditsecosystemthreatscanprovidetherationaleandfoundationforpoliticalwilltotakeeffectiveactions,nationallyandglobally.However,majorbio‐invasionspathways—thatresultintheunregulatedreleaseofexoticaqua‐culturespecies(molluscs,fish,plants),andaquariumfishandplantsintotheenvironment,aswellastheimproperdisposalofnon‐nativelivebaitandtheuncontrolledreleaseoforganismsfrombiofouledvessels—aremorefragmentedthanBWpathways.Preventionofbioinvasionsviathesepathwaysisacomplexproblemthatwillrequireacoordinatednetworkofscience‐basedregulation,governmentinspectionandenforcement,andanarrayofpublicoutreachandeducationtools.Inotherwords,minimizingintroductionsofunwantedspeciesfromthesepathwayspresentsproblemsequalto,ifnotmorechallenging,thancurrenteffortsforreducingthehazardsfromBWdischarges.

BioinvasionAlertsinMidAtlanticStates20052009

Species Vector

Orientalweatherfish* AquariumChinesemysterysnail* AquariumRustycrayfish* BaitChinesemittencrab* Ballast/FoodNorthernsnakehead* FoodAsianswampeel* FoodAsianclam* ManySpinywaterflea* ManyRed‐belliedpacu BaitRudd BaitAsiantigershrimp FoodNiletilapia FoodZebra/Quaggamussel Many

*Established(PamFuller,USGS).


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Becauseofscientificuncertaintiesinpredictingimpactsfromproblematicnon‐nativespecies,aprecautionaryapproachmaybethemostprotectivemeasureforpreventingtheirimportationorrelease:whenplausibleecosystemrisksexist,theburdenofproofthataspeciespresentsnodangeriswiththeimporterorreleaser.Managingbypreventionmustaccountforallactivevectorsthatbringnon‐nativeorganismsintocoastalwaterswithanunderstandingofwhyaspeciesistransportedinthefirstplace,whetheraccidentallyordeliberately;itsgeographicpath—whereitiscomingfromandwhereitisheaded;thewayitistraveling(e.g.,canals,roads);andhowitistransported(e.g.,ship).AsCarltonemphasized,anintegratedpreventionprogramwillrequireregularmonitoring,coordinationamongdifferentagencies,andtheabilitytointerruptthedeliveryatvariousstages,whetherbycontainingnon‐nativespeciesattheirsource,reducingtheirtransportsurvivalenroute,ornotallowingtheirreleaseatthedestination.

HIGHLIGHTSOFPRESENTATIONSONMAJORAQUATICVECTORSINTHEMID‐ATLANTIC

Developingavectormanagementframeworkforactionstopreventnewaquaticbioin‐vasionsbeganwithpresentationssummarizingourcurrentknowledgeofbioinvasionpathways,inordertoidentifygapsinthatknowledge.Presentationscenteredonthepathwaysoftwomajorvectors:(1)maritimeshipping(ballastwaterdischargesandshipfoulingpathways)and(2)livetrade(baithandlinganddisposal),aquariumspecies,aquacultureandliveseafood,andaquaticplants.InadditiontothescientificuncertaintiesthatJimCarltonhighlightedinhiskeynoteaddress,otheruncertaintiesincludedpublicoutreachandeducation.Whilecurrentoutreachandeducationeffortshavehadsomesuccess,amorecomprehensiveapproachisnecessaryforinformingthewide‐rangingandquitediversepublics—e.g.,boatowners,importers,distributors,retailers,buyers—onhowtheirbehaviorwithregardtonon‐nativeorganismscanadverselyaffectthehealthofaquaticecosystemsthattheythemselvescareforanddependon.Workshoppresentationsanddiscussionsrelatingtoeducationandpublicoutreachnotedthatwhiletraditionaloutreachavenuesoftenrelyonprintmedia(e.g.,brochures,posters,publicserviceannouncements,newspapers),broadcastalerts,stateregulations(andconsequentfines),andmorerecentlytheinternet,theireffectivenessinactuallyinfluencingoverallbehaviorhasbeenlimitedandoftennotmeasuredinanysubstantiveway.Thisisinpartbecausefewmetricsexisttomeasureoutreacheffectiveness.Participantsagreedthateducationandoutreachmustaimatmorethan“awareness”butatchangingbehaviorswithregardtonon‐nativespeciesanddevelopingsoundwaystoquantitativelyevaluatewhetherbehavior,actions,conduct,andperformancehavechanged.


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MaritimeShippingVector

BallastWaterDischargePathway.Discussionsoftheballastwaterpathwayhighlightedcriticallessonsabouttheimportanceofresearch.Forinstance,theSmithsonianEnvironmentalResearchCenter’s(SERC)ballastwaterstudies,andmanyothers,haveshownthatthedensityandvarietyofexoticspeciesindischargesdifferbaseduponportsoforigin.Thetake‐homepointisthatstrongresearchisanessentialcomponentforunderstandingthenuancesofapathwayandfordevelopingeffectiveregulations.Thisistosaythatadaptivemanagementiscritical.ThefollowingarehighlightsfromtheBWpresentations.♦TheNumberofShipArrivalstoU.S.PortsIsNotaGoodProxyforNonnativeSpecies“Pressure.”Vesselsthatdonotdischargewaterarenotathreatandthosethatundergoproperopen‐oceanexchangeposeareducedthreat.However,theshippingroutegreatlyaffectstheopportunityandabilitytocarryoutproperexchange(i.e.,≥200nauticalmilesfromanylandmass).VesselstravelingPan‐Americanroutes(cross‐latitude)deliverhighervolumesofun‐managedormis‐managedballastwaterthandotransoceanicarrivals(cross‐longitude)totheU.S.,becauseofgeographicandtemporallimitationsoftheformer.Furthermore,un‐managedandmis‐manageddischargevolumesfromPan‐AmericanarrivalsarebyfarthegreatestontheGulfofMexicocoastascomparedtotheEastandWestcoastsoftheU.S.Thesefindingsarebasedonballastwaterdischargedatafrom108,354vesselsatEastCoast,WestCoast,andGulfports,submittedtotheNationalBallastInformationCenterfromJan2005toDec31,2007.—WhitmanMiller♦DischargeRegulationstoShiftfromMidOceanExchangetoBallastWaterDisinfection.TheU.S.CoastGuard'sproposedballastwaterdischargestandardregulationwouldshiftthefocusofballastwatermanagementfrommid‐oceanexchangetotreatmentforreducingtheconcentrationoflivingorganisms.TheCoastGuardproposedatwo‐phasedapproach.UnderPhase1,beginningin2012,vesselswouldberequiredtomeettheballastwaterdischargestandard.Thetimelineformeetingthedischargestandardwoulddependbothonwhenavesselwasconstructedanditsballastwatercapacity.Thisproposedphase1standardisthesameasthatadoptedbytheInternationalMaritimeOrganization(IMO;http://www.uscg.mil/hq/cg5/cg522/cg5224/bwm.asp).UnderPhase2,beginningin2016anddependingontheoutcomeofapracticabilityreview,thestringencyofthedischargestandardwouldbeincreasedbyupto1000X.TheIMOregulationsadoptedin2004,andsubsequentmorestringentstandardspromulgatedbyseveralU.S.states,havesignificantlyspurredresearchonmethodsandtechnologiesforevaluatingtheefficacyofballastwatertreatmentsystems,bothforpurposesofapprovaloftreatmentsystemsaswellasforcomplianceassessmentonboardvessels(IMO,2004).—RichEverett♦TestingandTreatmentTechnologies.ThetestingandevaluationofballastwatertreatmentsystemstopreventthespreadofinvasivespeciesischallengingandcomplexbutreasonablemethodstovalidatetheabilityoftreatmentstomeetIMOD2,andproposedUSCGPhase1,dischargestandardsnowexist.However,nocurrentmethodsor


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approachescanverify,withanylevelofconfidence,thattreatmentsystemsmeetmorestringentdischargestandards,suchasthoseputforwardbyseveralstatesandproposedasPhase2bytheUSCG.Therearenowfourformalballastwatertreatmenttestfacilitiesaroundtheworld,withothersindevelopment.TwoofthetestfacilitiesarelocatedintheU.S.:theMaritimeEnvironmentalResourceCenter(ontheChesapeakeBay)andtheGreatShipsInitiative(onLakeSuperior).Currently,eightuniquetreatmentsystemshavebeencertifiedasmeetingIMOD2standardsbydifferentAdministrations(Germany,Korea,Liberia,Malta,MarshallIslands,Norway,Panama,andUnitedKingdom)andtheyappeartohavethepotentialtomeetUSCGPhaseIregulations.Treatmentapproachesincludechlorination,deoxygenation,filtration+UV,andozone.—MarioTamburri♦FederalRegulationsofBallastWaterDischarges.TheU.S.CoastGuardandtheU.S.EPAhavefederaloversightofBWmanagement,althoughstatesretainauthorityto“adoptorenforcecontrolmeasuresoveraquaticnuisancespecies.”SinceDecember2009,EPAhasbeenissuingVesselGeneralPermitsundertheCleanWaterAct;regulations,whichcoveredsuchdischargesasengineeffluentandpaintcoatings,alsonowrequiremandatoryballastwaterexchangeandsalt‐waterflushingforshipsfromoutsidetheEEZandthoseinPacificnearshorevoyages(http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/home.cfm?program_id=350).EPAdoesnotyetrequirenumericlivingorganismstandardsbecausetreatmenttechnologieswerenotavailableandeconomicallyachievableunderthebestavailabletechnology(BAT)standard.—RichEverett♦StakeholderParticipationinBallastWaterManagementandHullFouling:TheCaseofCalifornia.IndevelopingprotocolsforBWandhullfoulingmanagement,CaliforniausedatechnicalAdvisoryGroup,whichincludesrepresentativesfromallgroupsthatmightbeaffectedbyregulations:themaritimeindustry,ports,stateagencies,environmentalorganizations,andresearchinstitutions.TheAdvisoryGroupensuresrulemakingdecisionsconsiderthebestavailablescienceandconcernsofaffectedstakeholders;ithasbeencriticalindesigningandfundingasuccessfulinceptionofaregulatoryprogram.Theprogramisfundedthroughfeesassessedontheindustryonapervoyagebasis,whichavoidsstatewidefundingissuesandimprovesstrongcollaborationwithindustry.Regulationsincludecompulsoryballastwaterexchangebyallships,reportingrequirements,recordkeeping,foulingremoval,andhullhusbandryreporting.Datamanagementdealswithsome10,000ballastwater‐reportingformsannually.VesselsthatoperatewithinthePacificCoastalregionmustexchangeballastwaterbeyond50nauticalmiles.—MauryaFalkner

ShipFoulingPathway.Theaccumulationofmicroorganisms,plants,algae,andanimalsonhullsandespeciallyinnicheareassuchasseachests,rudders,bowthrusters,andsterntubes,isoftenoverlookedasasignificantpathwayfortranslocatingnon‐nativespecies.Researcheffortshavebeenlimitedonunderstandingthispathway.♦ShipBiofoulingResearch.Somebaselineinformationisavailableon(1)foulingacrossvesseltypes,(2)effectsofvoyagecharacteristicsonaccumulationoffoulingorganisms,and(3)husbandrypracticesregardingnicheareas,thoughmuchworkisstill


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needed.Arecentstudyfoundthat45%ofspeciesintroductionsareunambiguouslylinkedtoshipfouling(Hewitt,C.L.andM.L.Campbell,2009).Datacompiledfrom20studiesrevealedthatnearlya1000differentspecieshavebeenrecordedwithinshipfoulingcommunitiesworldwide;Arthropodawerethehighestinnumbers,followedbyAnnelidaandMollusca.—IanDavidson

♦ShipBiofoulingRegulations.Currently,fewregulationsareinplacetoinhibitbioinvasionsthroughshipfoulingalthoughindirect(inadvertent)managementactionsregardinganti‐foulingpaintusehelppreventbiofoulingaccumulation.In2007IMOtookuptheissueasaworkitemandin2008aninternationalconferencefocusedonshipfouling.Somestateshaveprohibitedvesselsfromconductingunderwaterhullhusbandry,e.g.,MaineandMassachusetts.Californiahaslanguageinitslawthatrequiresmanagementofhulls.Inaddition,Californiaregulationsincludesomelimited“bestmanagementpractices”languageregardingshipfouling.WhilethereisaCongressionalResolutiononhullfouling—U.S.H.R.3618CleanHullActof2009—itisfocusedonanti‐foulingsystemsinlightofthephaseoutoftributyltin‐basedanti‐foulingpaints.Although,thisresolutionlackslanguagespecifictoaquaticinvasivespecies,anti‐foulingsystemsarelikelytohaveimplicationsforAIStransfer.—RobinDanesi♦RecreationalBoatsandBiofouling.Non‐commercialvesselsintheMid‐Atlanticmaybeanimportantvectorforbioinvasivespecies,thoughhullfoulingamongsuchboatsishighlyvariableanddependsonmanyfactors,forexample,thenumberofocean‐goingvesselsandthefrequencyandtimingofbottomcleaning.Smallerrecreationalvesselsposeadditionalrisksparticularlyinareaswhereboatstransportedbytrailersacrosswatershedscanalsomoveinvasivespecieswiththem.U.S.studiesofrecreationalandfishingvesselbiofoulingarelimitedandprovideminimalinformationregardingtheeffectivenessofcleaningtechniquesandeducationandpublicoutreachcampaigns(Rothlisbergeretal.,2010;Horvath,2008).

LiveTradeVector

Unregulatedor,atbest,poorlyregulatedspeciesimports,sales,anddistributionofnon‐nativespecieshavebeenmajorfactorsincoastalbioinvasionsofMid‐Atlanticwaters.ThecaseofMSXdisease(causedbytheprotistHaplosporidiumnelsoni)inoystersintheChesapeakeBayandotherEastCoastwaters—broughtinbyexperimentswiththenon‐nativeCrassostreagigasinthe1950s—maybeamongthemostnotoriousanddevastating.TheNationalInvasiveSpeciesCouncil(NISC)2008‐2012NationalInvasiveSpeciesManagementPlan(http://www.invasivespecies.gov/)calledfordevelopingscreeningprocessesthatevaluatespeciesmovedintentionallyintrade.Workonthesescreeningeffortsison‐goingbythefederalagenciesoftheNISC.PeterJenkinspointedoutthatonlythreecountrieshavepre‐importscreeningsystems:Australia,NewZealand,andIsrael—whynottheUnitedStates?Controllingthediversepathwaysinthelivetradevectoriscomplicatedbynumbersofdifferentfactors—forexample,somespeciesmaybeintentionallyreleased,someunintentionally,whileotherssuchastheChinesemittencrabmaybeillegallyimported


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(see”EducationandPublicEngagement”).AlthoughlimitedstudiesindifferentpartsoftheU.S.haveprovidedsomeinsightsintothevolumeanddiversityoflivetrade,veryfewstudieshavetriedtoquantifytherelativeimportanceofdifferentlivetradevectors.Amongtheprimarypathwaysare(a)indiscriminatedumpingoflivebait,containersandpackingmaterial;(b)releaseofliveorganismsfromhomeaquariums;(c)escapeofliveseafoodproducts;and(d)escapeofnon‐indigenousplantsfrombackyardornamentalpondsortheirdeliberateuseinhabitatrestoration.Thefollowingsummary,basedontalksbypresenters(primarilyEdwinGrosholz,RobertWiltshire,andPamFuller)andfollow‐updiscussions,highlightsourcurrentunderstandingoflivetradevectorsintheMid‐Atlantic.

LiveBaitPathways.Non‐nativespeciesbaitfishandmanyspeciesofinvertebratesaresoldliveasbait,thusbecomingpotentiallystrongvectorsinthemselvesandintheassociatedorganismsthattagalong.AstudybyCohenetal.(2001)foundthatbaitboxesofmarinewormsfromtheStateofMainecontainedupto24otherspecies.Similarly,Yarishetal.(2009)reportedonlivebaitwormspackagedwithseaweedsoldinLongIslandSound—theyidentified“14speciesofmacroalgae,twospeciesofharmfulmicroalgaeand23differentcategoriesofinvertebrates,”thusconfirmingthat“baitwormpackagingcanbeavectorfornon‐nativespecies.”Inanotherexample,inatwo‐yearperiod,66,000Namalycastisabiuma—seven‐foot“nuclearworms”—wereimportedfromVietnam;inMaryland,theDepartmentofNaturalResourceslistedthespeciesasapotentialinvasive(J.McKnight,pers.comm.,2009).Currentlythereareonlylimitedfederalrequirementsforscreeningnewspeciesimports,andinspectionsandenforcementofcurrentregulationsarespotty(www.aphis.usda.gov/import_export/animals/animal_import/marine_import_fish.shtml).AquariaPathways:Import,Wholesale,Retail,andHome.Onlyafewstudieshaveassessedimpactsofliveorganismvectors—forexample,asurveyofimportersanddistributorsinacoastalMassachusettsregionbyWeigleetal.(2005)foundthatnearlyallrespondingdistributors(i.e.,petstores,seafoodmarkets)tendtodischargeuntreatedholdingwaters—thesedischargesmayharborahostofexoticorganismsthat“hitchhike”onfishandshellfish—intolocalwaters.Changetal.(2009)investigatedthenumberoffishspeciesforsaleintheSanFranciscoBayareaandSacramentoaquariumstoresbysurveyingfishtaxaandapproximatesalesvolumeinbothlarge(bigbox)andsmallaquarium/petstores:ofmorethan850speciessoldbystores,27hadthepotentialtosurviveifreleased—ofthese,sixarealreadyestablishedintheBay‐Delta.AquacultureandLiveSeafoodPathways.Expandingmarketsforliveseafood—non‐nativefish,shellfishspecies,andcrustaceans—haveincreasedthepossibilitiesofbioinvasionsnotonlyofimportedspeciesbuttheirassociatedfaunainwaterandmaterialsusedforholdingandcleaningtheseafood.Forexample,themovementofabalonestocksfromSouthAfricatoCaliforniaintomaricultureplantsintroduced,throughopenoutflowpipesintotheadjacentrockyintertidalzone,aparasiticpolychaeteTerebrasabellaheterouncinatathatshutdownproductionandimpactedfacilitiesforseveralyears,costingmillionsofdollars.Chapmanetal.(2003)found24speciesoflivenon‐indigenousbivalvesforsaleinNorthwestgrocerystores—11ofthe24specieshaveestablishedthemselves(somethroughvectorsotherthanthelive


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seafoodtrade)andotherspeciescouldwellbecomeestablishedorintroducenewmicroorganisms.Evenwithfreshorevenfrozenseafood,adangerexistsforpathogen,ordisease,introductions,e.g.,virusinfrozenherring.AquaticPlantPathways.Whileaquatichorticultureisthefastestgrowingsegmentoftheplantindustry—withanestimated16millionbackyardpondsalone—regulationsdesignedtoprotectwaterwaysarelimited.Therearemanyexamplesofintentionaltranslocationsofnon‐nativeplantsthathavebecomeaggressivelyinvasiveandcostlytocontain,amongthem,hydrilla(Hydrillaverticillata),waterhyacinth(Eichhorniacrassipes),Brazilianelodea(Egeriadensa),andEurasianwatermilfoil(Myriophyllumspicatum).TheU.S.istheleadingconsumerofaquatichorticultureplants,withitslargestsourcesfromIndonesia,Philippines,andtheSouthPacific.

Thestatusreportsonthemaritimeandlivetradepathwaysofnon‐nativespeciesintroductionssetthegroundworkforworkshopparticipantstodiscussoutcome‐basedactionsessentialfordevelopingaframeworkofvectormanagementpolicy.

FRAMEWORKFORVECTORMANAGEMENTOFAQUATICINVASIVESPECIES

Amanagementplanforpreventingnewaquaticbioinvasionsmustbeginwithknowledgeaboutvectorsandthenon‐nativespeciescomingintotheMid‐Atlanticregion,scientificassessmentsabouttheirpotentialtoestablishwildpopulationsandtheirpotentialtohaveecological,economic,orotherimpacts,andpriorityactionstopreventthereleaseofthosespeciesidentifiedaspotentiallydangerous.Whileregulationsresultingfromthenegativeassessmentofanindividualnon‐nativespecies’invasiveriskmaybecostly,time‐consuming,anddisruptivetobusiness,overthelongterm,ecologicalandeconomiccostsarelikelytobemuchhigherthanifthereleaseofinvasivespecieswerepreventedinthefirstplace.Further,apreventionmanagementapproachcantakelesscostlyalternativeapproachestoregulatorylistingofthehundredsoforganismsandtheir“hitchhikers”thatcomeintoU.S.waters.Alternativesincludethe“coarsescreen”approachadvocatedbysomeenvironmentalorganizations(Jenkins,2007)orcreating“speciesofconcern”lists(McKnight,pers.comm.,2009)thatprovideastartingpointforpreventionthroughoutreachandeducationbeforeinvokingregulatorylimitations.Despitelimitedresources,majoropportunitiesexisttocoordinateacrossstatesintheMid‐Atlanticregionandbringtogethermultiplestakeholders,thusincreasingthenumberofvestedinterestsandhelpingtoinstillbuy‐inandresponsibilityforinvasivespeciesissues—California’sactionsinpolicy‐makingandfundingforballastwatermanagementareamodel.Toaddressthegapsinourknowledgeofthe(1)maritimeshippingvector—specifically,shipfoulingpathways—and(2)livetradevector—namely,bait,aquariafish,liveseafood,andaquaticplantspathways—theworkshopidentifiedfiveknowledgeneeds/actionsthatcutacrossallofthese:


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1. Assessmentofthediversityofallnon‐indigenousspeciesimportedintotheMid‐Atlanticregionthroughthecomprehensivesamplingofallactivevectorsintheregiontoestimatethespeciespool.

2. Determinationofpotentiallydangerousspecies,usingsuchtoolsasspeciesblack‐

and‐whitelists,speciesofconcernlists,and/orcomprehensiveriskassessments.3. Priorityactionstohaltimportationsorreleases,e.g.,biologicalscreening.4. Educationandoutreachactionstoaddressrisksposedbytheintentionaland

unintentionalreleaseofnon‐nativespecies.5. Enforcementaction.

WhilestatesintheMid‐Atlanticregionhavetackledelementsoftheseneeds,acohesiveprogramofinterstatevectormanagementpreventiondoesnotexist—suchaprogramwillbenefitgreatlyfromcoordinationacrosstheregiononasuiteofcollectiveeffortstosuccessfullycombataquaticbioinvasions.Workshopparticipantsorganizedsucheffortsintoarigorousframeworkthatincludes(1)research,(2)management,(3)educationandpublicengagement,and(4)regulationandenforcement.IntheOutcome‐BasedPriorityActionssectionthatfollows,thisframeworkservesasthebasisfordetailingregionalneedsforpreventingtheintroductionofnon‐nativeaquaticspeciesthroughmaritimeandlivetradevectors.

OUTCOME‐BASEDPRIORITYACTIONSFORSPECIFICAISPATHWAYS

Workshopparticipantsdetailedspecificresearch,management,andeducation/publicengagementactionsformajorAISpathwaysintheMid‐Atlantic.Statesintheregionhaveundertakenvariousactionsalready,forexample,MarylandDNRconductedasocialresearchstudyonbaitusageinordertodeterminethepotentialecologicalproblemsthatdifferentbaitscouldpose(Kilianetal.,2010).AkeychallengeforvectormanagementofaquaticspecieswillbecoordinatingworkalreadydoneintheMid‐Atlantic,leveragingregion‐widestudies,andundertakingoutreachandeducationinitiativesthatarelinkeddirectlytobiologicalandsocialscienceresearchstudiesofvectormanagement.MaritimeShippingVector

ShipFouling

Ingeneral,foulingfromcommercialmaritimeships,commercialfishingvessels,andrecreationalboatspresentrelatedproblems,thoughatwidelydiversescalesandoftenwithuniquelydifferentresearch,management,andeducation/outreachneeds.


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ResearchPrioritiesandInformationNeeds• IdentifythosewhocontrolthefundingforcommercialshippingcompaniesthatenterMid‐AtlanticwatersandevaluateaCalifornia‐stylebuy‐inbyshippingcompaniesregardingcontrolofnon‐indigenousspeciesreleasedfromships.

• SamplebiofoulingonarangeofvesselsenteringtheMid‐Atlanticregiontodeterminepatternsofpropaguledeliverytotheregion.

• Determinethefrequenciesofdrydock,cleaning,coatingforcommercialvessels—andtheirportsoforigin—inordertoassessoperationalandmaintenancepracticesthatmayinfluencetherisksofintroductionamongships.(OneexampleisCalifornia’shullhusbandryreportingform—http://www.slc.ca.gov/Spec_Pub/MFD/Ballast_Water/Compliance_Rptng_Docs.html)

• DeterminemovementofrecreationalvesselsintheMid‐Atlanticinordertodevelopamatrixofrecommendationstominimizethespreadandimpactsofnon‐native,fouling‐transferredorganisms.

• Expandandsupporteffortstoconductcost‐benefitstudiesforthetimingofcleaninginrelationtovesselperformanceandfuelefficiency.

• Inventoryregulationsforrecreationalandcommercialvesselcleaningandidentifyregulatorygaps.

ManagementandRegulation• Developa“vision”ofsharedgoalsamongAISregionaltaskforces,whichcanbeusedtoworkwithSeaGrantprograms,stateandfederalagencies,NGOs,andotherimportantstakeholders,includingshippingcompaniesandrecreationalboaters,forsuccessfulcoordinationbetweencommercialshipsandrecreationalvessels.

• Investigatetheefficacyoffeesforamorerobustsystemofboatinspections—comparewithotherstatesontheEastCoastsuchasConnecticutandMassachusetts,whichhaveboatinginspectionrequirements.

Education/Outreach• Fosteranethicofrecreationalboatcleaningbasedonboateractivitywithinandacrossstateborders.

• Determinetheeffectivenessofcurrentoutreacheffortsoninvasivespeciesatpublicboatramps.


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LiveTradeVector

Bait

ResearchPrioritiesandInformationNeeds• InventoryandconductgapandinconsistencyanalysesofstateregulationsintheMid‐Atlantic.

• Conductcomprehensivesurveysonthebaittrade,e.g.,wholesalers,sellers,purchasers.

• Assesssocioeconomiceffectsofthebaitindustry,e.g.,salesvolumeanddistribution.• Determinespeciesthathavecausedecologicalproblemsandthosewithpotentialtodoso.

• Evaluatethreatsofhitchhikerorganisms—associatedspeciesindunnage,pathogens,parasites,potentialdiseases—onnon‐nativebaits.

• Assesslow‐costabioticpackagingmaterialsandtheiravailability.• Conductsocialresearchonbaitusageanddisposal.

ManagementandRegulation• Developastate‐based“whitelist”forbait;usespeciesalreadyestablished.• Developregulationsforbaitpackaging,employingastakeholderapproach.• Developdiseasetestingandstandardstoensurebaitspeciesarenotcarryingdiseases.

• Establishunambiguousbaitdisposalprotocolsatpointofsale.

Education/Outreach• Identifyanddifferentiatetargetaudiences,e.g.,wholesalers,retailers,fishers,associations,press/media,lawenforcement,culturalgroups,tournamentfishers,spokespeoplewhoare“superstars”inthefishingworld.

• Prioritizeoutlets,e.g.,weeklyfishingcolumns,recreationalbulletins,fishingreports,charteroperators,andprogramsandpublicationsforchildren.

• Develop“speciesofconcern”listsforbaitsintheMid‐Atlanticforvoluntaryactionbyfishers.


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• Encourageuseofartificial,biodegradablebaitswhenfeasible.

• Determinetheeffectivenessofoutreachandmanagementeffortsoninvasivespeciesassociatedwithbaitshipments.

Aquaculture,AquaticHorticulture,Aquaria

ResearchPrioritiesandInformationNeeds• InventoryandconductgapandinconsistencyanalysesofstateregulationsintheMid‐Atlantic.

• Determinenon‐nativespeciesimportedtoregion,sources,volume.• Assemblebiologicaldata,e.g.,temperaturetolerances,diseases.• Determinepotentialdiseases,parasites,andpathogensinordertodevelopscreeningmethods.

• Inventorypondaquariaintheregionandrelatedinformation,e.g.,howmanyinfloodpronearea,disposalknowledgebyowners.

• Determineeconomicvaluetothestatesofincomefromtheseindustries.

ManagementandRegulation• Developappropriatebestmanagementpractices.• Establishdisposalprotocolsatpointofsale.

Education/Outreach• Identifyanddifferentiatetargetaudiences,e.g.,wholesalers,retailers,fishers,associations,press/media,lawenforcement,culturalgroups.

• Develop“speciesofconcern”listsforvoluntaryactionbyindustryandconsumers.• Prioritizeoutletsforpreventingintentionalandunintentionalreleases.

CONCLUSIONS

Thisworkshop,developedandsupportedbytheMid‐AtlanticPanelonAquaticInvasiveSpeciesandMarylandSeaGrant,hasproducedavectormanagementframeworkofoutcome‐basedactionsthataimsatpreventingnewbioinvasionsintheregion’scoastalwaters.Focusingonpathwaysoftwomajorvectors,priorityactionshavebeenidentified,someofwhichareachievableintheshortterm,whileotherswilltakelonger.Bysetting


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realisticend‐pointsandmeasurableoutcomes,statesintheMid‐Atlantichaveanoppor‐tunitytoinitiateaprogramofpreventativevectormanagementofAISacrosstheregion.ThenextstepsarenowamatterfortheMid‐AtlanticPaneloftheAISTaskforcetotakeup—bycombininglimitedresourcesamongtaskforcestatesandbringinginmultiplestakeholders,itwillbepossibletodemonstratehowscientificknowledgeandpoliticalwillcaninterrupttheseeminglywholesaleinvasionofourwatersbynon‐nativespecies.

REFERENCES

Chang,A.L.,J.D.Grossman,T.S.Spezio,H.W.Weiskel,J.C.Blum,J.W.Burt,etal.2009.Tacklingaquaticinvasions:risksandopportunitiesfortheaquariumfishindustry.BiologicalInvasions11:773‐785.Chapman,J.W.,T.W.Miller,andE.V.Coan.2003.Liveseafoodspeciesasrecipesforinvasion.ConservationBiology17:1386‐1395.Cohen,A.N.,A.Weinstein,M.A.Emmett,W.Lau,andJ.T.Carlton.2001.Investigationsintotheintroductionofnon‐indigenousmarineorganismsviathecross‐continentaltradeinmarinebaitworms.ReportfortheU.S.FishandWildlifeService,29pp.ExecutiveOrder.1999.ExecutiveOrder13112:InvasiveSpecies.FederalRegister:Feb8,1999,64number25.Hewitt,C.L.andM.L.Campbell.2009.Assessmentofrelativecontributionofvectorstotheintroductionandtranslocationofmarineinvasivespecies.ReportfortheDepartmentofAgriculture,FisheriesandForestry,45.Horvath,T.2008.Economicallyviablestrategyforpreventionofinvasivespeciesintroduction:CasestudyofOtsegoLake,NewYork.AquaticInvasions3(1):3‐9.IMO.2004.Internationalconventionforthecontrolandmanagementofships’ballastwaterandsediments.IMOConvention,February13,2004.Jenkins,P.T.2007.Brokenscreens:TheregulationofliveanimalimportsintheUnitedStates.ReportfortheDefendersofWildlife,58pp.Kilian,J.V.,R.J.Klauda,S.Widman,M.Kashiwagi,R.Bourquin,S.Weglein,etal.2010.Astudyofthesale,use,andreleaseoflivebaitinMaryland:Acallforstricterregulations,bettereducation,andenhancedmonitoringtoreducethethreatofinvasivespeciesintroductions.DraftReport,21pp.McKnight,J.2009.MDDepartmentofNaturalResources.Personalcommunication.


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Rothlisberger,J.D.,W.L.Chadderton,J.McNulty,andD.M.Lodge.2010.Aquaticinvasivespeciestransportviatraileredboats:Whatisbeingmoved,whoismovingit,andwhatcanbedone.Fisheries35(3):121–132.Ruiz,G.M.andJ.T.Carlton.2003.Invasionvectors:Aconceptualframeworkformanagement.Pages459‐498inG.M.RuizandJ.T.Carlton(Eds.),Invasivespecies:vectorsandmanagementstrategies.WashingtonD.C.:IslandPress.Weigle,S.M.,L.D.Smith,J.T.Carlton,andJ.Pederson.2005.Assessingtheriskofintroducingexoticspeciesviathelivemarinespeciestrade.ConservationBiology10(1):213‐223.Yarish,C.,R.Whitlatch,G.Kraemerz,andS.Lin.2009.Multi‐componentevaluationtominimizethespreadofaquaticinvasiveseaweeds,harmfulalgalbloommicroalgae,andinvertebratesviathelivebaitvectorinLongIslandSound.ReportfortheDepartmentofEcologyandEvolutionaryBiology,UniversityofConnecticut,24pp.


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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thedesignandorganizationofthemeetingwasguidedbyasteeringcommitteecomposedofthefollowingmembership:

SafraAltman,NOAA/OAR,Planning,PolicyandEvaluation, SilverSpring,MDJonathanMcKnight,MarylandDepartmentNaturalResources,Annapolis,MDFredrikaMoser,MarylandSeaGrant,UMCES,CollegePark,MDLisaMoss,U.S.FishandWildlifeService,CharlesCity,VAGregRuiz,SmithsonianEnvironmentalResearchCenter,Edgewater,MDReadPorter,EnvironmentalLawInstitute,Washington,D.C.JulieSlacum,U.S.FishandWildlifeService,Annapolis,MDMarioTamburri,AllianceforCoastalTechnologies,UMCES,Solomons,MD

MarylandSeaGrantandtheMid‐AtlanticPanelonAquaticNuisanceSpeciesaregratefultothemfortheirtimeanddedicationtotheworkshop.Manythankstoourspeakerswhoinspiredallofusand,inparticulartothosewhodid“doubleduty”asfacilitators:IanDavidson,PamFuller,EdwinGrosholz,andGregRuiz.SpecialthankstoJamesCarltonwhoseadvocacyforvectormanagementwasacrucialforcebehindtheworkshop’sinitialplanningandwhogavetirelesslyofhistimeandenergyinworkshopplanning,drivingtheagendathroughhiskeynoteaddressandinhisthoughtfuleditingofthefinalreport.Thankstothemanycontributorsandeditorswhoworkedtirelesslyonproducingwork‐shopmaterialsandtheworkshopreport.Thosecontributorsinclude:SafraAltman,JamesCarlton,JennaClark,RichEverett,EricaGoldman,EdwinGrosholz,LisaMoss,JessicaSmits,andallthemembersofourveryhard‐workingWorkshopSteeringCommittee,notedabove.SafraAltmanandJennaClarkservedasworkshoprapporteurs.Inparticular,MarylandSeaGrantstaffcontributedsignificantlytoproducingworkshopmaterials,workshoplogistics,graphicdesign,webdevelopment,andfinalreportdevelopmentincluding:JennaClark,KimCox,ChristineGallagher,DanJacobs,andSandyRodgers.FundingforthisprojectwasprovidedbytheMid‐AtlanticPanelonAquaticNuisanceSpecies,withadditional,inkind,supportfromMarylandSeaGrant.

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outcome-based actions in vector management

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