physical and social profile of study...
TRANSCRIPT
20
CHAPTER II
PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL PROFILE OF STUDY REGION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Relief, physiography, geology, climate and natural vegetation are
the principal elements of the physical setup of the region that plays significant
role in configuration of the landforms, hydrology and morphometry of river
development. Geographical set up of region has therefore; control on the socio-
economical status of human population. Agricultural development of the upper
Krishna basin is controlled due to the natural hazards both physical and
cultural factors, which are unevenly distributed and developed. Flood and
drought disaster causes are related with the physical set up and climatical
elements. The attempt here has been made to study the impact of physical and
social factors on the development of the region due to river linkages for that
Landuse; agricultural scenario etc. has been duly looked into this chapter.
2.2 GEOGRAPHICAL SETUP
Geographical setup of the upper Krishna basin is conspicuous with
several characteristic topographical features and climatic conditions. While
looking into the geographical setup here region, topography, geology, drainage
and soil are the factors taken into consideration.
The study region ‘Upper Krishna Basin’ extends between 15˚44´ to 18˚
03´16´´ North latitude and 73˚ 33´ to 75˚ 16´30´´ East longitudes. Total
catchment area covered by the river basin is 15,190 km² with 97 watersheds
and 232 km of the total run in Maharashtra (Diddee, J. et al 2002). It covers
majority portion of Satara, Sangli and Kolhapur districts. The tripartite study
region of three districts is delimited by Raigarh and Pune districts from the
north, Solapur district and part of Karnataka State from east and south,
whereas, from the western boundary there are Sindhudurg and Ratnagiri
districts.
21
Tahsil-wise Geographical Area (km2)
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Wai
Mah
abal e
s hvar
J aol
i
Sat
ara
Ko
r ega
on
Pat
an
Kar
ad
Kh
atav
Kh
anapu
r
Sh
i ral
a
Wal w
a
Tasg
aon
Kad
egaon
Pal
us
Mir
aj
Kav
t em
anh
akal
Jat h
Sah
uwad
i
Pan
hala
Hat
kan
anga
l e
Sh
irol
Kar
veer
Bav
ada
Rad
han
agar
i
Kag
al
Bhu
dar g
ad
Aja
r a
Gad
hing
l aj
Cha
nd
gad
Tahsils
Area
(k
m2)
Fig. 2.1
Table 2.1: Tahsil-wise Geographical Area (km2)
District Tahsil Area District Tahsil Area
Wai 598 Kavathemanhkal 735.63
Mahabaleshvar 232 Sangli
Jath 2245.38
Jaoli 896 Shahuwadi 1040.92
Satara 919 Panhala 567.29
Koregaon 948 Hatkanangale 609.37
Patan 1334 Shirol 507.83
Karad 1074 Karveer 671.13
Satara
Khatav 1325 Bavda 281.58
Khanapur 787.25 Radhanagari 890.10
Shirala 482.58 Kagal 547.54
Walwa 788.51 Bhudargad 642.85
Tasgaon 968.29 Ajra 547.51
Kadegaon 580.56 Gadhinglaj 479.95
Palus 274.45
Kolhapur
Chandgad 963.01
Sangli
Miraj 911.84 Total 22849.57
Source: Based on Satara, Sangli & Kolhapur District Socio-economic Statistical Abstract,
2011.
22
2.3 GEOLOGY AND TOPOGRAPHY
The geological arrangement of the upper Krishna basin is not evenly
distributed but it has slight changes. The upper Krishna basin maximum part
covered by the Deccan trap lava flows of Late Cretaceous to Paleocene age.
The lava pile is classified into three formations.
i) Diveghat Formation
The oldest Diveghat formation comprises 15 flows showing predominantly
mixed lava types. The formation has an exposed thickness varying from 100 to
330 m and exposed along the valleys of Koyana, Yerala, Urmodi, and Krishna
rivers. It also occurs around Wai, Karad, Satara, and west of Tasgaon.
ii) Purandargarh Formation
Purandargarh formation comprises of eight basaltic flows. This formation is
extensively exposed around Vaduj, north and south-east of Koregaon, around
Patan, south-west of Karad, along Koyana river, north and south-west Vita and
western boundary adjoin to Kolhapur district. A mega cryst flow (m4) showing
large plagioclase laths of 1 to 2 cm in a fine-grained ground mass, occurs at top
of Purandargarh formation. This flow has maximum thickness of 30 m and is
noticed throughout the area, characterizing it as a maker horizon between
Purandargarh and Mahabaleshvar formations.
iii) Mahableshwar Formation
Mahabaleshvar formation, the youngest in the lava succession in the
district, comprise of nine flows. Thickness of this formation varies from 350 -
400 m and occurs at the top of isolated hills and hill ranges trending north-west
to south-east. The formation is also exposed north-west of Aundh, around
Mahabaleshvar, west of Satara, south-west of Karad, South-east of Wathar,
east of Bhuinj, around Khanapur and western part adjoin to Satara district.
Dharwar of the Archaean-Palaeo-ptoterzoic occupying a small area in the
southern part of district forms the oldest lithostratisegraphic unit which
comprises meta-graywacke, chlorite-phyllite, quartzesericite schist,
23
metabasalt/metagabro and amphibolites schist which are intruded by granite.
(fig. 2.2)
Slope
Slope map is prepared using SRTM data and ArcGIS software for the
study area. The western part of the region is having steep slope and slope
decrease towards the east. The western ghat region is facing steep slope and
remaining part gentle slope. From the slope of the area we can determine the
surface runoff and soil erosion (fig. 2.4).
Slope Aspect
Aspect is the directional measure of slope in degrees and it ranges from
0 degree at the North, moves clock-wise and end with 360 degrees at the
North. Aspect can be very influencing on temperature. The aspect map is
generated using ArcGIS software and DEM of the area. The aspect of a slope
can make very significant influences on its local climate (microclimate). For
example, because the sun's rays are in the west at the hottest time of day in the
afternoon, in most cases a west-facing slope will be warmer than a sheltered
east-facing slope. In the study region middle part of the basin is flat area and
most of the slope facing towards the eastern side. After that the northward
slope is more (fig. 2.5).
Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
The digital elevation model is 3D representation of the terrain. The
DEM is prepared using ArcGIS software and Shuttle Radar Topography
Mission elevation data (SRTM) which is downloaded from the GLCF website.
The DEM is 3 dimensional representation of the elevation value of the
particular area. The DEM of the Upper Krishna River showing high elevation
western side the gentle slope towards the eastern side. From the analysis of the
DEM people generally predict the elevation of the area. From the digital
elevation model we get the elevation of the area. The study region is having
620 to 880 meters from the mean sea level elevation in most of the parts and
after those 360 to 620 meters. The upper north region is having highest
24
elevation in the study region which is 1140 to 1400 meter from the mean sea
level (fig. 2.6).
Topography is not evenly distributed in study region. Keeping this view
in mind, the study region has been considered by knowing the physiographic
and geological structure. Upper Krishna basin is a part of the Deccan trap of
Maharashtra with an average height of 600 meters from mean sea level.
Generally the study region is having the mountain and hilly ranges in the
western part but the eastern part particularly the river course are adjoining
moderately undulating nature of topography along with river plains of limited
extension.
The western undulating zone of Sahyadri and Mahadeo hills
The study region upper Krishna basin contains two major systems: Sahyadri
range and its offshoots and Mahadeo ranges and its offshoots.
1) Sahyadri Range and its Offshoots
The Sahyadri ranges parallel to the Arabian Sea are stretched right from
the north side of Pratapgarh turning to the east and further it turns to the south
in an irregular line, continues to stretch south of study region. Within the Satara
district from north to south range is known as Pratapgarh, Makarandgad, Jangli
– Jaygad, Bhairavgad. There are five spurs pass east and south-east from the
Sahyadri. From the north these spurs named as the Kamalgad, Vairtgad,
Hatgegad-Arale, Bamnoli-Gheradategads and Bhairvgad- Kandur. In the
extreme south of the Satara district, starting from the main line of the Sayadris
near Bhairvgad about 22.4 km south-west of Patan a great belt of hills stretches
south-east parallel to and a little north of the Warana about 57.6 km to near
Vandur and Vadibhagai 8 km south-west of Shirala, forming with Warana the
boundary between Sangli and Kolhapur district. From this range several spurs
run north-east and east and fill the south-west corner of the district with hills.
Of these spurs there are three chief lines, Gunvantgad about 8 km south-west of
Patan, the divide between the Koyana on the left or north and the Morna on the
right or south; the Kahir-Kirpa spur running east and separating the Morna on
25
the left or north from the Kole or Vang river on the right or south; and the
Kalgaon-Jakinvadi spur running north-east to near Kapil about 4.8 km south of
Karad and separating the Kole river on the left or north-west from the
Nandgaon stream on the right or south-east.
2) Mahadeo Ranges and its Offshoots
The second system of the study region is the Mahadeo system. The
northern boundary of the study region is bounded by the Mahadeo range which
starts from about 16 km north of Mahabaleshvar. This range runs 48 km
towards east and then it turns south-east. Besides many small openings the
Mahadev range is crossed by important passes, the Khambtki, and Tadvala
pass. From the main range of the Mahadev hills are having three spurs stretch
south; the Chandan-Vandan spur, in the west which runs about half across the
district, and the Mahimangad-Panhala spurs further east which stretch right
across the district. In the both the Sahyadris and Mahadev ranges the highest
pick is Mahableshwar and its height is about 1435 m above mean sea level.
About 48 km after leaving the Sahyadris the Mahadev hills keep a height of
about 1219 m above the sea level and about 600 m above plain. The south face
of the Mahadev range falls much more gently to the valley of the Krishna.
Central Plains
This zone stretches from north to south and is parallel to the above
western hilly zone. It lies between the western hilly zone and the eastern
undulating zone. The zone includes eleven tahsils in the central part of the
region. The river Krishna and their tributaries drain this zone forming an
extensive alluvial tract. The average height of this belt is 600 meters. The
medium and deep alluvial soils and moderate leveled land are mostly suitable
for agriculture (Pawar, 1981).
Eastern Upland Zone
Eastern undulating zone of physiography covers area of Koregaon and
Khatav (Satara district), Kavathemahankal, Khanapur and Tasgaon, Miraj, and
Jath (Sangli district) tahsils. The Khanapur plateau has an average height about
26
750 m which lies in the middle-east part. The chief character of this plateau is
in broken form due to the intensive weathering and also the hills are observed
in scattered manor. The rivers of this area are seasonal because of the scarcity
of rainfall. Also this area has fertile soil, if river linkages are developed for
irrigation then available resources will be used fully and got permanent
solution on drought.
2.4 CLIMATE
Climate is the one of the most important geographical factor which
affects on the water availability. The distribution of the rainfall plays
fundamental role in the drought and flood hazards. Temperature, rainfall,
humidity and evaporation play important role in the total runoff, drainage
pattern, water losses. Climate is the key aspect of the physical environment
affecting flood condition in any region. The drought condition depends on the
rainfall intensity. The western part of the upper Krishna basin is located in the
Western Ghats having highest rainfall while eastern part is included in the
drought prone area of the Maharashtra. Due to its climatic condition the study
region expressing flood and droughts are happening similar time in the upper
Krishna basin. The climate in general is cool and healthy in the western parts
and warmer in the eastern part of the study region. The climate of the study
region is characterized by general dryness throughout the year except during
the south-west monsoon season.
2.4.1 Temperature
Prevailing temperature in the region has large variety during the year.
The minimum temperature is recorded in the months of December to February
(winter season). In the month of March to May the maximum temperature
recorded and it is an indicator of hot season. The average annual maximum and
minimum temperature in the study region is 38.2°c and 10°c respectively.
Temperature governs the rate of evaporation, humidity, water requirement to
crops and natural vegetation.
27
Temperature in the region is large verity during the year. In the
western part of the region is cool in the rainy season than winter. The
eastern part feels hot in summer and cools in winter season. So, the range
of temperature is high in eastern part and low region in the western part.
Table 2.2: Maximum and Minimum and Range of Temperature (in °C)
Station Max.
Temp.0C
Min.
Temp. 0C
Range of
Temperature
AjaraRamtirth 28 18.07 9.93
Ambale (Awarde) 30.09 19.98 10.11
Gudhe 29.07 20.01 9.06
Mandukali 28.24 19.19 9.05
Sarud 29.76 19.66 10.1
Shivade 30.64 19.8 10.84
Tarewadi 29.06 19.34 9.72
Ambavade-2 (Khatav) 29.02 20.32 8.7
Belwade 31.3 18.25 13.05
JambreUmgaon 28.12 18.54 9.58
Mhaisal 32.43 18.94 13.49
Nadgadwadi 29.38 18.72 10.66
Nitawade 30.32 19.38 10.94
Parali 28.61 18.78 9.83
Patryachiwadi 20.1 17.42 2.68
Shigaon 30.05 17.59 12.46
Wadange(R.T) 30.63 19.03 11.6
Malewadi NA 19.83 NA
Source: Based on data of Hydrology Project Nasik, 2011.
2.4.2 Rainfall
Rainfall is more significant environmental factor which affects on the
flood and drought situation in the study region. Average annual rainfall in the
study region varies from district to district and it decreases from west to east.
In the western part of the region average annual rainfall is more than 2000 mm
and eastern part the rainfall is only about 500 mm.
28
Table 2.3: Average Annual Rainfall (mm)
Tahsil
Avg.
Rainfall
(30yrs)
Rainfall
2011 Tahsil
Avg.
Rainfall
(30yrs)
Rainfall
2011
Satara 1023.90 581.90 Palus 597.40 262.00
Javali 1724.50 1721.00 Kadegaon 449.00 453.30
Patan 1826.10 1909.60 Hatkanangale 914.00 737.00
Karad 742.70 617.30 Shirol 480.00 272.00
Koregaon 747.60 514.90 Panhala 1531.00 1045.00
Khatav 498.90 393.90 Shahuwadi 1661.00 1819.00
Wai 808.90 903.60 Radhanagari 3633.00 4405.00
M’ bleshwar 2343.90 6555.30 Bavada 5875.00 7077.00
Miraj 629.20 522.80 Karveer 905.00 912.40
Jath 558.30 524.00 Kagal 764.00 836.00
Khanapur 581.70 364.00 Gadhinglaj 908.00 1012.00
Walwa 680.90 611.00 Bhudargad 1464.00 1680.00
Tasgaon 597.40 304.10 Ajara 1908.00 2130.00
Shirala 1005.90 1136.00 Chandgad 2742.00 3277.00
K’ Mhankal 549.70 403.50 Average 1315.55 1482.08
Source: Based on Socio-Economic Review of Satara, Sangli & Kolhapur Districts, 2011.
Distribution of Rainfall
On the rainfall amount and assurance, the basin has been divided into
different zones and these zones are as follows:
i) Zone of High Rainfall (Above 2000 mm)
This rainfall zone includes the western mountain occupied tahsils of the
study region. Due to orographic condition top of the Sahyadri and its adjoining
areas get high rainfall and it is reported from various stations nearly average
annual rainfall range is above 2000 mm. Distribution of rainfall of this category
includes the tahsils, namely Mahabaleshwar (2343.90 mm), Gaganbawada
(5875 mm), Radhanagari (3633 mm) and Chandgad (2742 mm) tahsils which
have more than 2000 mm rainfall. It generally, reveals that rainfall is
decreasing from south to north.
29
Average Annual And Actual Rainfall in 2011 (mm)
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
Sat
ara
Jav
ali
Pat
an
Kar
ad
Ko
reg
aon
Kh
atav
Wai
M’
ble
shw
ar
Mir
aj
Jath
Kh
anap
ur
Wal
wa
Tas
gao
n
Sh
iral
a
Pal
us
Kad
egao
n
Hat
kan
ang
ale
Sh
iro
l
Pan
hal
a
Sah
uw
adi
Rad
han
agar
i
Bav
ada
Kar
vee
r
Kag
al
Gad
hin
gla
j
Bh
ud
arg
ad
Aja
ra
Ch
and
gad
Tahsils
Ra
infa
ll (
mm
)
Average Rainfall Rainfall 2011
Fig. 2.7
ii) Zone of Moderate Rainfall (1000 to 2000 mm)
The central tahsil of the upper Krishna basin includes in this rainfall
region. Present zone is situated at the foot of the Western Ghats. Present
middle region receives moderate rainfall but there is assurance about the
rainfall. This region extends Wai in north to Chandgad tahsils in south. Present
region receives 1000 to 2500 mm average rainfall per year. The rainfall
intensity is decreased with comparison to west high rainfall zone, but rainfall is
moderately regular.
iii) Zone of Less Rainfall (Less Than 1000 mm)
Eastern part of the upper Krishna basin from the Krishna river to eastern
boundary fall in this region. It receives average annual 500-1000 mm rainfall.
The undulating plateau zone includes Koregaon, Khatav, Khanapur, Kadegaon,
Palus, Miraj, Tasgaon and Kavathemanhkal tahsils. Present zone comes under
the rainfall shadow region. From 2001 to 2011, more than seven years this
zone gets rainfall below the average. In 2003-2004 and 2011 year the rainfall is
below 300 mm. Vast area of this region received below 500 mm rainfall.
30
Therefore, eastern parts continuously suffer from drought hazard. (fig. 2.7 and
2.8).
2.4.3 Rainfall Intensity
Intensity of rainfall is ratio between the sum of rainfall and number of
rainy days in specific period and place. Rainfall intensity affects on the soil
erosion, drainage development, floods and droughts. The rainfall intensity in
the upper Krishna basin varies from place to place. Figure 2.9, 2.10 and table
2.4 shows the rainfall intensity of the study region. On the basis of rainfall
intensity the study region is divided into four categories. Western part, the
tahsils namely Mahabaleshvar Shahuwadi, Radhanagari, Bavada, and
Chandgad revels rainfall intensity is very high and it is more than 20. The
Javali, Patan, Bhudargad, Panhala and Ajara tahsils have rainfall intensity in
between 15 to 20. Maximum part of the study region shows rainfall intensity
between 10 to 15 and it includes Wai, Satara, Karad, Koregaon, Shirala
Walwa, Kavathemanhkal, Jath, Miraj, Hatkanangale and Kagal tahsils.
Table 2.4: Rainfall Intensity in Upper Krishna Basin (Per cent)
Tahsil
Avg.
Intensity
(30yrs)
Intensity
2011 Tahsil
Avg.
Intensity
(30yrs)
Intensity
2011
Satara 21.79 06.68 Palus 27.15 04.09
Javali 30.79 18.70 Kadegaon 14.94 04.82
Patan 30.44 17.20 Hatkanangale 21.76 09.44
Karad 16.15 07.17 Shirol 12.00 05.23
Koregaon 16.99 06.27 Panhala 28.89 14.48
Khatav 15.59 07.16 Shahuwadi 23.73 18.94
Wai 16.85 10.63 Radhanagari 34.60 40.05
M.Shwar 28.94 57.50 Bavada 54.91 57.07
Miraj 22.47 08.16 Karveer 17.08 07.79
Jath 18.61 11.90 Kagal 12.52 10.19
Khanapur 20.06 04.91 Gadhinglaj 15.39 11.53
Walwa 26.19 08.72 Bhudargad 18.07 15.55
Tasgaon 22.13 04.47 Ajara 24.78 20.48
Shirala 31.43 12.08 Chandgad 29.48 29.79
K.Manhkal 18.32 06.72 Average 25.30 15.09
Source: Based on Socio-Economic Review of Satara, Sangli & Kolhapur districts, 2011.
31
Shirol, Tasgaon, Kadegaon, Palus, Karveer, Khatav, Khanapur, tahsils
have very low intensity of rainfall and it is less than 10. Day by day the rainfall
intensity in study region is decreased.
Rainfall Intensity in Upper Krishna Basin -2011
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70S
atar
a
Pat
an
Ko
reg
aon
Wai
Mir
aj
Kh
ana
pu
r
Tas
gao
n
K. M
anh
kal
Kad
eg
aon
Sh
i ro
l
Sah
uw
adi
Ba
vad
a
Kag
al
Bh
ud
arg
ad
Ch
an
dg
ad
Tahsils
Inte
nsi
ty (
%)
Avg. Intensity (30yrs)
Intensity 2011
Fig. 2.10
2.4.4 Evaporation Rate
Evaporation rate of the surface water is important factor in the water
loss and in the respect of water utilization. Evaporation rate varies from place
to place and time to time in the study region. It is observed that there is
positive correlation between the temperature and evaporation in study region.
Table 2.5: Evaporation Rate and Its Distribution in Study Region (2011)
Rate of
Evaporation (mm) Name of the Stations
< 2 Sarud, JambreUmgaon, Mandukali, Ajara
Ramtirth, and Tarewadi.
2-3
Gudhe, Mhaisal, Nadgadwadi, Nitawade,
Pratryachiwadi, Shivade, Shigaon, Ambale,
Parali, and Wadane.
> 3 Belwade, and Ambavade.
Source: Based on Data of Hydrology Project, Nasik, 2011.
32
Evaporation Rate (mm)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
Aja
ra
(Ram
tirt
h)
Gu
dh
e
Sar
ud
Tare
wad
i
Bel
wad
e
Mh
aisa
l
Nit
aw
ad
e
Patr
yac
hiw
ad
i
Wad
ang
e(R
.T)
Stations
Ev
ap
ora
tio
n (
mm
)
Fig. 2.11
Evaporation rate is high in the eastern part of the study region that is
Ambavade in Khatav tahsil and Belavade in Patan tahsil. The moderate
evaporation rate in the upper Krishna basin is reported from Gudhe and
Ambale (Patan tahsil) Mhaisal (Miraj), Nadgadwadi (Chandgad), Wadange and
Nitawade (Karveer), Pratryachiwadi (Panhala tahsil), Shivade (Karad tahsil),
Shigaon (Walwa tahsil) and Parali (Satara tahsil) stations. Low evaporation
rate is observed from Sarud (Sahuwadi tahsil), Jambre Umgaon (Chandgad),
Mandukali (Bavada), Ajara Ramtirth (Ajara tahsil), and Tarewadi (Gadhinglaj)
which is useful for low loss of surface water. The sub basin of Yerala and
Agrani have maximum evaporation rate which is greater than the western part
of upper Krishna basin. (Fig. 2.11)
2.4.5 Relative Humidity
The proportion of humidity in the atmosphere air is concerned with the
rainfall. Humidity depends on the surface water availability, forest cover and
irrigated area. The relative humidity in the study region is spatio-temporally
unevenly distributed. Relative humidity is high at Mandukali (Bavada),
Tarewadi (Gadhinglaj), Ambale Awarde , Jambare Umgaon and Patryachiwadi
more than 70 per cent. The other observation stations Sarud, Ambavade-2
(Khatav), Belwade, Mhaisal, Nadgadwadi, Parali, Shigaon and Wadange
33
(R.T) relative humidity is less than 70 per cent. But in rainy season it found
more than 70 per cent in whole region.
2.5 NATURAL DRAINAGE
The upper Krishna basin is endowed with a well developed drainage
system. The entire region is drained by the tributaries of the Krishna river, its
important tributaries are Venna, Urmodi, Tarali, Koyana, Yerala Warana,
Panchaganga, Dudhganga, Vedganga, and Hiranykeshi.
The relief, slope and morphology of the region are depending on the
drainage pattern, drainage density and drainage texture. River linkage is totally
depending on the drainage system of the study region. Hence, the drought and
flood hazards are occurred due to the uneven distribution of drainage in the
upper Krishna basin. The drainage of the study region is fine developed in the
western part as compared to the eastern part.
The Krishna is one of the three great rivers of Southern India. Like the
Godavari and Kaveri it flows across almost the entire breadth of the peninsula
from west to east and falls into the Bay of Bengal. In length it is less than the
Godavari, but its drainage area, including the drainage of its two great
tributaries the Bhima and Tungbhadra are larger than that of either the
Godavari or the Kavari.
i) Krishna
The Krishna rises on the eastern brow of the Mahabaleshvar plateau
6.43 km west of the village of Jor in the extreme west of Wai. The source of
the river is about 1371 m above the sea level at 18° 1´ north latitude and 73°
41´ east longitude. On the plateau of the Mahabaleshvar hill near the source of
the river stands an ancient temple of Mahadev. Inside of the temple is a small
reservoir into which a stream pours out of a stone cow-mouth. This is the
traditional source of the river which Hindus lovingly call Krishnabai, the lady
Krishna.
34
From its source the Krishna runs east for about 24.14 km till it reaches
the Wai. From Wai the course of the river turns south. About 16.09 km from
Wai it receives the Kudali from the right about 3.21 km south of Pachvad in
South Wai. After meeting the Kudali, the river continues to run south through
the Satara sub-division by Nimb and Varuth, and after 24.14 km receives the
Yenna on the right near Mahuli about 4.82 km east of Satara. As the meeting
of the Krishna and Yenna, the place Mahuli is sacred. After meeting the Yenna
the Krishna curves to the South-east and separates Satara from Koregaon for
about 16.09 km till it reaches the border of Karad. In Koregaon, after a course
of 64.37 km, about 1.60 km east of Mangalpur, the Krishna receives the
Vasana from the left, and after a course of about 88.51 km south-west of
Venegaon, it receives the Urmodi from the right. Up to Karad the river runs
south ward. It receives from the right two tributaries, the Tarali near Umbaraj
after a course of about 120 km and Koyana meets at Karad after a course of
104 km. From Karad the Krishna runs south-east up to Bhilavdi (Palus tahsil).
About 10 km south of Bhilavdi it receives the Yerala on the left bank. After
4.82 km, south of Sangli (Haripur) it receives the Warana on the right after a
course of 217 km. After its meeting with the Warana the Krishna continues to
run south-east.
Within the Satara district the channel of the Krishna river is too rocky
and the stream too rapid to allow even of small native craft. The banks are 20
to 48 km and generally sloping earthly and broken. The river bed, through in
parts rocky, as a rule is sandy.
ii) Kudali
The Kudali, a small tributary of the Krishna in the north, rises near
Kedamb (Bhilar village) in Javali, and after a south-easterly course of about
25.74 km through Javali and Wai, she joins the Krishna from the right about 3
km south of Pachvad near Udtare village in Wai on 678 m from mean sea
level. The source of the river is 1381 m from mean sea level in 17° 54´ north
latitude and 74° 48´ east longitude. Total length of Kudali river is 29 km,
Kudali project is constructed on this river.
35
iii) Yenna or Venna
The Yenna or Venna, one of the Krishna’s chief tributaries rises on the
Mahabaleshvar plateau on mean sea level 1416 m at 17° 56´ north latitude and
73°41´ east longitude and she falls into the Venna valley below the Lingmala
bungalow and plantation, on the east point of the Mahabaleshvar hills about 5
km east of Malcolmpeth. After the south-easterly course about 64 km through
Javali and Satara, it flows into the Krishna at Mahuli about 5 km east of Satara
on the height 605 m from MSL. In the hot season the stream stops and the
water stands in pools. The total length of river is 64 km and on the Yenna river
Krishna project (Borkhal) and Kanher water projects are constructed for the
irrigation purpose.
iv) Urmodi
The Urmodi, a small tributary of the Krishna, rises near Kas in Jaoli on
1265 m from mean sea level at 17° 42´ north latitude and 73°49´ east
longitude. After a south-easterly course of about 32.18 kms, mostly through
Satara, it falls into the Krishna about 3.21 km south-west of Venegaon near
Kashil Koparde on 600 m from mean sea level in the extreme south of the
Satara. The banks of the Urmodi are high and steep. The flow of water ceases
in the hot season. River length of Urmodi is 47 km and river basin spread in
Jaoli and Satara tahsils.
v) Tarali
The Tarali, a smaller tributary of the Krishna, rises in the north-west of
Patan about 16 km near the village of Tarali. It rises at 17° 32´ north latitude
and 73° 53´ east longitude. After a south-easterly course of about 35.40 kms
through Patan and Karad, it joins the Krishna from the right at Umbraj on the
height of 584 m from mean sea level. The length of Tarali river is 43 km and
river course is within the Patan and Karad tahsils. Tarali Bandhara (weir),
Thosehgar, Chalkewadi and Mandava project are constructed on the Tarali
river.
36
vi) Mand
Mand is the main tributary of the Tarali river, rises in the Sada Vaghapur on
1104 m from mean sea level. Total length of the Mand river is only 19 km
Uttar Mand project is constructed near Chapal in Karad tahsil. The Mand river
falls into Tarali river near Umbraj on 584 m height from mean sea level.
vii) Koyana
The Koyana is the main tributary of the Krishna, rises on the west side
of the Mahabaleshvar plateau near Elphinstone point at 17° 58´ north longitude
and 73°43´ east latitude and on the height of 1341 m from mean sea level. The
total catchment area of this river is 892 sq km, total length from rising to Karad
is 128.74 kms and during the first 64.37 km, it runs nearly south, and during
the next 64 kms it runs east. In Jaoli the river passes by Bamnoli and Tambi
and receives the Solashi from the left about 4.5 km north of Bamnoli and the
Kandati from the right about 3 km south of Bamnoli. At Helwak in Patan, after
a course of 64.37 kms, the river suddenly turns east, and after further course of
64 kms, near the town Patan where it receives Kera from the north, it falls into
the Krishna at Karad.
viii) Solasi
Solasi is the main small tributary of the Koyana river, raises near Yenna
river on south-east slope of Mahabaleshvar plateau at Devasare village on 1370
m height from mean sea level. The river course is in Javali tahasil and total
length is 19 km. It meets to Koyana river 4.8 km north of Bamnoli near Tapole
village on the left side.
a) Kandati
Kandati is another small tributary of the Koyana rises in the Sahyadri
ranges on southern slope of Mahabaleshvar near Unchat village at 1171 m
altitude. It falls into Koyana river on the right bank, 3.2 km south of Bamnoli.
The total length of the Kandati river is 20 km.
37
b) Kera
Kera River is the tributary of the Koyana river. It rises on the southern
slope of Bamnoli ranges on 17° 31´ north latitude and 73°51´ east longitude
and height from mean sea level is 1140 m. Kera river falls into Koyana near
Patan after 20 km traveling on the left bank.
Vasana
The Vasana, the small tributary of Krishna, rises in the Mahadev range
near the Solashi, 18° north latitude and 74° 02´ east longitude at the height of
1098 m from mean sea level. It runs south about 32.18 kms, and from the left,
falls into the Krishna about 1.5 km east of Mangalpur in Koregaon at 604 m
from mean sea level. Vasana river runs through Koregaon tahsil and total
length of the Vasana river is 71 km.
Vangana
Vangana is the tributary of Vasana river, it rises on Maskoba ranges
near Chilevadi on 937 m from mean sea level. Total length of river is 24 km
and joins Vasana near Koregaon on the height 806 m. The flow of the Vangana
is to south-west and river basin is confines to only Koregaon tahsil. On this
river Nandavad, Devur, and Hivare projects are constructed for irrigation
purpose.
vii) Yerala
The Yerala is the single largest tributary of the Krishna rises in
Solaknath hill in the extreme north of Khatav tahsil. It runs south about 120.70
km through Khatav, Khanapur, Palus and Tasgaon tahsils. At Dhavleshwar in
Khanapur it receives the Nandani from the right side and at this place the width
is 91 m. After south-westerly course of about 120.70 kms the Yerala falls into
the Krishna near Brahmnal. At the place of confluence the Yerala is about 182
m broad.
38
a) Nandani
Nandani river is tributary of Yerala. The source of this river is near
Aundh in Khatav tahsil at 17° 32´ north longitude and 74°18´ east latitude.
Nandani river flows normally south-east direction in study region.
ix) Agrani
River Agrani rises in Khanapur plateau near Balavadi in Khanapur
tahsil in Sangli district. The location of source is 17°16´north and 74°41´ east
from 885 m from mean sea level. Length of Agrani river in Maharashtra is 97
km and the course of Agrani river is in Khanapur and Kavathemanhkal tahsils
of Sangli district. Agrani meets to Krishna at east of Anapur in Karnataka state.
x) Warana
Warana is the most important and enormous water supplier tributary of
Krishna river. The Warana separates Sangli and Kolhapur districts and it rises
close to western crest of the Sahyadri in the extreme north-west of Shirala
tahsil at Prachitgad. The source height from mean sea level is 900 m from
mean sea level and 17° 17´ north longitude and 73°41´ east latitude. Total
length of Warna river is 104 km from source. Warana overflows of bank in
every rainy season.
River Kadvi is tributary of Warana river. Source of the Kadavi river is
in Kolhapur district at Amba ghat 786 m from mean sea level. Total length of
Kadavi river is 26 km. Kansa river rises at Udgiri in Shahuwadi tahsil. The
river drains in the Shahuwadi and Panhala tahsils. The Kansa and Warana meet
together near Malewadi east of Kasba Sarud. Morana is main tributary of
Warana river and originate in Ashta hill near Arale village. Source of river is at
17° 5´ north longitude and 74°2´ east latitude at the height of 764 m from mean
sea level. Morana meets on left bank of Warana. River Morana drains into
Shirala tahsil.
xi) Panchaganga
The Panchganga river is formed from five tributaries, these are from
north to south namely the Kasari, Kumbhi, Tulsi, Bhogawati and fifth stream is
39
the Sarasvati (underground). These all river meet together at Prayag than the
course of this river is known as Panchaganga. Panchganga river meets to
Krishna near Narsinhwadi or Narsobachiwadi at the height of 520 m from
mean sea level. Total length of Panchaganga is 80 km and catchment area is
670 sq km. Kasari river rises in Sahyadrian range near Gajapur village at
16°54´ north longitude and 73°45´ east latitude at 781 m from mean sea level.
Total length of Kasari river is 80 km and Mangar is main tributary of this river.
One of the sub-tributaries of Kasari plunges down at the height of 800 m
forming enormous and spectacular waterfall known as ‘Barki waterfall’ named
near Barki village.
Kumbhi is the tributary of Bhogawati River. The Kumbhi rises at south of
Bavada village at 16° 29´ north longitude and 73°52´ east latitude. Kumbhi river
length is 52 km. Dhamni is main tributary of Kumbhi river. The source of Tulshi
river is north of Radhanagari at 16° 31´ north and 73° 59´ east latitude and
longitude from 1019 m from mean sea level. Tulshi meets to Bhogawati near
Beed. The river course of Tulshi is parallel to Kumbhi. Major project Tulasi is
constructed near Chande village. River Bhogawati rises south of Fonda Ghat in
Sahyadri ranges atthe height of 406 m from mean sea level. Length of
Bhogawati river is 99 km, Bhogawati meet to Panchaganga near Prayag. The
river course is 45 km parallel to Phonda Ghat road. Bhogawati river course has
many meanders.
xii) Dudhganga
Dudhganga river origins near Nardava Ghat in Kolhapur district at 901
m height from mean sea level. Dudhganga meets to Krishna near Aksambe
village in Karnataka state. Total length within Kolhapur district is 69 km and
the river course in Maharashtra covers Radhanagari, Kagal and Shirol tahsils.
River Dudganga drains 20 km and it acts as a boundary of Kolhapur and
Belgam district.
40
xiii) Vedganga
Vedganga river rises at Hanumant Ghat at Bhudargad ranges on eastern
slope. Length of Vedganga in Maharashtra is 66 km. The river course occurs in
Gargoti and Kagal tahsils. Chikotra and Kapashi are main tributaries of
Vedganga. The bed of Vedganga is shallow and muddy.
xiv) Ghataprabha
The Ghataprabha takes its rise in the south slopes of the Parpoli pass in
the extreme south of the state. Its flow is 40 km in Kolhapur district.
xv) Hiranyakeshi
The Hiranyakeshi takes its rise in the Amboli pass. It is the tributary of
Ghatprabha. Its tributary is Chitri which rises near Aundhi in Ajara tahsil.
Hiranyakeshi river course runs through the Ajara and Gadhinglaj tahsils.
xvi) Tamraparni
Tamraparni river rises in Ramghat in Chandgad tahsil at 780 m from
mean sea level. Length of this river in Maharashtra is 51 km and Tamraparni
river meets to Ghataprabha near Gokak in Karnataka state.
2.6 SOILS OF STUDY REGION
Soil is the fundamental aspect of the geographical study. Soil texture,
colour, depth and fertility affect the water utilization for the irrigation purpose.
The degree of reduction, mobility and thickness of regolith affect on the slope
development of the area. The impact of the flood and drought on agricultural
sector is different from soil to soil. Soil texture and structure affect on the
percolation capacity, which affects on the runoff rate of the drainage area.
The origin and the distribution of the soil in the upper Krishna basin are
prejudiced by the climatic and geological condition. The upper Krishna basin
has classified into three rainfall zones on the basis of climatic phenomena. The
western part of hilly region receives high rainfall covered the lateric soils on
the hill tops and reddish in color on the eastern hill slopes. The Krishna, Warna
and lower Panchaganga river valleys of Satara, Sangli and Kolhapur district
41
have deep black cotton soils of alluvial origin. Upper Krishna basin is a part of
‘Deccan Trap’ formulated by the pre-Cambrian-Crystalline rocks which is the
source of the soil variety. The soil types and their distribution in the study
region vary from place to place. The soil types are classified as follows:
Laterite Soils
Laterite soil is continuously distributed in north-south direction in the
Western Ghats and it flanks in the west. This soil is formed on up-ghats in the
western part of the basin because this area receives very high rainfall. Laterite
soils are slightly acidic and usually leach total soluble salts and calcium
carbonate. Their total exchangeable capacity is low and soils are poor in
productivity. Laterite soils are red in colour and are locally named as tambad
mati. Present soil is found on the top and eastern slope of Western Ghat.
Laterite soil occurs mainly in Mahabaleshvar, Wai, Satara, entire Koyana
valley, Shirala, Shahuwadi, Panhala, Karveer, Bavada, Radhanagari,
Bhudargad, and in the western part of Ajara. The red colour of soil formed due
to high content of iron oxides. These soil areas have the high degree of erosion
and leaching. They are clay loam in texture and are rich in nitrogen.
Reddish-brown Soils
Reddish brown soils are found on hill slopes and in undulating areas in
heavy rainfall regions of the upper Krishna basin. This is residual soils and are
usually structure less and sandy loamy in texture. Due to adverse topographical
conditions this soils has limited depth and poor in fertility. Reddish brown soils
straps are found in Karveer, Radhanagari and in some western parts of
Bhudargad and Ajara tahsils.
Deep-Black Soils
In the study region there is regional variation in the distribution of black
soils. The colour of black soil are various from brown to dark black and depth
is also different. On the basis of the soil depth black soils are classified into
two categories, deep black and medium black soils. This soil is derived from
basalt of Deccan trap, and black color derived from hums and clay complex.
42
As per the norms formulated by the I.C.A.R. (1989) the black color is
variously assigned to the presence of titian ferrous magnetite, organic
compound of iron and aluminum accumulated humus and hydrated double iron
and aluminum silicate.
The areas having assured rainfall in the Krishna basin found deep- black
soils. Physical condition of this soil is very good, colour is dark brown, clay
texture and granular to fragment structure. Deep black soil are found near to
river course particularly in mature stage of Krishna, Warna, Koyana and lower
parts of the Panchaganga . From long periods particularly in rainy season flood
water deposited fine sediments on both right and left sides of river course.
Thus, narrow strips have been formed of a deep black who ranges from 6 to 8
meters in depth from surface. Deep black soils are mainly found in the central
part of Wai, Satara, Karad, Walwa, Palus, Miraj, Shirol, Karveer,
Hatkanangale tahsils. The deep black soil has very high water holding
capacity.
Medium Black Soils
The areas of medium black soils cover vast area of the study region
excluding Mahabaleshvar and Bavda tahsils. The tahsils namely Patan, Jaoli,
Shirala, Bhudargad, Panhala, Gadhinglaj observed this type of soils in less
compartment. Present soils are loamy to clay in texture and are suitable for
irrigation crops. The clay content ranges from 55 to 70 per cent and silt from
10 to 20 per cent. The black colour in this soil formed due to the presence of
titan ferrous magnetite iron, black constituents of present rocks and humus
content.
Coarse Shallow Soils
The coarse shallow soil exists mainly in the hill ranges, especially
offshoots of the Shaydari and southern flanks of Mahadeo ranges in the north-
eastern parts. The patches of this soil occur on Khanapur plateau in the east. In
the Khatav, Khanapur, Tasgaon and Kavathemanhkal tahsils, the soil is
43
extremely poor and shallow. The soil is light brown in colour and loamy to
sandy in structure. It contains about 9.30 per cent of calcium carbonate, 8.00
per cent of clay, 18.00 per cent of silt and pH value about 8.55. Due to less
depth and poor texture and loamy to sandy structure the water holding capacity
is very less.
2.7 NATURAL VEGETATION
Natural vegetation is one of the important key aspects of drainage
morphometry, rainfall runoff, soil erosion and flood disaster. The forest cover
delay the rainfall runoff and check the soil erosion rate and it is helpful for
reduction of the flood intensity and increase the ground water level.
Plants provide a protective canopy that lessens the impact of raindrops
on the soil, thereby reducing soil erosion. Roots help to hold the soil in place.
Vegetation provides shade which prevents the soil to become too dry. Thus soil
increases the moisture holding capacity. Transpiration from the forests affects
the relative humidity and cause precipitation in a region. The layer of leaves
that fall around the tree prevents runoff and allows the water to percolate into
the soil, it becomes helpful to increase ground water level. It also plays an
important role in maintaining water cycle of the region. The distribution of
natural vegetation and its types are classified into following categories:
Semi Evergreen Forest
The top of the Sahyadri receive the high rainfall as well cold climatic
condition favorable for semi evergreen forest growth and due to that such belt
is confined this type of forest. The composition of vegetation is as Jambhul,
Anjani, Hirada, Surangi, Panjambhul get mixed up with Pnansi etc. This forest
is mainly confined above the 750 m from MSL. Western Ghat newly has
become the World Heritage due to its vegetation diversity. Western part of
study region particularly Kas plateau, Koyana region, Chandoli, Dajipur,
44
Radhanagari and Amboli etc. and their adjacent areas prevailing this type of
forest.
Mixed Deciduous Forest
Eastern hill slope of Sahyadri and valleys are covered by mixed
deciduous forest. The mixed deciduous forest type is confined on low height
with high rainfall intensity. In this forest Gela, Kunbha, Behada, Ain, Avla,
Bahava, Modi, Dhhaman and Warang etc. are the major species of trees and
Karwand, Rameta, Fhngali and Bhandir, etc. scrubs are observed. Besides this
herbaceous and climber vegetation, variety of grass are grown in this forest
type.
Dry Deciduous Forest
Eastern part of the study region comprises dry deciduous forest type in
Khatav, Khanapur, Kavathemanhkal, Kadegaon, Tasgaon and Miraj tahsils
where the rainfall intensity is very low. Therefore, Apta, Bel, Dhavda, Salai,
Mohi, Biba, Charoli, Palas, Medhashingi, Bartondi, Ain, Hivar, White and red
Kheir, Waghati, Arali, Muradsheng Kari, Gitsaya, Kavli, Kusar, Anantmul,
Ranjui, Utaran, plants are grown in this tahsils.
2.8 AGRO-ECONOMICAL SETUP
Landuse in Study Region
Landuse means utilization of available land for various purposes in
specific time in specific area. Landuse pattern represents the combination of
physical, social and economic factors. Therefore, it is indicator of present
status of socio-economic development of any region. Table 2.5 shows the
tahsil-wise landuse pattern of upper Krishna basin and it reveals the western
and central western tahsils land utilization is better than the eastern and central
eastern tahsils.
Forest land is not equally distributed. It is more confined in western
hilly region, it includes Mahabaleshvar, Jaoli, Bavda, Bhudargad, and
Radhanagari tahsils have more than 30 per cent land under forest because of
more favorable climatic condition. Plain area of Krishna basins of Karad,
45
Miraj, Karveer, Kagal, Shirol, Hatkanangale, Walwa and drought prone area of
Khatav and Kavathemahankal tahsils have very low forest cover.
Table 2.6 Landuse Pattern of Upper Krishna Basin, 2011
Landuse (%)
Tahsil
Total
Area
(ha) Forest
Land
Area not
available
for
Cultivation
Cultivable
Waste
Fallow
Land
Net
Sown
Area
Wai 61909 20.62 4.81 9.82 8.41 56.34
Mahabaleshwar 22190 59.66 3.77 6.67 15.26 14.64
Jaoli 86895 22.77 13.11 7.86 13.37 42.90
Koregaon 94840 11.07 9.24 5.40 17.46 56.83
Khatav 136457 3.02 8.28 5.81 15.16 67.74
Satara 87953 9.66 14.83 11.63 5.94 57.93
Patan 140364 19.75 11.28 19.25 3.69 46.03
Karad 104211 10.17 5.73 1.61 5.41 77.09
Khanapur 132602 8.25 10.05 14.11 1.73 65.87
Shirala 63417 20.69 5.09 7.61 5.01 61.60
Walwa 78781 3.75 11.17 2.29 9.29 73.50
Tasgaon 111259 4.46 9.06 7.19 7.59 71.71
K. Mahankal 70673 1.31 16.48 6.71 2.74 72.76
Miraj 92624 1.16 11.78 6.32 2.21 78.53
Jath 224538 5.03 2.55 4.10 4.51 83.81
Shahuwadi 104352 21.00 13.04 17.74 2.78 45.45
Panhala 56871 20.38 8.83 12.48 6.66 51.65
Hatkanangale 60937 2.35 9.69 5.89 1.67 80.40
Shirol 50783 1.70 9.64 5.40 1.21 82.05
Karveer 67113 1.20 11.96 13.94 2.64 70.26
Bavada 28228 37.64 4.58 19.35 1.34 37.09
Radhanagari 89232 30.01 14.59 16.06 3.58 35.77
Kagal 54754 2.03 8.24 3.05 1.16 85.51
Bhudargad 64446 36.91 7.14 4.95 9.23 41.76
Ajara 54888 22.36 6.12 10.43 5.14 55.95
Gadhinglaj 48115 3.78 5.16 1.87 1.26 87.94
Chandgad 96542 28.07 11.85 3.54 3.37 53.17
Source: Based on Socio-Economic Review and Statistical Abstracts of Kolhapur,
Sangli and Satara districts, 2011.
46
The net sown area in the study region is 60.40 per cent. The western
part of the study region has shown that the net sown area is less than 50 per
cent due to steep slope, hilly land, thin soil, and other adverse condition. In the
Kolhapur district Hatkanangle, Shirol, Gadhinglaj and Kagal tahsils have more
than 80 per cent net sown area. Drought prone tahsils namely Khatav,
Khanapur, K. Mahankal net sown area is more than regional average.
Fallow land is more recorded in Jaoli, Khatav, Mahabaleshvar and
Koregaon, it is more than 10 per cent. Fallow land is more in these tahsils
because of undulating plateau topography and hilly landscape. Cultivable
waste land is highest in western hilly tahsils Jaoli, Patan, Bavada, and
Shahuwadi in between 10.43 to 19.35 per cent. Some urbanized tahsils like
Karveer (11.96 %), Satara (14.83 %), and Miraj (11.78 %) represent high
proportion of area not available for cultivation category.
Satara, Sangli and Kolhapur are leading districts in agriculture sector in
Maharashtra. Average 48.72 per cent (cultivators) and 19.73 per cent
(agriculture labour) of total working population and it is more than 69 per cent.
Banks of Krishna, Koyana, Warna, and Panchaganga have fertile land.
Therefore, agriculture prosperity has taken place in this water shades. Present
area is highly irrigated and supports for intensive agriculture. But agricultural
development and cropping pattern in study region is not evenly developed
because of uneven geographical condition. Eastern part of study region
practices dry farming due to drought prone condition.
Cropping Pattern
Cropping or agricultural enterprise patterns are the extent to which the
arable land under different agricultural activities can be put to use (Singh and
Dhillon, 1982). In most of the situations the physical environment reduces the
choice of the enterprises, either by prohibiting the growth of certain crops
altogether or by reducing their level of their output to an unprofitable degree
(Morgan and Munton, 1971). Cropping pattern is determined by the natural as
well as socio-economic factors. Cropping pattern in study region changes year
47
to year. In recent years cropping pattern inclined towards cash crops due to
modernization of irrigation means and other technological development.
Cropping patterns show decrease trend in food grains like bajara, jowar and
rice and pulses.
i) Cereals and Pulses
A food crop includes jowar, bajara, wheat, rice and cereals and pulses.
The cultivation of these food grains is regional variation. In the eastern part of
upper Krishna basin Khatav (68.01 %), Koregaon (57.39 %) Kavathemahankal
(69.19 %), Khanapur (52.90 %) tahsil bajara and kharif and rabbi jowar
cultivation is high. Apart from these food crops, cereals cultivation is high in
rain shadow region. But in western high rainfall region, like Chandgad, Ajra,
Patan, Jaoli, Bhudargad and Mahableshwar rice crops are produced.
ii) Sugarcane
Sugarcane is an important cash crop in the study region where total area
under this crop is increasing in irrigated area. Area under sugarcane is more
than 25 per cent in Shirol, Karad, Walwa, Karveer and Bavda tahsils. In
coming years irrigation facilities and assurance of high rate about sugarcane by
sugar industries, the area under sugarcane is increasing. Some command area
of Takari, Arphal irrigation project helps to increase sugarcane cultivation. But
in the eastern tahsils sugarcane cultivation is very low.
iii) Oil Seeds
Oil seeds include groundnut, soybean, sunflower and suffola are the
major crops. This category of crops placed on third rank in study region.
Hatkanangale, Shirol, Gadhinglaj, Walwa, Kagal, Patan and Miraj tahsils have
occupied large area. Groundnut is significant crop in this category and it is
remarkably cultivated in Gadhinglaj tahsil as compared to other tahsils of the
study region. Hilly and drought prone region has shown less land under oil
seeds cultivation.
48
Table 2.7: Agricultural Landuse Pattern of Study Region.
Area Under Different Crops (%) Tahsil
Total
Cultivable
area (ha) Cereals Pulses Oil Seed Sugarcane Other
Satara 50951.17 49.55 11.45 27.10 11.10 0.80
Javali 37277.96 67.57 15.31 14.06 02.75 0.30
Patan 64609.55 59.06 8.04 25.30 07.15 0.45
Karad 80336.26 46.09 10.18 24.15 18.33 1.25
Koregaon 53897.57 40.52 31.40 15.44 12.30 0.34
Khatav 92435.97 75.03 18.53 04.60 01.07 0.77
Wai 34879.53 53.92 17.69 16.29 11.80 0.30
M.shvar 3248.62 94.50 02.78 02.49 00.00 0.23
Miraj 72737.63 51.20 10.66 18.97 19.00 0.17
Jath 87584.42 56.40 25.51 13.27 02.67 2.15
Khanapur 87344.94 55.03 23.93 12.86 05.25 2.93
Kadegaon 40610.75 49.26 16.60 17.35 16.18 0.60
Walwa 57904.04 24.25 07.11 29.51 37.42 1.71
Tasgaon 79783.83 56.30 12.99 23.43 06.62 0.66
Palus 10974.00 64.00 05.10 15.83 14.78 0.29
Shirala 39064.87 72.57 06.31 12.99 07.96 0.17
K.mahankal 51421.67 76.17 15.01 03.66 03.99 1.17
Hatkangale 48993.35 18.39 06.22 37.99 37.07 0.33
Shirol 41667.45 6.70 02.98 18.91 66.69 4.73
Panhala 29373.87 41.17 04.78 17.29 36.21 0.55
Sahuwadi 47427.98 68.33 05.71 09.56 16.34 0.06
Radhanagri 31918.29 60.05 02.35 11.76 25.75 0.09
Bavda 10469.77 47.08 00.61 03.91 48.41 0.00
Karvir 47153.59 32.03 03.88 21.49 42.49 0.11
Kagal 46820.15 22.50 05.53 28.82 38.39 4.76
Gadhinglaj 42312.33 25.65 08.44 43.78 22.04 0.09
Bhudargad 26912.65 64.91 04.85 13.77 16.45 0.02
Ajarara 30709.84 56.57 07.66 21.39 14.36 0.02
Chandgad 51331.38 52.02 01.00 11.55 29.21 6.22
Average 51.27 10.09 17.85 19.72 1.08
Source: Based on Agricultural Department data Satara, Sangli and Kolhapur, 2010.
iv) Other Crops
Fruit and vegetable cultivation is not significant in upper Krishna basin.
Mahabaleshvar tahsil has cultivated strawberry because tourist market is
available in Mahableshwar and Pachgani. Another in Tasgaon and Khanapur
49
tahsil growing grapes cultivation is high and now days grapes cultivation is
increasing in Walwa and Palus tahsil.
Irrigation
Irrigation is key factor of agriculture development. Monsoonal climate is
dominated in study region. Therefore, such climatic condition now a days
becomes a gamble particularly in eastern part of upper Krishna basin. Due to
uneven rainfall and physiography phenomenon irrigation facility is not equally
distributed and developed in study region. Walwa, Karad, Satara, Koregaon,
Miraj, Palus, Kadegaon, Karveer, Kagal, Shirol and Hatkanangale tahsil have
more irrigation facilities through rivers and canals. These tahsils have number
of different levels irrigation projects but the eastern tahsils are very poor in that
respect. The study region avails 25.32 per cent irrigated land out of its total
cultivable area. The means of irrigation wise irrigated area has been reported as
well (36.60 %), river (46.31 %), canal (13.38 %) and other sources of irrigation
occupied 03.69 per cent land.
Industries
Upper Krishna region is one of the industrially leading parts of
Maharashtra state. But its distribution and development is found uneven. For
the better study of industries of the region are broadly categorized as
following:
Agro based Industries
Agriculture is prime activity of study region hence the raw material from
agricultural sector provides concrete platform to agro based industries. In them
sugar industry, cotton industries and dairy farming and processing plants etc.
i) Sugar Industry
The upper Krishna basin is ideal for sugar industry due to its raw material
like sugarcane production; hence it has become the backbone of agricultural
development in Satara, Sangli and Kolhapur district. In upper Krishna basin
there are 39 sugar industries and out of them more than 90 per cent industries
50
are run by co-operative sector. Sugar industries of drought prone area have
faced one major problem and that is deficiency of raw material. So, some sugar
industries are at closing stage. Karad, Walwa, Miraj, Hatkanangale, Karveer,
Kagal, Chandgad tahsils have each 03 sugar factories. But Mahableshwar,
Khatav and Radhanagari tahsils have not any sugar industry.
ii) Textile Mills
Textile is another second largest agro based industry developed in the
study region. There are 37 co-operative textile industries in study region.
Ichalkaranji is a Manchester of Maharashtra (Hatkanangale tahsil), there are
number of textiles, spinning and weaving mills. In Kolhapur, Sangli and Satara
districts have co-operative textile parks. Vita, Kadegaon, Palus, Tasgaon and
Islampur are main centers of co-operative textile parks.
iii) Dairy Farming
Dairy farming is main parallel sub occupation in upper Krishna basin.
Now days, dairy farming activity has become a daily economical earning
source. Upper Krishna basin has 6004 co-operative milk collection centers. In
this sector Gokul, Warana, Rajarambapu, Hutatma and Koyana Milk Co-
operative Sangh are playing dominant role and increasing their collection as
well as milk products. Besides co-operative sectors there are few private milk
collection centres like Chitale and Thote are leading in milk process industries.
Milk production of upper Krishna basin in 2010-2011 is 115.90 billion
metric tons. Now a days the numbers of milching animals are increased.
According to animal census of 2003 there are 875838 buffalos and 264184
cows in all over upper Krishna basin. Milching animals are increased in current
year and farmers are prepared cross breeding buffalo and cows for present
production.
2.9 TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION
Transport and communication is an indicator of regional development.
Upper Krishna basin has well developed transportation and communication
network. In the Krishna basin the network of roads and railways are well
51
developed. But areal developments of road and railway routes are not equally
distributed. Western part of districts has low density of road and absence of
railway network due to its topography. Total road length in upper Krishna
basin is 22066.76 km and length of railway route is confined in study region is
334.51 km.
There were 1454 post offices in 2010-2011 and numbers of telephones
in same period were 348453 (Socio-economic Abstract 2011). Apart from
other means of communication mobile phones facility is increased day by day
and it is reached at door to door. All urbanized and industrial area namely
Satara, Karad, Karveer, Hatkanangale, Miraj have very good communication
means.
2.10 POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS
Out of all resources human resource is most important because man is
creator of all resources. With the help of knowledge and technology man can
overcome on the natural barriers. Total population of upper Krishna basin is
8157383. Population distribution in study region is uneven. High population
concentration is located in Karveer, Miraj, Satara, Walwa and Shirol tahsil
because of high fertile and irrigated land and urbanization. Very low population
distribution is found in Mahableshwar, Ajara, Jaoli, Bhudargad, Shirala and
Shahuwadi due to high altitude, steep slopes, and hilly region.
Kavathemahankal tahsil population distribution is low because of frequent
drought condition.
Population density is the indicator of development. Average population
density in upper Krishna basin is 250. But urbanized and irrigated Miraj,
Shirol, Karad, Palus, Walwa, Satara and Karad tahsil population density is
more than average density. And western hilly region Bavada, Shahuwadi,
Chandgad, Radhanagari, Bhudargad and Ajra tahsils comprise low density than
average. The upper Krishna basin is predominantly rural in characteristic as it
is reveled from that out of 29 tahsils, 8 tahsils are purely rural in nature and
remaining tahsils have low per cent of urban population. Urban population
52
constitutes 16.25 per cent in study region. There is high urban population in
Karveer, Hatkanangale, Shirol, Satara, Mahableshwar, Kagal and Miraj tahsil
because of developed agriculture, industrialization and tourism.
Table: 2.8 Population Characteristics (2001).
Population (%) Tahsil Population
Density
Per km²
Sex
Ratio Rural Urban
Literacy
(%)
M.shwar 54546 245 873 52.30 47.70 73.61
Wai 189336 306 1021 83.57 16.43 69.96
Khatav 260951 231 1024 100.00 - 66.93
Koregaon 253128 275 1000 93.46 06.54 70.92
Satara 451870 516 973 62.47 37.53 74.11
Jaoli 124600 144 1100 100.00 - 65.17
Patan 298095 226 1089 96.11 03.89 61.87
Karad 543424 561 961 88.94 11.06 68.95
Shirala 158298 248 1020 97.52 02.48 63.83
Walwa 427377 553 938 78.58 21.42 69.32
Palus 216556 559 934 100.00 - 69.42
Khanapur 258231 219 1000 83.81 16.19 65.92
Tasgaon 213205 243 966 84.31 15.69 67.35
Miraj 756048 816 943 38.83 61.17 71.95
K.Mahankal 144596 197 962 100.00 - 66.63
Jath 283950 127 948 100.00 - 53.19
Shahuwadi 176859 170 1044 96.88 03.12 56.92
Panhala 238383 420 921 98.55 01.45 64.45
Hatkanangle 709628 1165 911 50.03 49.97 80.30
Shirol 359179 707 941 17.93 82.07 80.20
Karvir 906866 1352 917 60.52 39.48 83.20
Bavda 32535 116 969 100.00 - 51.01
Radhanagari 188107 211 946 100.00 - 62.11
Kagal 248237 454 949 86.71 13.29 73.60
Bhudargad 144910 225 995 100.00 - 63.29
Ajra 121430 222 1082 86.07 13.93 60.36
Gadhinglaj 216257 451 1016 88.27 11.73 62.85
Chandgad 180781 194 1033 100.00 - 57.46
Total 8157383 250 981 83.75 16.25 66.96
Source: Based on Census of India, 2001.
Sex ratio in study region is 981 per 1000 male population but
Mahableshwar, Hatkanangale, Karveer, Panhala, Palus, Walwa, Satara and
Kagal tahsils sex ratio is less than average of region. But Jaoli, Patan, Ajara,
Shahuwadi, Chandgad, Khatav, Wai, Shirala, Gadhinglaj, Koregaon and
53
Khanapur tahsils sex ratio is more than 1000. These tahsils are hilly and
drought affected population migration in searching for jobs are high.
Population Distribution in Upper Krishna Basin-2001
0
100000
200000
300000
400000
500000
600000
700000
800000
900000
1000000
M.s
hw
ar
Kh
atav
Sat
ara
Pat
an
Sh
iral
a
Pal
us
Tas
gao
n
K’M
ahan
kal
Sh
ahu
wad
i
Hat
kan
ang
le
Kar
vir
Rad
han
agar
i
Bh
ud
arg
ad
Gad
hin
gla
j
Tahsil
Po
pu
lati
on
Fig. 2.17
Average literacy rate of upper Krishna basin is 66.96 per cent and
Hatkanangale, Karveer, Satara and Kagal, Miraj is more than average due to
economical development. But western hilly and eastern drought prone tahsils
like Bavda, Jath, Shahuwadi, Chandgad and Ajra have low literacy rate than
average.
54
REFERENCES
Aranachalam, B. (1967): Maharashtra, A Study in Physical and Regional
Setting and Resource development, A. R. Sheth and Company,
Bombay, pp. 240-250.
Cantor, L.M. (1967): A World Geography of Irrigation, Oliver and Boyd,
London, pp. 40.
Deshpande, C. D. (1971): Geography of Maharashtra, National Book Trust,
India, New Delhi, p.188.
Didee, J., et al. (2002): Geography of Maharashtra, Rawat Publications, Jaipur
and New Delhi.
Gaikawad, S. B. (2003): Drought Prone Area of the Sangli District: A
Geographical Study, An Unpublished Ph.D. thesis submitted to Shivaji
University Kolhapur, pp.12-30.
Government of Maharashtra (1989): Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency,
Satara District Vol. XXIV.
Government of Maharashtra (1995): District Census Handbook, Kolhapur.
Government of Maharashtra (1995): District Census Handbook, Sangli.
Government of Maharashtra (1995): District Census Handbook, Satara.
Government of Maharashtra (1999): Gazetteer of The Bombay Presidency,
Kolhapur Vol. XXIV.
Government of Maharashtra (2011): District Socio-Economic Review and
Statistical Abstract of Satara District.
Government of Maharashtra (2011): District Socio-Economic Review and
Statistical Abstract of Sangli District.
Government of Maharashtra (2011): District Socio-Economic Review and
Statistical Abstract of Kolhapur District.
Jadhav, B. S. (2011): Levels of Rural Development and Planning in Hilly Area
of Kolhapur District, An Unpublished Ph.D. thesis submitted to Shivaji
University Kolhapur, pp.15-41.
Morgan, W. B. and R. J.C. Munton (1971): Agricultural Geography, London,
Methuen and Co., p. 38.
55
Patil, P. V. (2002): Geographical Analysis of Agricultural Technology in
Sangli District, An Unpublished Ph.D. thesis submitted to Shivaji
University Kolhapur, pp.28-44.
Patil, A. A. (2002): Changes in Agricultural Productivity in upper Bhima and
upper Krishna Basin in Maharashtra: A Geographical Analysis, An
Unpublished Ph.D. thesis submitted to Shivaji University Kolhapur. pp.
25-40.
Pawar, C. T. et al (2008): A Geographical Analysis of Soil Erosion: A
Case Study of Panchaganga Basin (Maharashtra), Proceedings of the
National Seminar & workshop on Research Methodology I
Geography, 3 Oct. 2008, Rayat Sikshan Sanstha’s Arts, Science &
Commerce College, Ramanandnagar, Sangli (MS)-November 2008.
Pawar, C. T., Pawar, D. H. (2008): Geo-referencing and assessment of land
degradation of part of Upper Panchaganga Basin (Maharashtra) by
applying GPS Technique’ Proceeding Volume of Regional level Inter-
disciplinary seminar on Agricultural issues in Khandesh, 22-23
Sept.2008,pp26-30.
Pawar, D. H. (2012): River water pollution an environmental crisis a case
study of Panchaganga river Kolhapur. International Journal of
Environment and Development, ISSN: 0973-3574, Vol. 8, No.1,
January-June 2012, Serial Publications, New Delhi, India pp, 95-97.
Pawar, D. H., Raskar, A. K. (2011): Linear Aspects of Basin Morphometry
of Panchaganga River (Kolhapur): Western Maharashtra, Research
Analysis & Evaluation,International Reffered Research Journal,
May 2011, ISSN: 0975-3486, Vol. II, Issue 20, pp.95-97.
Pawar, D. H., Raskar, A. K., Pathare, (2012): Morphometric Correlation of
Spatial and Linear Aspects of Panchaganga River, Proceeding of
International Conference on Multidisciplinary approaches in Applied
Geology, G.K.G. College, Kolhapur, 20 February 2012, pp 253-258.
Rao, K. L. (1975): India’s Water Wealth, Orient Longman, pp39-42.
56
Ray Choudhary, S.P. (1955): All India Soil Survey Report, I.C.A.R. Bulletin
No.73.
Rayamane, A. S. (2001): Changing Landuse Profile in Belgaum District: A
Spatio-Temporal Analysis,The Deccaan Geographer ,Pune,Vol.39,
No.2, pp.88-96.
Singh, G. B. (1979): Transformation of Agriculture, Vishal Publication,
Kurukshetra (India), pp. 56-73.
Singh, J. and Dhillon (1984): Agricultural Geography, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Limited New Delhi p. 210.
Singh, S. (2011): Environmental Geography, Prayag Pustak Bhawan,
Allahabad, pp.402-436.
Vaidya, B. C. (1985): Impact of Physical Environment on Agricultural
Landuse- A Case Study in Mula Basin Pune District, Maharashtra,
Unpublished M. Phil, Dissertation, University of Pune, Pune.