1 Pre-Midterm Chapter 1: An Introduction WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR Organization are social inventions for accomplishing common goals through group efforts

social inventions – coordinated presence of people, people who present opportunities and challenges,

field of organizational behaviour is about understanding people and managing them to work effectively.

Goal Accomplishment all organization have survival of goal, people have to be motivated to join and remain in organization, carry out basic work reliability (productivity, quality and service), be willing to continuous learn and upgrade knowledge and skills, be flexible and innovative

Group Efforts depend on interaction and coordination among people to accomplish goals + informal setting occurs in all organizations

*Organizational Behaviour refers to attitudes and behaviours of individuals and groups in an organization, it is about:

understanding people and managing them to work effectively

how organization can survive and adjust to change

how to get people to practice effective teamwork Look at different factors including; culture, employees learning support, providing incentives, communication between hierarchies *Therefore, OB focuses on attitudes and behaviour in society, how organization can be structured more effectively, how events in the external environment affect organization Why Study OB?

About people and nature - Interesting examples of success and failure,

importance of OB – relative to life and has profound affect on individuals,

makes a difference within work space – Pfeffer – can’t be competitive through rech, markets, financial resources and economies of scares, main factor is workforce/human capital and who can effectively manage them.

o Management has effect on employee attitude and effectiveness of company *Goals of OB:

Predict OB & events: interest in predicting if one can make ethical decisions, create innovative product or engage in sexual harassment – provides scientific foundation that helps improve predictions of such events

Explain OB & events in an organization: determining why people are more/less motivated, satisfied or prone to resign- in search of an explanation for turnover issues within an organization

Manage OB: management is the art of getting things accomplished, acquire allocate and utilize resources to accomplish goals

EARLY PRESCRIPTIONS CONCERNING MANAGEMENT Classical viewpoint: an early prescription on management that advocated high specialization of labour, intensive coordination and centralized decision making by Fayol, Mooney and Urwick

Tended to advocate a very high degree of specialization labour and a very high degree in coordination – to maintain control it recommend having few workers

Scientific Management Fredericak taylor, father of scientific management, advocated the use of careful research to determine optimum degree of specialization and standardization of work task. – and supported written instructions.

“functional formanship” supervisors specialize in particular functions Weber made term of bureaucracy ideal type/theoretical model that would standardize behaviour in OB, included the following – strict chain of command, criteria for selection and promotion, set of detailed rules, regulations, and procedures, use of strict specialization, centralization of power The Human Relations Movement and a Critique of Bureaucracy Hawthorne studies research conducted at hawthorne plant of western electric near Chicago in 1920 and 1930 that illustrated how psychological and social processes affect productivity and work adjustments; like fatigue, rest pauses and lighting on productivity. This study suggested the dysfunctional aspects to how work was organized. human relations movement: critique of classical management and bureaucracy that advocated management styles that was more participative and oriented towards employee needs. The critique suggested following issues

Strict specialization is incompatible with human needs for growth and achievement

Strong centralization and reliance on formal authority often fail to take advantage of creative ideas

Strict, impersonal rules lead members to adopt minimum acceptable level of performance

Strong specialization causes employees to lose sight of overall goals of organization

2 Contemporary Management – The contingency Approach recognizes that there is no one best way to manage, and that an appropriate management style depends on the demands of the situation

Concepts must reflect situational conditions

Effectiveness of a particular style depends on situation used on “leaders should always seek the idea of employees before making a decision”

Paticipative style is clearly better in some but in others directive style is better MANAGEMENT *What do Managers do: The field of OB is concerned with what managers actually do , Management is the art of getting things accomplished in organizations through others. Mintzberg models: Managerial roles

Interpersonal roles figurehead, leader, liaison “establish and maintain relationship”

Information Roles monitor, disseminator, spokesperson “receive and transmit information”

Decisional Roles Entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator, negotiator “Deals with decision marking” Managerial Activities Managers engage in 4 activities:

Routine communications - formal sending & receiving of info

Traditional management – plan, decision making, and controlling

Networking – interacting with people outside organization and informal socializing

Human resource management – motivation and reinforcing disciplining and punishing Management Agenda: agenda setting networking agenda implementation Managerial Minds – Simon and Isenberg explore how managers thing. Isenberg believed experience managers use the following ways:

Sense that a problem exist

Perform well-learned mental task rapidly

Double-check more formal and mechanical analyses *Hofstede, International managers – managers are cultural heros and are even a distinct worships engineers, various leadership stles, motivation techniques, and communication method depends where you are in the world *Contingency Approach to OB • Concepts must reflect situational conditions, • Effectiveness of a particular style depends on the situation in which it is used “leaders should always seek the ideas of employees before making a decision” • in some situations a participative style is clearly better but in other situations a more directive style would be more appropriate *Contemporary Management Concerns

Diversity – Local and Global : o Canadian workforce is increasingly diverse and requires flexibility in management – Multi cultural & Multi

generational o Organization needs to redress past inequity in how certain segments of popn in employment – employment equity

laws o Global business has increased

Need to understand different culture & how business is done Different laws and practices

Employee-Organization Relations: consequences of workplace include o Decreased trust, Lower morale and loyalty, Decline in job satisfaction and organizational commitment, Low levels

of employee engagement, Increase in work related illness and stress, Absenteeism

Quality, Speed, and Flexibility o Intense competition has driven organization to improve on quality, speed and flexibility o Requires high levels of employee involvement, commitment, teamwork o Requires a different management style

Empowerment, delegation of authority and control Participative and adaptable

Talent Management refers to organizations processes for attracting, developing, retaining, and utilizing people with the required skills to meet current and future business needs

o Two most important challenges are Recruitment of HQ people across multiple territories Improve appeal of company culture and work environment

o OB can help companies improve their recruitment & retention and become employers choice o Provides means for organization to designed and managed in ways that optimize talent attraction

development, retention and performance

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Focus on CSR – refers to organization taking responsibilities for the impact of its decision and actions on stakeholders. Extends beyond interest of sharholders to interest and needs of employees and the community it operates in . Many CSR issues have to do with OB, has implication for recruitment & retention as well as employees attiude, motivation and firm performance

Employment recruitment and retention o Major challenge facing organizations is recruitment & retention of skilled employees o Canadian organizations face shortages of labour in certain areas i.e Management knowledge & skills, technical

skills, skilled trades, etc

Demographics

New Employee Relationships : Outsourcing practice of hiring other firms to do work previously performed by the organization itself

o Help firm focus on core activities o Lowers labour cost o Result in loss of jobs i.e traditional manufacturing jobs – auto services

Technology

Outsourcing Management Practices : Flexible work schedule, stock-options/profit-sharing, training & development program, family assistance, career development programs, wellness & stress reduction program, employee recognition and rewards program Challenges in Canadian Workplace

Increase efficiency & productivity

Continuously change and increase competition

Globalization

Increasing customer demands

Culture diversity in workplace

Changing expectation

Balancing work/life situation

Empowered employees

Increasing teamwork

Technology advance

Knowledge-based work

Flexible work arrangement

Part Two: Individual Behaviours – Personality and Learning

WHAT IS PERSONALITY Personality: relatively stable set of psychological characteristics that influence the way an individual interacts with his/her environment and how he/she feels thinks and behave. – summarize how a person deals with the world – they are reflected in the distinctive way that they react to people, situation and problems – personality consist of a number of dimensions and traits that are determined in a complex way by genetic predisposition and by one’s long term learning history. Big 5 set fundamental traits that are especially relevant to OB Personality Deteminants nature v. nurture *Personality and Organizational behaviour

after WW2 personality test were a segment in selecting military personnel – wide spread and then popular in business organizations in the 50’s and 60’s

Dispositional approach – focuses on individuals disposition and personality – individuals possess stable traits o many studies shown that situational factors such as characteristic of work tasks predict job satisfaction

most widely accepted approach to OB

Mixed/inconsistent beliefs around this which caused a dramatic decrease in using personality test for selections

Researchers shift attention to how to predict in businesses & explain OB – known as the situational approach where characteristics of the organizational setting, such as rewards/punishment, influence people’s feelings, attitudes and behaviour. Many studies have shown that situational factors such as the characteristics of work tasks predict job satsifaction

Person-situation debate – both sides argued the importance/ which one is right, led to 3rd

approach

interactionist approach – OB is a function of both disposition and situation – to predict and understand OB we need to know something about an individual’s personality and work setting. This is the most widely accepted approach to OB

o Weak Situation – not clear how person should behave – loose roles, few rules, and weak reward/punishment – personality has stronger impact in weak situations e.g new start up

o Strong situation – defined roles, rules, and contingency personality has less impact e.g military routine

Most important implication: some characteristic are useful in certain situation – no one best ersonality/manager – looking for the right fit – putting the right person in the right job, group or ogrniazation

4 *The 5 factor model

Extraversion – able to be outgoing sociable, talkative v. withdrawn, shy – high extraverts enjoy social situations while introverts avoid them, important for interpersonal interaction – like sales/management – these characteristics are important for success, + to social interaction, also + to training proficiency

Emotional Stability – appropriate emotional control stable, confident v. depressed/anxious high emotional stability (low neuroticism) are confident and have high esteem. Lower emotional stability (high neroticism) tend to be self doubted/depressed/anxious - higher more effective in interacting with coworker and customers – minimum threshold is necessary to predict performance of all jobs, after that, it is open to debate

Agreeable – friendly and approachable tolerant, cooperative v. cold, rude – contribute to job performance which requires interaction – ability to get along with others and cooperate, + relation to performance in service jobs

Concsientiousness –responsible and achievement-oriented dependable, responsible v. careless, impulsive, likely to perform well on most jobs given their tendency to work hard – measureof reliability, + for every job may be better than ability in predicting job performance

Openness to experience – curious, original vs. dull, unimaginative, do well in jobs that involve learning and creativity Research – evidence big 5 is related to job performance, top half of 2.1 have better job performance

Related to work behaviour: consciousness <-> attention at work, extraversion <-> absents

Related to work motivation and job satisfaction Neiroticism & conscientiousness – predictor of motivations

Related to job search and career success – high c, high extroverts and low n’s, = higher pay

Strongest predictor was neuroticism followed by conscientiousness, extraversion and agreeableness – job satisfaction *Locus of Control a set of beliefs about whether one behaviour is controlled mainly by internal or external forces – extent to which people believe that their behaviour has a real effect on what happens to them

High internallocus of control – believe that the opportunity to control their own behaviour resides n themselves “I can do it”- tend to be more satisfied with jobs, money earning and achieve higher organizational position

o Stronger link in-between effort they put in a job and their performance take advantage of information that will perform more effectively

High external believe external forces determine their behaviour unpredictable view point believe In luck/destiny Self-monitoring: the extent to which people observe and regulate how they appear and behave in social setting and relationships, people who wear their heart on their sleeves are low self-monitors – not concerned about scoping out/fitting in

High monitors gravitate towards jobs that require by nature a degree of role-playing and exercise of self presentation like sales law public relations – ability to adapt to one’s clients and contacts are crucial – deal well with flexibility and adaptiveness in dealing with diverse constituencies, significantly related to outcome, likely to experience more role stress and show less commitment to organization

Self esteem degree to which a person has a positive self evaluation –

low self esteem have unfavourable images, uncertain about the correctess of opinion, attitude and behaviours.react back to negative feedback – lowers their performance. Managers need to be cautious about using negative reinforcement/punishment – direct criticism at performance not person

Highly motivated individuals protect themselves from threats to self-esteem

Plasticity of their thoughts, attitudes and behaviour known as behaviour plasciticity: people with low self-esteem tend to be more susceptible to external and social influence than those with high self esteem

Behavioural plasticity theory – people with low self-esteem tend to be more susceptible to external and social influences than those who have high self esteem

o People with low self-esteem tend to be more susceptible to external and social influences than those who have high self-esteem.

o Events and people in organizations have more impact on the beliefs and actions of employees with low self-esteem.

5 *Recent developments in personality and OB Positive affectivity – propensity to view the world, including oneself and other people, in a positive light. Higher job satisfication negative affectivity – propensity to view the world, including oneself and other people in a negative light, lower job satisfication Proactive behaviour: taking intiative to improve current circumstances or creating new ones, related to job performance, tolerance for stress, leadership effectiveness, participation in organizational intiative, teamwork Proactive personality : a stable personal disposition that reflects tendency to take personal intiative across a range of activities and situations and to effect positive change in one’s environment - Proactive individuals search for and identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere until they bring about meaningful change. General self efficacy – a general trait that refers to an individual belief in his/her ability to perform successfully ina variety of challenging situation General self-efficacy (GSE) is a motivational trait rather than an affective trait. Research: •Individuals with higher GSE are better able to adapt to novel, uncertain, and adverse situations. •Employees with higher GSE have higher job satisfaction and job performance. WHAT IS LEARNING? Learning: a relatively permanent change in behaviour potential that occurs due to practice or experience

the practice or experience that prompts learning stems from an environment that gives feedback concerning the consequence of behaviour

Learning in organization – taxonomies indicate what employees learn, how they learn and different type of learning

“what” aspect of learning content – four categories: o Practical Skills job specific skills, knowledge and technical competence o Intrapersonal skills skills as problem solving, critical thinking and learning about alt. work processes o Interpersonal skills: interactive skills related to communication, teamwork and conflict resolution o Cultural awareness: involves learning the social norms of organizations and understanding company goals,

operations, expectation and priorities

Operant learning theory– learning by which subjets learns to operate on the environment to achieve certain consequences, connection b/w behaviour and consequence. Controlled by consequences that follow

E.g consequences usually depend on the behaviour and this connection is what is learned

Increase probability of desired behaviours and to reduce or eliminate the probability of undesirable behaviours INCREASING PROBABILITY OF BEAHAVIOUR Reinforcement: process by which stimuli strengthen behaviour, reinforce is a stimulus that follows some behaviour and increase/maintains the probability of behaviour

Reinforcement serves to strengthen behaviour such as sales technique to fulfill organizations goals

Positive Reinforcement increses or maintains the probability of some behaviour by the application or addition of a stimulus to the situation in question – pleasant things like food, praise, money, business success – but intrinsic character of a stimuli does not determine whether they are positive reinforcers and pleasants stimuli are not positive reinforcers when considered in abstract – depends on what it caused to happen

Negative reinforcement removal of a stimulus that in turn increase/maintains the probability of some behaviour, occurs when a response prevents some event/stimulus from occurring. Usually aversive or unpleasant stimuli – managers who nag workers are trying to get workers to work harder, only way employees can stop this is to work hard and be diligent. Pepsico smoking surcharges/ taking away coffee

Organizational Errors Involving Reinforcement

Confusing rewards with reinforcers organization & individual managers reward workers with things such as pay, promotion, fringe benefit, paid vacation, overtime work and challenging task. Such rewards fail to act as reinforces, because organization do not make them contingent ona specific behaviour that are of interest to organization. E.g overtime based on seniority

Neglecting Diversity in Preference for Reinforcers fail to appreciate individual differences in preferences, questionable to reinforce a workholic’s extra effort

Neglecting Important Sources of Reinforcement Performance feedback + social recognition

Exhibit 2.3 Reducing Probability of behaviour: Sometimes learned behaviours are detrimental to the operation of an organization and they need to be reduced or eliminated.

•Two strategies that can reduce the probability of learned behaviour: Extinction: The gradual dissipation of behaviour following the termination of reinforcement.

•If the behaviour is not reinforced, it will gradually dissipate or be extinguished. •Extinction works best when coupled with the reinforcement of some desired substitute behaviour.

6 Punishment: •The application of an aversive stimulus following unwanted behaviour to decrease the probability of that behaviour.

•A nasty stimulus is applied after some undesirable behaviour in order to decrease the probability of that behaviour. Using punishment effectively --. Clear signal to which activities are inappropriate, doesn`t show replacement Organizational Errors Involving Reinforcement •Rewards fail to serve as reinforcers when they are not made contingent on some specific desired behaviour. •Organizations often fail to appreciate individual differences in preferences for reinforcers. •Two important sources of reinforcement that managers often ignore are performance feedback and social recognition. Performance feedback is most effective when it is: •Conveyed in a positive manner •Delivered immediately after observing performance •Specific to the behaviour that is being targeted for feedback •focus on the behaviour not the person Social Cognitive Theory contains three parts

Observant learning process of observing and imitating the behaviour of others o Learning occurs through observing or imagining the behaviour of others, seeing what consequence they

experience and thinking about what might happen if we act the same way o Managers should pay more attendtion to process

Self Efficacy: beliefs people have about their ablity to successfully perform tasks-task specific cognitive appraisal o one`s ability to perform a specific task

o person’s beliefs about his or her capabilities to perform a task As a manager, how might you know that an employee has a low sense of self-efficacy? How might you manage such an employee?

o Can be changed or modified in response to different source of information o Can influence activities people choose to perform, the amount of effort and persistence they devote to a task,

affective and stress reaction and job performance

Self-Regulation use of learning principles to regulate one’s own behaviour o Observe one owns behaviour, compare behaviour and reward oneself if mehaviour meets standard --. Peoples

pursuit of self-set goals that guide their behaviour o Techniques: collect data, observe models, set goals, rehearse, reinforce oneself

Organizational Learning Practices

-Organizational behaviour modification: involves systematic use of learning principles to influence OB - Employee recognition programs: formal organizational program that publicly recogbnize and reward employees for specific behaviours -Training programs: planned ogrnizational activities that are designed to facilitate knowledge and skill quisition to change behaviour and improve on performance, Beaviour modelling training: one of the most widely used and effective method of training, involves 5 steps based on observational learning component of social cognitive theory - Career development: an ongoing process in which individuals progress through a series of stages that consist of unique set of issues, themes and tasks Chapter 3: perception attribution and diversity***

WHAT IS PERCEPTION

Perception : the process of interpreting the messages of our senses to provide order and meaning to the environment

helps sort out and organize the complex and varied input received by our senses of sight, smell, touch, taste and hearing, perceptions influence behaviour, sense of fairness, understanding of situation and motivation, job satisfaction and productivity. It is base action based on interpretation of reality rather than reality itself

Why Study Perception & Personality in Business School To better understand what information people take in, how they interpret it, and how they make attributions and decisions about events. We don’t see reality we interpret what we see and call it reality. Personality and attribution processes guide our decision making and behaviour, regardless of the truth of the attribution Directly and indirectly influences short and long-term performance

Selective Perception Selectively interpreting what you see on the basis of your interest, background, experience, and attitudes.

We screen out information that we are uncomfortable with or that is inconsistent with our beliefs.

Stereotyping Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs. Ethnic, racial background, gender and age are common criteria

Halo Effect Drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic.

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Contrast Effects Evaluations of a person that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics.

Projection Attributing one’s own characteristics to other people Components of Perception 3.1 3 components to perception:

Perceiver a target that is being perceived – experience, needs and emotion affects perception o Most important part is the experience – past experiences lead perceiver affect perception

Our needs unconsciously influence our perception by causing us to perceive what we wish to perceive

Emotions can affect our perceptions e.g misperceiving innocent comment of a friend o Perceptual defence: the tendency for perceptual systems to defend the perceiver against unpleasant emotions

The Target susceptible to interpretation and addition to the target – whome are susceptible to interpretation and addition providing more info to target will improve perceptual accuracy.

The Situation: every instance of perception occurs in some situational text – affect what one perceives o Most important affect is to add information about taget Social Identity Theory a theory that states that people form perceptions of themselves based on their characteristics and memberships in social categories

Our sense of self is composed of a personal identity and social identity Personal identity based on personal unique characteristics i.e interest, ability, traits Social Identity based on our perception that we belong to various social groups We do this because we categorize ourselves and others to make sense of and understand social environment E.g defining

people in meeting by job titles Also form perception of others based on membership in social categories – social identities are relational and comparative SIT helps us understand how components of perception system operates in the formation of perception – perception of others

is a function how you categorize yourself (i.e student) and others (i.e professors) A Model of the Perceptual Process Jerome Bruner developed model of perceptual process that can provide a useful framework – when perceiver encounters unfamiliar target – open to informational cues contained in target and situation surrounding it - will actively seek out cues to resolve ambiguity – information is needed on which to base perception of target and to resolve any ambiguity Gradually encounters familiar cues and enables her/him to make crude categorization of target – search becomes less open and more selective. As categorization becomes stronger, the perceiver actively ignores/distorts cues

First perception is selective – perception is efficient which can aid/hinder our perception accuracy – not all available cues are used and those that are used are thus given emphasis Second – perceptual constancy – refers to the tendency for the target to be perceived in same way over time or across situations – tendency for target to be perceived in same way over time/across situations Third – creates perceptual consistency – tendency to select, ignore and distort cues in such a manner that fit together to form a homogeneous picture of the target Basic Biases in Person Perception Primacy effect – the tendency for perceiver to rely on early cues or first impression – lasting impact + form of selectivity illustrate operations of constancy – first impression are lasting Recency effect – the tendency for a perceiver to rely on recent cues or last impressions – last impressions count most, most recent performance is all that is remembered Reliance on Central Traits: organize perception around this – personal characteristics of a target person that are particular interest to a perceiver – depends on perceivers interest and situation i.e physical experience, intellectual capacity especially with judgement on competence/qualification/job success Implicit personality theories : personal theories that people have about which personality characteristics go together e.g hard workers are also very honest

8 Projection tendency for perceivers to attribute their own thoughts and feelings to others perception can be efficient/ lead to perceptual difficulties in different situations e.g dishonest people often distrust everyone else Stereotyping the tendency to generalize about people in a certain social category and ignore variation among them. There can be favourable/unfavourable views i.e by race age gender background social class and occupation. Three aspects

Distinguish category of people Assumptions they have certain traits Everyone in category posses these traits

ATTRIUBTUION: PERCEIVING CAUSES AND MOTIVES: Attribution: process by which causes or motives are assigned to explain people’s behavior –to explain behavior Important goal in making attribution cause by dispositional/situational attributes - dispositional attributes suggest that some personality/intellectual characteristics unique to person is responsible for behavior that the behavior thus reflects the true-person - Situational attributions suggest that the external situation or environment in which target person exist was responsible for behavior and person might have little control over it Attribution Theory Attribution Theory Suggests that we observe behavior and then attribute causes to it Dispositional or situational From a management perspective key is whether behaviour is attributed to Internal or External causes We start by observing behavior, either our own or someone else’s. We then evaluate that behavior in terms of consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness. Consistency cues attribution cues that reflect how consistently a person engages in a behavior over time – degree to which the person behaves in the same way over time e.g one might assume professor who has genereous office hours cares about students consensus cues attribution cues that reflect how a person’s behavior compares with that of others – other people in same situation are behaving the same way acts that deviate from social expectation provide us with more information about actors motive than conforming behaviours do , low consesensus leads to dispositional attributes than high Distinctiveness cues the extent to which a person engage in some behavior across a variety of situations – same person behaves same way in different situations Biases in Attribution Fundamental Attribution Error : The tendency to overemphasize dispositional explanation for behavior at the expense of situational explanation - underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behaviour of others often discount the strong effects that social roles can have on behavior 2) many people whom observe are seen in rather constrained, constant situation that reduce our appreciation of how their behavior may vary in other situation – can lead to problems Actor – observer effect the propensity for actors and observers to view the causes of the actor’s behavior different - sensitive to environmental events Self Serving biases: tendency to take credit for successful outcome and deny any responsibility for failures – can reflect intentional self promotions or excuse making

PERSON PECEPTION AND WORKFORCE DIVERSITY Workforce diversity : differences among recruits and employees in characteristics such as gender, race, age, religion, cultural background or sexual orientation The changing workplace labour pool is changing so employers are trying to employ people that reflect customer base The Canadian population and labour force is becoming increasingly multicultural and multiethinic. •The number of visible minorities in Canada is expected to double by 2017. •In less than a decade, 48 percent of the working-age population will be between the ages of 45 and 64. Valuing Diversity – value it not tolerate, increasingly awareness that diversity and its proper management can yield strategic and competitive advantage advantages : potential for imporving problem solving and creativity when diver perspectives. Competitive Adv of diversity cost argument, resource acquisition argument, marketing, creativity, problem solving, system flexibility Stereotypes and Working Diversity Stereotype threat: members of a social group feel they might be judged or treated according to a stereotype and that their behavior/performance will confirm the stereotype – can undermine person’s performance

9 Racial and Ethnic Stereotypes are pervasive, persistent, negative and self=contradictory, personal experience is unnecessary for these biases – often contain contradictory elements Gender stereotypes – one of the most problematic , women are severly underrepresented in managerial and administrative jobs, very few top level positions. Female manager are more likely than males to have to make off-the-job sacrifices and cmpromises in family life for career Age stereotypes – knowing that a person falls into certain age range/generation we have the tendency to make assumptions about person’s physical, psychological and intellectual capabilities Managing workforce diversity diversity needs to be managed to have a positive impact on work behaviour and an organization e.g Canada Post’s Corporate Employement Equity Plan to enforce worforce relects population Boeing Canada Tech – Best Diversity Employers, create respectful environ. By promoting diversity – 21 deaf people with different stratergies on training, recruitment, and volunteerism Corus Entertainment inc – manages nationwide employement equity committee that advise company on diversity/equity issues – diversity training is common but not much affect – training should target skills Diversity programs will be more successful if : build senior management commitment and accountability, conduct needs assessment, develop well-define stratergy tied to business, emphasize team building, establish metrics and evaluate effectiveness See exhibit 3.7 Perception of Trust Trust a psychological state in which one has a willingness to be vulnerable and to take risks with respect to the actions of another party Ability refers to employee perceptions regarding management’s competence and skills benevolence refers to the extent that employees perceive management as caring and concerned for their interest and willing to do good for them integrity refers to employee perception that management adheres to and behaves according to set of values and principles that the employee finds acceptable Trust is also considered to be the most critical factor when judging best workplaces in Canada Trust components: Respect, credibility, fairness, pride and camaraderie exhibit 3.8 Perceived Organizational support employees general belief that their organization values their contribution and cares about their well-being Organizational support theory a theory that states that employees who have strong perception of organizational support feels an obligation to care about the organization’s welfare and to help the organizations achieve its objective. Exhibit 3.9 = number of factors that contribute to employees POS Person Perception in HR Perceptions in the Employment Interview Validity of interview improves when interviewers conduct a more structural interview Factors threaten validity: applicants usually motivated to present favorable impression of themselves, interviewers conduct applicants to a stereotype of the ideal applicant, interviewers have atendency to exhibit primacy reactions -interviewers have tendency to give less importance to positive information about applicant - tendency means that negative information has undue impact on decision Contrast effects: previously interviewed job applicants affect an interviewer’s perception of a current applicant, leading to an exaggeration of difference between applicants Perceptions of recruitment and selection Signaling theory job applicants interpret their recruitment experience as cues or signals about what it is like to work in an organization Perceptions and Performance Appraisals -Objective and subjective measures - Rater Errors Why study perception and personality in business school ? We are studying perception and personality because you are often dealing with people and different personalities and your interaction with people. To better understand what info people take in, how they interpret it and how they make attributions and decisions about events We don’t see reality – we interpret what we see and call it reality Personality and attribution processes guide our decision making and behaviour regardless of the truth of the attribution OB perspective : perception influence: our behaviours, sense of fairness, understanding of situation, out own levels of motivation, job satisfaction, productivitiy, etc

10 Common perceptual errors: Selective perception(come to an understanding of what categories you put them in – seeking out information reinforces that perception, also blocking out information that contradicts the perception) – halo effect – confirming impression from the first impression stereotyping – assumption on people based on social group they belong to; inappropriate but still persist, often people make stereotypes to save time and easy to explain something, secondly they are not taking the time to confirm/disconfirm the stereotypes projection-

Chapter 4: Values, Attitudes and Work Behaviors

WHAT ARE VALUES Values a broad tendency to prefer certain states of affairs over others. Preference aspect of this definition means that values have to do with what we consider good and bad broad tendency means values are very general and that they do not predict behavior in specific situation very well. Values have to do with what we consider good and bad.Values are motivational and very general. People tend to hold values structured around such factors as achievement, power, autonomy, conformity, tradition, and social welfare. Generational Difference in Values:

Some indication that GEN x & Y inclined to value status & rapid career growth Cultural Differences in Values -Work Centrality: work valued in different countries – Japan is very work central -Hofstede’s Study: Questioned IBM employees about work related values – 4 basic dimensions: Power Distance the extent to which an unequal distribution of power is accepted by society members Small power distance cultures, inequality is minimum, superiors are accessible and power diff are downsized (Denmark) Large Power distance – inequality is accepted as natural, suprioers are inaccessible difference highlights (Mexico) Uncertainity avoidance The extent to which people are uncomfortable with uncertain and ambiguous situations Strong uncertaintiy avoidaince cultural stress rules + regulation, hard work, conformity and security (Greece), Weak avoidance are less concerned with rules, conformity and seuirity and hard work (US + Canada) - Masculinity/feminity differentiate gender roles, support dominance of men and stress economic performance (i.e Japan). Feminist cultures accept fluid roles, stress equality and quality of life (i.eScandinavian) Individualism/Collectivism : Individualistic societies stress independence, individual intiative and privacy. Collective cultures favour interdependence loyalty to family or clan. (Canada – indiv, Pakistan – collective) Long-term/short-term orientation , LT- stress persistence, perseverance, thrift and close attention, ST stress personal steadiness and stability Implications of Cultural Variations Exporting OB Theories – Successful firms blend the values of their headquarter’s corporate culture with those of the host nation in overseas operations. Importing OB Theories – Successful importing of management practices is achieved by tailoring the practices to the home culture’s concerns. Appreciating Global Customers – is essential to understanding the needs and tastes of customers or clients around the world. Developing Global Employees – need to select, train and develop employees. WHAT ARE ATTITUDES? Attitude: fairly stable evaluation tendency to respond consistently to some specific object, situation, person or category of person Attitude Behaviour - Attitudes are function of what we think and what we feel, products relate to belief and value Often attempt to change attitude persuasion Belief + Values Attitudes behaviour

11 WHAT IS JOB SATISFACTION? A collection of attitudes that workers have about their jobs Facet Satisfaction – tendency for employee to be more/less satisfied with various facets of job What Determines Job Satisfactions needs and aspiration, challenging work, rewards + colleagues Discrepancy theory: A theory that job satisfaction stems from the discrepancy between the job outcomes wanted and outcomes that are perceived to be obtained 1) people might differ in beliefs about the job in question 2) even if individuals perceive jobs as equivant they might differ in what they want from the jobs e.g strong evidence satisfaction with one’s pay is high Fairness Distributive fairness: Fairness that occurs when people receive the outcomes they think they deserve from their jobs Equity theory: A theory that job satisfaction stems from a comparisons of the input one invests in a job and outcome one receives in comparison with the input and outcome of another -leads to unfair judgement . Job satisfaction stems from a comparison of the inputs one invests in a job and the outcomes one receives in comparison with the inputs and outcomes of another person or group.

Inputs: Anything that people give up offer or trade to their organization in exchange for outcomes Outcomes: Factors that an organization distributes to employees in exchange for inputs Procedural Fairness: Fairness that occurs when process used to determine work outcome is seen as reasonable – relevant to performation evaluation, pay raise, promotion, lay off and work assignment – Following factors contribute: follow consistent procedure over time, uses accurate info and appears unbiased, allows 2-way communication, welcomes appeals of procedure or allocation Interactional fairness – that occurs when people feel they have received respectful and information communication about an outcome – extends beyond actual procedures used to the interpersonal treatment Respectful communication is sincere and polite and treats individual with dignity, informative communication Mood and Emotion Emotions: Intense, often short-lived feeling cause by particular events, moods- less intense, longer lived and diffused feeling affective event theory reminds use that jobs actually consist of events that have the potential to provoke feelings/emotions Emotional contagion – tendency for moods and emotions to spread between people or throughout groups – e.g team situations Emotional regulations: requirement for people to conform to certain “display rules” in their job behaviours - consequences: supressing emotion causes toll on job satisfaction and increase stress Key Contributors to Job Satisfaction: Mentally Challenging work, Adequate Compensation, Career Opportunities, People Consequence of Job Satisfaction Absence from work, turnover, Performance, OCB Organizational Citizenship Behaviour OCB is voluntary, informal behaviour that contributes to organizational effectiveness. In many cases, the formal performance evaluation system does not detect and reward it. Job satisfaction contributes greatly to the occurrence of OCB, more than it does to regular task performance.

The defining characteristics of OCB: The behaviour is voluntary.

The behaviour is spontaneous.

The behaviour contributes to organizational effectiveness.

The behaviour is unlikely to be explicitly picked up and rewarded by the performance evaluation system.

Helping behaviour and offering assistance. Conscientiousness to the details of work. Being a good sport. Courtesy and cooperation.

How does job satisfaction contribute to OCB? Fairness seems to be the key. Although distributive fairness is important, procedural and interactional fairness from a supportive manager seem especially critical. OCB is also influenced by employees’ mood at work. What is Organizational Commitment: Attitude that reflects the strength of the linkage b//w an employee and organization – relation with if someone tends to stay in the organization -Affective commitment is based on person’s id and involvement in organization – interesting and satisfying work, role clarity, having expectation met after being hired Involves: Emotional attachment to, identification with, involvement in the organization, highest predictor -Continuance commitment is based on cost that incurred leaving organization – feels there will be personal sacrifice leaving company, no good alternative employment – increases with time person is employed by organization

12 - Normative commitment is based on ideology or feeling of obligation, fostered by benefits that build a sense of obligation to the organization ,strong identification with an organization’s product or service socialization practices that emphasize loyalty to the organization Consequences of these:

All three forms of commitment reduce turnover intentions and actual turnover.

Affective commitment is positively related to performance.

Continuance commitment is negatively related to performance Is there a downside to organizational commitment? High levels of commitment have been implicated in unethical and illegal behaviour.

Change in Worplace and Employee Commitment occurs because of changes in nature of employee commitment, changes in focus of commitment and multiplicity of employer-employee relations within organizations

Cognitive Dissonance

Any incompatibility that an individual might perceive between two or more of his or her attitudes, or between his or her behaviour and attitudes.

Inconsistency is uncomfortable

Individuals will attempt to reduce the dissonance and, hence, the discomfort by changing the attitude or changing the behaviour

Chapter 7: Groups And Teamwork WHAT IS A GROUP & DEVELOPMENT Group two or more people interacting independently to achieve a common goal – interaction is most basic aspect of group

(differentiate’s who’s a part of group and who is not)

Independence means group members rely to some degree on each other to accomplish goals

important for 2 reasons o groups exert a tremendous influence on us – social mechanisms

which acquire belief, values, attitude, behaviour o groups provide context in which we are able to exert influence on

others Formal work groups are groups that organization establish to facilitate the achievement of organization goals – e.g manager & employee – other types are task groups and committees

o Task forces are temporary groups that meet to achieve particular goals or to solve problems

o Committees are usually permanent groups that handle recurrent assignment outside the usual work group structure Informal groups emerge naturally in response to common interests of organizational members – can help/hurt organization Stages of Group Development

1. Forming orient themselves – awareness of dependency come to a purpose; what are we doing here, what is our purpose – situation is often ambiguous

2. Storming conflict often emerges, confrontation/criticism occur due to development, sorting out roles 3. Norming resolve issues and develop social consensus, becomes more cohesive, members resolve issues, develop consensus

and compromise, info/opinions flow freely 4. Performing group devotes its energies towards tasks competition achievement, creativity and mutual assistance, task

accomplishment, achievement, creativity 5. Adjourning some group disperse v. ceremonies , emotional support for each other, monitoring how groups are developing

Punctuated Equilibrium a model of group development describes how groups with deadlines are affected by their first meetings and crucial midpoint transitions PROBLEM SOLVING FOCUSED

o Phase 1: first meeting and continues to mid group existence. Setting agenda, assumption, approaches and precedents that members develop in meeting

o Midpoint Transition halfway time of a deadline – change in group’s approach and how manages the change is critical to progress. Need to move

o Phase 2 decision and approached adopted – concludes with final meeting reveals burst of activity and concern for outsiders will evaluate the product

o Prepare carefully for first meeting - as long as people working don’t look for radical progress during phase 1 o Manage midpoint transition carefully, evaluate strengths and weaknesses of ideas people generate in phase 1

13 Other pointers: - if you are the adviser of the group, stress motivation and excitement - if people are working, do not look for radical progress during Phase 1- manage the midpoint transition carefully – evaluate strengths/weaknesses of peoples’ ideas – essential issues are not likely to “work themselves out” in phase 2 - make sure adequate resources are available to execute phase 2 plan - resist deadline changes or it could damage the midpoint transition - at the midpoint, there can be either a successful or unsuccessful transition of group performance GROUP STRUCTURE AND ITS CONSEQUENCE Group Size: smallest group contains 2 people, congressional size is 300-400, most work groups are 3-20

o Size & Satisfaction larger groups report less satisfied with group membership than those who find themselves in smaller group – as opportunities for friendship increase, the chance to work on and develop these opportunities might decrease owing to the sheer time and energy required – as group size increase, verbal participation decreases

o Size & performance dependant on exact tasks group needs to accomplish and how define performance is o Additive tasks: tasks in which groups performance is dependent on sum of performance of individual group o Disjunctive task: group performance is dependent on the performance of best member o Process losess – performance difficulties stemming from problems of motivation and coordination o Conjunctive tasks – performance is limited by performance of the poorest group members

Group Diversity strong impact on interaction patterns – more diverse more difficult time communication effectively and becoming cohesive – tend to take longer to form, storm and norm. but sometimes perform better when task requires cognitive creativity demanding tasks and problem solving rather than routine work Group norms Norms: collective expectation that members of social units have regarding the behaviour of each other. Norm Development most important function: provide regularity and predictability to behaviour – provides important psychological security and permits us to carry out daily business with minimal disruption

o Develop to regulate behaviour that are considered at least marginally important to supporters e.g attendance o Attitudes affect behaviour – shared attitudes form basis of norms o Compliance of norms occur simply because it corresponds to privately held attitudes o Cases where individuals comply with norms that go against their privately help attitude and opionon e.g religious/work

norms Typical norms

o Dress norms dictate kind of clothing to wear to work – uniform v. business casual o Reward allocation norms 4 norms which dictate rewards such as promotion, favours and pay

o Equity reward according to inputs o Equality reward everyone equally o Reciprocity reward people the way they reward you o Social Responsibility reward those who truly need the reward

o Performance norms function of social expectation as it is of inherent ability, personal motivation or technology Roles position in a group that have set of expected behaviours attached to them – represent packages of norms Development of roles is indicative of fact that group members might also be required to act differently from one another 2 basic kinds of roles

o Designated are formally prescribed by organization as means of dividing labour/responsibility o Emergent roles – develop naturally to meet the social-emotional needs of group members or assist in formal job

accomplishment Role Ambiguity lack of clarity of job goals/ method – characterized by confusion about performance, how good performance can be achieved or what limits one authority and responsibility Elements which can lead to ambiguity

o Organization factors – ambiguity b/c of function in organization o Role sender – unclear expectation of a focal person, o Focal person – clearly developed roles may not be digested – ambiguity decreases as length of time in job role increase

Consequences: job stress, dissatisfaction, reduce commitment, lowered performance, intention to quit Role Conflict exist when individual faced with incompatible role expectation

o Intrasender role conflict occurs when single role sender provides incompatible role expectation to role occupant o Intersender role conflict 2 or more role senders provide a role occupant with incompatible expectation o Interrole Conflict several roles held by a role occupant involve incompatible expectation o Person-role conflict role demands call for behaviour that is incompatible with the personality or skills of a role occupant

Same consequences as ambiguity Status: the rank, social position, prestige accorded to group members Formal Status Systems represents managements attempt to publicly identify people who have higher status then themselves

o Status symbols are titles, working relationship, pay package, work schedule and environment - criteria to achieve this is seniority

Informal Status Systems not well advertised, lack symbols / systematic support - operate as effectively e.g power hitters

14 Consequences of status differences paradoxical effect on communication patterns – like to comm with higher or same status then lower than them - higher status do more talking and have more influence Affects the amount of various group members communicate and influence group affairs Reducing status barriers through email GROUP COHESIVENESS Group cohesiveness the degree to which a group is especially attractive to its members members desire to stay into group Relative property of groups Factors influencing cohesiveness

o Threats and competition threats increase cohesiveness in wide variety situation – feel need to improve communication and coordination to better cope with situation at hand

o Success group becomes moer attractive to members when successfully accomplish important goals, competition causes members to work together

o Member diversity if group in agreement on how to accomplish task, success in performing task outweighs surface dissimilarity in determining cohesiveness

o Size bigger groups have harder times o Toughness of initiation groups that are tough to get into should be more attractive than those that are easy to join

Consequences of Cohesiveness More participation in group activities: voluntary turnover from cohesive groups should be low Absense should be lower than in less cohesive groups – participation reflected in higheramounts More conformity so attractive and coordinated cohesive groups are well equipped to supply information, rewards and punishment to individual members More Success successful goal accomplishment contributes to cohesiveness – reciprocal relationship SOCIAL LOAFING – The tendency to withhold physical or intellectual effort when performing a group task Two different forms:

1) Free rider effect – people lower their effort to get a free ride from other group members 2) Sucker effect – people lower their effort because of the feeling that others are free riding

To decrease social loafing: make individual performance more visible, make sure the work is interesting, increase feelings of indispensability, increase performance feedback, reward group performance What is a team - Collective Efficacy – shared beliefs that a team can successfully perform a given task, group effectiveness occurs when high efforts is directed toward the group`s tasks SELF-MANAGED WORK TEAMS (SMWTS) – Work groups that have the opportunity to do challenging work under reduced supervision - these groups regulate much of their own members’ behaviour Composition of Self-Managed Teams: - Stability - require considerable interaction and high cohesiveness - this requires understanding and trust so membership must be stable - Size - as small as feasible - Expertise - high level of expertise about the task, should all have social skills - cannot run to the boss when problems arise since little supervision - Diversity - variety of perspectives for creativity Supporting Self-Managed Teams: - Training - require extensive training in 4 areas: technical training, social skills, language skills, business skills - Rewards - tie rewards to team accomplishment rather than to individuals, gain sharing, profit sharing, skill-based pay, Management - mediating relations between teams CROSS-FUNCTIONAL TEAMS – Work groups that bring people with different functional specialities together to better invent, design, or deliver a product or service, known in their successes in product development, can be self managed/permanent with recurrent task Principles for Effectiveness of Cross-Functional Teams: - Composition - all relevant specialties are necessary; shouldn’t overlook anyone - Superordinate Goals - attractive outcomes that can only be achieved by collaboration - ex. keep the legendary name of Mustang alive in face of cost cutting - Physical Proximity - team members have to be located close to each other - Autonomy - need some autonomy from the larger organization - Rules and Procedures - some basic decision procedures must be laid down to prevent anarchy - ex. a single person could have a veto over radical changes - Leadership - need especially strong people skills in addition to task expertise Shared Mental Modes – Team members share identical information about how they should interact and what their task is VIRTUAL TEAMS – Work groups that use technology to communicate and collaborate across time, space and organizational boundaries Advantages of Virtual Teams: Around the clock work, Reduced travel time and cost, Larger talent pool

15 Challenges of Virtual Teams: Trust, Miscommunication, Isolation, High costs, Management issues Lessons Concerning Virtual Teams: - Recruitment - pick team members carefully in terms of attitude/personality - Training - invest in training for technical/interpersonal skills - Personalization - encourage team members to know each other - Goals and Ground Rules - define goals clearly, set rules for communications standards - provide feedback to keep team members informed of progress

Chapter 5: Theories of Work Motivation

Motivation – The extent to which persistent effort is directed toward a goal According to Maslow and Alderfer, pay should prove especially motivational to people who have strong lower-level needs. If pay has this capacity to fulfill a variety of needs, then it should have good potential as a motivator. Characteristics: 1) Effort – strength of work-related behaviour – quantity work 2) Persistence – exhibits in applying effort to task - quantity work 3) Direction – do workers channel persistent effort in a beneficial direction for the organization – quality of work 4) Goals – all motivated behaviour has some goal toward which it is directed – quality of work EXTRINSIC AND INTRINSIC MOTIVATION Intrinsic Motivation – Motivation that stems from the direct relationship between the worker and the task; it is usually self-applied - ex. feelings of achievement, accomplishment, challenge Extrinsic Motivation – Motivation that stems from the work environment external to the task; it is usually applied by others - pay, company policies, fringe benefits Self-Determination Theory – A theory of motivation that considers whether people’s motivation is autonomous or controlled

Autonomous Motivation – When people are self-motivated by intrinsic factors

Controlled Motivation – When people are motivated to obtain a desired consequence or extrinsic reward *sometimes extrinsic factors lead to autonomous motivation, when individual internalize values/attitudes with behaviour key aspect is to make one;s motivation autonomous versus control

MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE Performance – The extent to which an organizational member contributed to achieving the objectives of the organization Two Forms of intelligence that are particularly important for performance are: 1) General Cognitive Ability – A person’s basic information processing capacities and cognitive resources intelligence and mental abilities, overall capacity and efficiency for processing information including many cognitive abilities such as verbal, numerical, and reasoning abilities 2) Emotional Intelligence – The ability to understand and manage one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions Four branch model of emotional intelligence: a) Perceiving emotions accurately in oneself and others e.g ability to identify emmotions b) Using emotions to facilitate thinking e.g shift emotion and generate new emotion for basis of perception c) Understanding emotions, emotional language, and the signals conveyed by emotions e.g not to ask someone in bad mood for favors d) Managing emotions so as to attain specific goals – e.g being able to stay calm/focus regardless of emotions Need Theories – Motivation theories that specify the kinds of needs people have and the conditions under which they will be motivated to satisfy these needs in a way that contributes to performance Needs Behaviour Incentives and Goals MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS – A 5-level hierarchical need theory of motivation that specifies that the lowest-level unsatisfied need ahs the greatest motivating potential 1. Physiological Needs essential for survival; food, water, oxygen, shelter 2. Safety Needs needs for security, stability, safe working conditions, pension and insurance, acceptable pay 3. Belongingness Needs needs for social interaction, affection, love, companionship, friendship 4. Esteem Needs needs for feelings of adequacy, competence, independence, strength, confidence, appreciation - examples include job titles, awards, promotions, professional recognition 5. Self-Actualization Needs desire to develop one’s true potential as an individual to the fullest extent, express one’s skills, talents and emotions in a manner that is most personally fulfilling - ex. absorbing jobs with the potential for creativity and growth ERG THEORY – A 3-level hierarchical need theory of motivation (existence, relatedness, growth) that allows for movement up and down the hierarchy 1. Existence Needs These are needs that are satisfied by some material substance or condition e.g food, shelter, pay, safe working conditions 2. Relatedness Needs needs that are satisfied by open communication and the exchange of thought and feelings with other organizational members

16 3. Growth Needs needs that are fulfilled by strong personal involvement in the work setting - the full utilization of one’s skills and abilities and the creative development of new skills and abilities Differences b/w ERG & Maslow: 1) ERG does not assume that lower level must be gratified before a less concrete need becomes operative, does not propose regid relatedness or grwth. Account for variety of individuals difference. 2) assumes that higher level needs are ungratified, individuals will increase desire for gratification of lower. - The more lower-level needs are appreciated, the more higher-level need satisfaction is desired - The less higher-level needs are appreciated, the more lower-level needs satisfaction is desired MCCLELLAND’S THEORY OF NEEDS – A non-hierarchical need theory or motivation that outlines the conditions under which certain needs result in particular patterns of motivation 1) Need for Achievement – A strong desire to perform challenging tasks well Characteristics include: - a preference for situation in which personal responsibility can be taken for outcomes - a tendency to set moderately difficult goals that provide for calculated risks - a desire for performance feedback - entrepreneurial positions/running a small business 2) Need for Affiliation – A strong desire to establish and maintain friendly, compatible interpersonal relationships - they like to like others, and they want others to like them - ability to learn social networking quickly, tendency to communicate frequently - motivated by jobs such as social work or customer relations 3) Need for Power – A strong desire to influence others, making a significant impact or impression - high motivation for jobs that enable one to have strong impact on others (journalism/management) Managerial Implications of Need Theories • Appreciate Diversity. Managers must be adept at evaluating the needs of individual employees and offering incentives or goals that correspond to these needs. • Appreciate Intrinsic Motivation. Managers must recognize the importance of higher-order needs. Creativity and innovation are basic conditions for organizational survival, and such behaviour is most likely to occur during the pursuit of higher-order need fulfillment. • Also, the frustration of higher-order needs may prompt demands for greater satisfaction of lower-order needs, which can lead to a vicious circle • Unions’ collective bargaining process sometimes fall into this trap • Organizations must take advantage of the intrinsic motivation inherent in strong higher order needs. To do this, lower-order needs must be reasonably gratified. Jobs can be enriched to be more challenging and career paths can be designed enabling interested workers to progress through a series of jobs that continue to challenge their higher-order needs. PROCESS THEORIES – Motivation theories that specify the details of how motivation occurs Three important process theories – expectancy theory, equity theory, goal setting theory 1) Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom) - A process theory that states that motivation is determined by the outcomes that people expect to occur as a result of their actions on the job Outcomes – consequences that follow work behaviour - ex. good attendance vs. poor attendance Instrumentality – probability that a particular first-level outcome will be followed by a particular second-level outcome (performance outcome link) - ex. high productivity will be followed by pay Valence – the expected value of work outcomes; the extent to which they are attractive or unattractive - ex. good pay, peer acceptance, change of being fired, or any other second-level outcome might be more or less attractive to particular workers Expectancy – the probability that a particular first-level outcome can be achieved - effortperformance link - ex. a machinist is certain that she can perform at an average level but less certain that she can perform at a high level Force – the effort directed toward a first-level outcome - the end product of the other components of the theory - People will be motivated to perform in those work activities that they find attractive and that they feel they can accomplish - The attractiveness of various work activities depends on the extent to which they lead to favourable personal consequences Managerial implication: boost expectancies, clarify reward contingencies, appreciate diverse needs 2) EQUITY THEORY – A process theory that states that motivation stems from a comparison of the inputs one invests in a job and the outcomes one receives in comparison with the inputs and outcomes of another person in the group - individuals are motivated to maintain an equitable exchange relationship

17 3) GOAL SETTING THEORY – A process theory that states that goals are motivational when they are specific, challenging, and when organizational members are committed to them and feedback about progress toward goal attainment is provided Goal – The object or aim of an action Goals Mechanisms Performance - Specific - Direction - Challenge - Effort - Goal Commitment - Persistence - Feedback - Task Strategies Motivational Goals: Goal Specificity – specify an exact level of achievement in a particular time frame - ex. increase my net sales by 20% in the coming business quarter Goal Challenge – more personal; depends on experience and basic skills of the organizational member - ex. encourage a D student to achieve Cs in the coming semester Goal Commitment – must be committed to specific, challenging goals Goal Feedback – specific and challenging goals are more beneficial when paired with ongoing feedback enhancing goal commitment participation, rewards, supportiveness Goal Orientation – An individual’s goal preferences in achievement situations Learning Goal Orientation – A preference to learn new things and develop competence in an activity by acquiring new skills and mastering new situations (most effective for learning and performance) Performance-Prove Goal Orientation – A preference to obtain favourable judgements about the outcome of one’s performance Performance-Avoid Goal Orientation – A preference to avoid negative judgements about the outcome of one’s performance (detrimental for learning and performance) Distal Goal – Long-term or end goals Proximal Goal – Short-term or sub-goals

Chapter 6: Theories of Work Motivation 2

JOB DESIGN AS MOTIVATOR goal: identify the characteristics that make some task more motivating than other and to capture these characteristic in design of jobs Job scope: bredth (# of diff. activities performed on job) and depth of job (degree of discretion or control a worker has over how work tasks are performed) jobs with this ia highscoped jobs like managers or professor, perform variety of jobs High scope should provide more intrinsic motivation , increase scope provide stretch assignments Job roatation : rotating employees to different task and jobs in an organization Job Characteristic Model” 5 characteristics:

Core Job Characteristics Examples Critical Psychological Stats Outcomes Skill Variety: opporuntity to do a variety of job activities using skills and talens Task Identity: extent to which job involves doing complete piece of work from beg. To end Task Significance: impact job has on others Autonomy: freedom to schedule one’s own work activities and decide on work procedures Feedback: information about the effectiveness of one’s work performance

High: owner-operator low: body shop worker sprays paint High: cabinet maker low: operate lathe solely High: nursing sick hospital low: sweeping floors High: schedules his/her own work low: must handle calls as they come High: testing in a factory low: someone else tests

Work intrinsically motivates when it is seen meaningful. Experience meaningfulness of the work Experienced responsibility for outcome of work Knowledge of the actual results of the work activities

Psycho states leads to number of outcomes High internal work motivation High growth satisfaction High general job satisfaction High work effectiveness

Moderators: growth need strength (extent people desire to achieve higher-order need satisfaction) Job Enrichment: design of jobs to enhance intrinsic motivation, quality of working life and job involvement e.g Westjet high degree of latitude in how they perform jobs) Core characters are positively related to job involvement

18 Involves increasing motivating potentional via core characteristics: cobining task, establish external client relations, establish internal client relations, reduce supervisor or relian on other, form work teams, direct feedback Potential problems: poor diagnosis, lack of desire/skill, demand for rewards, union resistance, supervisory resistance Recent development in Job Design: work design characteristics are attributes of task, job and social and organization environment

Motivation: Task (autonomy, task variety, task significatant, task identity and feedback) & knowledge (knowledge/skill/ability needed to preform job)

Social Characteristics: interpersonal & social aspect (social support, interdependence, interaction outside of organization)

Work characteristics (performed and consist of ergonomics, physical demand, equipment and work condition) MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES MBO: elaborate, systematic, ongoing program designed to facilitate goal establishment, goal accomplishment and employee development focus on nature of interaction b/w manager & individual workers ALTERNATIVE WORKING SSCHEDULE AS MOTIVATORS FOR DIVERSE WORKFORCE Flex time: an alternative work schedule in which arrival and departure times are flexible Compressed workweek: alternative work schedule in which employees work fewer than normal five days a week but still put in a normal number of hours per week Job sharing: an alternative work schedule in 2 part-time employees divide work for full-time job Work sharing: reduces # f hours employees work to avoid layoffs when there is a reduction in normal business activity Telecommuting: a system by which employees are able to work at home but stay in touch with their offices through the use of communication technology such as a computer network, voicemail and electronic message.

Chapter 11 Decision Making

Decision making is the process of developing commitment to some course of action

Choice among other alternatives

process in how a decision was reached

commitment some committed resources PROBLEM: a perceived gap between an existing state and a desired state

Well structured problems existing state is clear & desired state is clear, and how to get from one state to another is fairly obvious

o Programs are used as a standardized way of solving problems i.e rules, routines, SOP

Ill structured problems a problem for which the existing and desired states are unclear and the method of getting to the desired state is unknown generally unique, unusual have not been encountered and complex arouse controversy and conflict within people making a decision

o Results to non-programmed decisions gather more information and make an analytical approach RATIONAL DECISION MAKING MODEL Perfect v. Bounded rationality

Perfect: a decision stratergy that is completely informed, perfectly logical and orientated towards economic gain “Economic Person” does not exist

Rational Decision Making Process: 1. Identify problem 2. Search for relevant information 3. Develop alternative solutions to the problem 4. Evaluate alternative solutions 5. Choose best solution 6. Implement chosen solution 7. Monitor and evaluate chosen solution

Herbert recognized that the rational characteristic of economic person do not exist in real decision making. Bounded rationality a decision strategy that relies on limited information and that reflects time constraints and political considerations managers act rationally but are limited in their capacity to acquire and process information

o Framing aspects of the prenstation of information about a problem that are assumed by decision maker o Cognitive biases tendencies to acquire and process info in a particular way that is prone to error

(assumptions/short-cuts) PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND FRAMING

Perceptual defence act to defend perceiver against unpleasant perception your way of thinking

Problem defined in terms of functional speciality view problem being in domain of their own speciality even when some other perspective might be warranted

Problem defined in terms of solution jumping to conclusions short-circults rationality

Problem diagnosed in terms of symptom moral problem on the surface problem, does not look at cause of the problem ignoring the root cause of it

INFORMATION SEARCH

Too little information leads to cognitive biases (rely on information that’s readily), or well-documented tendency for people to be over confident in decion making aka confirmation bias (find information against your own decision)

Too much information information overload : reception of more information than is necessary to make effective decisions lead to errors, omissions, delays and cutting corners

19

o Decision makers think more is better 1) confidence in decision increase 2)fewar of being kept in the dark, decision makers tend to:

Gather much information with little relvance Use information they collected and gathered to justify reasoning Request information that they do not use Request more information, regardless of what is available Complain that there is not enough information to make a decision even though they ignore it

ALTERNATIVE DEVELOPMENT, EVALUATION AND CHOICE Anchoring effect illustrates that decision makers do not adjust their estimates enough grom some intial estimate that serve as an anchor

High efficacy minimize the importance of evidence Group polarization – risky shift make more riskier decisiopns than individuals hiding inform – self appointed mind guards

Maximization – The choice of the decision alternative with the greatest expected value

Satisficing – Establishing an adequate level of acceptability for a solution to a problem and then screening solutions until one that exceeds this level is found. The decision maker working under bounded rationality frequently “satisfices” rather than maximizes. - ex. determines an acceptable level of absenteeism rather than trying to maximize attendance

Sunk Costs – Permanent losses of resources incurred as the result of a decision - these resources should not enter into future decisions

Escalation of Commitment- The tendency to invest additional resources in an apparently failing course of action - buying more faulty computers to prove that they were a good idea

Hindsight – The tendency to review the decision-making process to find what was done right or wrong - knew-it-all-along effect; tendency to assume, after the fact, that we knew all along what the outcome of a decision would be - decision makers in a good mood can overestimate the likelihood of good events and use shortcut decision strategies - people in a positive mood tend to remember positive information - those in a negative mood remember negative information - positive mood promotes more creative, intuitive decision making Why use groups to make organizational decisions? - groups are more vigilant than individuals are – more people are scanning the environment - groups can generate more ideas than individuals can - groups can evaluate ideas better than individuals can Diffusion of Responsibility – The ability of group members to share the burden of the negative consequences of a poor decision - people aren’t singled out for punishment, and everyone shares part of the burden Disadvantages of Group Decision Making - Time – work slower than individuals - Conflict - Domination – meetings dominated by one person - Groupthink Groupthink – The capacity for group pressure to damage the mental efficiency, reality testing, and moral judgement of decision-making groups Groupthink symptoms: - Illusion of invulnerability - overconfident - Rationalization - improbable excuses given - Illusion of Morality - perceive the decisions are being morally correct - Stereotypes of Outsiders - unfavourable stereotypes of outsiders - Pressure for Conformity - members pressured to conform to the group’s views - Self-Censorship - avoid voicing opinions against the group - Illusion of Unanimity - perceive unanimous support exists for their chosen course of action - Mindguards - some people adopt role of “protecting” the group from information that goes against its decisions

20 Risky Shift – The tendency for groups to make riskier decisions than the average risk initially advocated by their individual members Conservative Shift – The tendency for groups to make less risky decisions than the average risk initially advocated by their individual members Groups must stimulate and manage controversy: - incorporate members with diverse ideas and backgrounds - form subgroups to “tear the problem apart” - establish norms that favour the open sharing of information These tactics must be managed careful to ensure that open conflict does not occur. A devil’ advocate can be used as well to stimulate controversy. Devil’s Advocate – A person appointed to identify and challenge the weaknesses of a proposed plan or strategy IMPROVING DECISION MAKING IN ORGANIZATION Brainstorming – An attempt to increase the number of creative solution alternatives to problems by focusing on idea generation rather than evaluation - helps shape the organizational culture, retain good talent, and contribute to client confidence Electronic Brainstorming – The use of computer-mediated technology to improved traditional brainstorming practices - electronic brainstorming groups perform better than face-to-face groups in terms of both quantity and quality of ideas since they tend to produce more ideas the larger they get while retaining a stable number of ideas-per-person (rather than a decreasing ideas-per-person in face-to-face) Nominal Group Technique – A structured group decision-making technique in which ideas are generated without group interaction and then systematically evaluated by the group - separates the generation of ideas from their evaluation - disadvantage being the time and resources required to assemble the group for face-to-face interaction Delphi Technique – A method of pooling a large number of expert judgements by using a series of increasingly refined questionnaires Chapter 13: Negotiating Negotiation: a decision making process among interdependent parties who do no share identical preferences Distributive negotiation: win-lose negotiation in which fixed amount of assets is divided béw parties

o Threat & Promises: Threats consist that you will punish the other party if she or he does not concede your position , promises are pledges that concession lead to rewards in the future threat has merit over other that corresponds to nature of threat

o Firmness v. concessions: good negotiator often use face-saving techniques to explain concession o Persuasion attempt to change attitude of party towards your target position. Persuaders are most effective

when they are perceived as experts, likable and unbiased. Integrative negotiation: win-win negotiation thatassumes that mutual problem solving can enlarge the assets to be divided between parties

Copius information exchange Trust builts and asks a lot of question listen to responds

Framing differences as opportunities usually a barrier, but also can be bassis of agreements, e.g two coworkers negotiating for finishing date of project, due to competing demands one finish it early other wants to make the deadline

Cutting cost: if you can somehow cut the cost that the other party associates with agreement, chance of integrative settlement rises. Asking good question find out what she is ultimately opportunity to inform her that you have groomed a subordinate to do your current job.

Increasing resources: increasing available resources is a very literal way of getting around the fixed pie syndrome. To have access to twice as many resources as one.

Introducing superordinate goals: attractive outcomes that can be achieved by collaboration. Neither party can attain goal on its own probably represent the best example of creativity in integrative negotiation because they can change the entire landscape of negotiator episode.

Third Party involvement mediation (aids the two parties to work together) & arboitration (authority dictate the terms of )

Post Midterm Notes: Chapter 13 Conflict & Stress

Interpersonal Conflict: process that occurs when one person, group or organizational subunit frustrates the goal attainment. classic form often involves antognistic attitudes and behaviours. (i.e name calling, sabotage, physical aggression) CAUSES OF ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT

Group Identification and Intergroup Bias group/class of people set stage for conflict o assigned people to groups randomly/on basis of some trivial characteristic (positive view = “in-group” negative

view = outgroup) o Intergroup bias self esteem to provide comforting feelings (positive view affects self esteem)

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o Groups/classes personal characteristic (gender/race), job function(sales/production), level (manager/other) differenced based on real differences of power/opportunity

o Intergroup bias organization will have to pay special attention to managing relations within team

Interdependence set stage for conflict cause of 2 reasons: o 1

st ; necessitates intersection b/w parties so that they can coordinate their interest

o 2nd

; interdependence implies that each part has some power over the other

Difference in Power, Status & Culture o Power: dependence is not mutual conflict rises e.g A needs B, but B doesn’t need A causing antagonism, B>A) o Status: little impetus for conflict when people of lower status are dependent on those of higher status e.g

employee giving instruction to higher status people in organization o Culture: 2/more culture clash in beliefs and values

Ambiguity goals, jurisfiction / performance conflict when formal/informal rules break down o Frequently cause conflict b/w managers and employees

Scarce Resources difference in power magnified when resources become scarce. o Scarcity turn latent/disguised conflict into overt conflict

TYPES OF CONFLICT

Relationship conflict : interpersonal tension among individuals that have to do with their relationship per se, not the task at hand

Task conflict: disagreements about the nature of the work to be done

Process conflict: disagreements about how work should be organized and accomplished A MODEL OF STRESS IN ORGANZATION Stressors: are environmental events or condition that have potential to induce stress personality determines extent Stress: psychological reaction to demands inherent in a stressor that has the potential to make person feel anxious, becomes a problem when it leads to high anxiety Stress Reactions the behavioural, psychological, and physiological consequence of stress (see ex 13.3) Personality and Stress influences the experience along with it

Locus of control: set beliefs about whether one behaviour is controlled by internal/external, externals feel more stressed and less in control

Type A behaviour: a personality pattern that includes aggressiveness, ambitiousness, competiveness, histlity, impatience and sense of time urgency have heavier workloads, longer ours and more conflicting work demand, perceive themselves with higher stressed position

Negative affectivity: propensity to view the world, including oneself and other people in negative light tend to report more stressors at work

STRESSORS IN ORGANIZATIONAL LIFE Executive and Managerial Stressors

Roal overload provokes stress: requirement for too many take to be performed in short time

Heavy Responsibility: actions have important conquences, personal consequence of incorrect design can be staggering, also responsible for other people’s work

Operative level stressors

Poor physical working condition excessive chances of accidents, pollution, noise, cold

Poor job design too simple/not challenging can cause stress Boundary Role Stressors, Burn out, & Emotional Labour

Boundary Roles: position in which organizational members are required to interact with members of other organization within the public e.g sales, likely to experience stress straddle boundary of organization and environment, comes to a dilemma of doing job

Experience burnout : syndrome of emotional exhaustion, cycnicism and reduced self efficacy Burnout Emotional Exhaustion (fatigued, cynical, frustrated) feel depersonalize, treated like obkjefcts develops feeling of low self-efficacy

Job Demand Resource Model

Work Engagement positive work related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication and absorption

Job demands resource model specifies how job demands cause burnout and job resources cause engagement o Job resources reduce stress: organization of work & tasj uts self

Central assumption: high job resource foster work engagement while high job demand exhaust General Stressors: Interpersonal conflict, Work-Family Conglict, Job Insecurity and Change , Role Ambiguity, Sexual Harassement

22 REACTIONS TO STRESS Behaviour Reactions

Problem solving : directed to terminating stressor or reducing potency reality oriented, reveals flexibility and feedback e.g delegation, time management, talking it out, asking for help, searching for alternative

Seeking Social support: talking about it bolstering self esteem, providing useful information, offer comfort / material needed

Performance changes: stressirs can damage performance, but also sometime stimulate via motivation

Withdrawal: absence or turnover ST reduction of anxiety (dysfunctional reaction)

Use of addictive substance: smoking, drugs etc Psychological Reactions:

Defence mechanism: psychological attempts to reduce anxiety associated with stress, including : Rationalizing, projection, displacement, reaction formation, compensation

Physiological Reaction to stress Develop health issues

ORGANIZATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING STRESS Job redesign: reduce stressful characteristic Family friendly HR policy Stress Management Programs Work-life balance, fitness and wellness programs

Chapter 9: Leadership

Leadership: influence that particular individuals exert on goal achievement of others in organizational context, effective exerts on how to achieve goals by productivity, innovation, satisfaction and commitments COMPONENTS OF EFFECTIVE STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP • Determining the firm’s purpose or vision. • Exploiting and maintaining core competencies. • Developing human capital. • Sustaining an effective organizational culture. • Emphasizing ethical practices. • Establishing balanced organizational controls. DOES LEADERSHIP MATTER? • Organizations do not have a rule or policy for every contingency. • Organizational environments change and someone must be responsive to this change. • Organizational members differ in their needs and goals. • In most organizations, rigid selection and promotion policies dictate that those who achieve leadership positions have very similar leadership styles Strategic leadership: leader’s ability to anticipate, envision, maintain flexibility think strategically and work with other to intiate viable change for organization *some are born with traits, other learn from experience Summary of Theories

• Trait: characteristics of the person; Personality Traits, Social Traits, Physical Characteristics • Behavioural: ways that the leader acts

• Initiating Structure (e.g. task-orientation, work-orientation, production-orientation) • Consideration (employee needs and concerns): extent to which leader is approachable and as personal concern/respect

for employee Leader reward behaviour: compliments, tangible benefit and special treatment, Punishment: reprimand unfavourable task

assignment and active withholding rewards Situational theories of leadership Continguency theory: associate b/w leadership orientation and group effectiveness is contingent on how favourable situation is for exerting influence Least preferred worker: leader has difficult time accomplishing task, reflects motivation and personality Situational favourblenes factors include: leader-member relation, task structure, position of p[ower Cognitive Resource Theory: leadership theory focuses on condition in which leaders resources contribute to effective leadership House-Path Goal Theory situation under which various leader behaviours are most effective: directive, supportive, participative and achievement-oriented • Subordinates who are high need achievers should work well under achievement-oriented leadership • Subordinates who prefer being told what to do should respond best to a directive leadership

23 • When subordinates feel that they have rather low task abilities, they should appreciate directive leadership and coaching behaviour • When they feel quite capable of performing the task, they will view such behaviours as unnecessary and irritating Participative leadership : involves employees in making work-related decisions Adv: Increases motivation and commitment of Subordinates, Enhances quality because decisions are made not solely by leader and because employees are empowered, Involves acceptance of fairness Problems: time & energy, loss of power, lack of receptivity or knowledge Vroom & Jago model specify in a practical manner when leaders should use participation and to what extent tree diagram • The model requires the use of a decision tree. The decision tree assesses the situation in terms of several factors. • Based on the results of the decision tree analysis, the manager is advised to employ one of five leadership styles, ranging from making the decision alone to meeting with subordinates to make a group decision. • A key component of the model is determining how much to involve subordinates in making decisions. Leader-member exchange theory: a theory of leadership that focuses on quality the relationship develops between a leader and employee, over time different relations develop This model stresses the fact that leadersdevelop unique working relationships with each of their subordinates. • As stressed in the following slide, a key factor in the nature of this relationship is whether the individual subordinate is in the leader’s outgroup or in-group. • In-Group • Typically consists of a small number of employees with which the supervisor establishes a special relationship. • Members of the in-group receive a disproportionate amount of the supervisor’s time and attention. • As a result, members of the in-group usually receive special privileges and opportunities. • Out-Group • Consists of the majority of a supervisor’s employees. • Members of the out-group receive less of the supervisor’s time and attention. • As a result, the members of the out-group are afforded fewer privileges and opportunities TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP Transactional leadership: based on straightforward exchange relation b/w leader and followers Contingent Reward: •Contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishments •Management by Exception (active): Watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards, takes corrective action •Management by Exception (passive): Intervenes only if standards are not met. Laissez-Faire Leader: Abdicates responsibilities, avoids making decisions. Transformational leadership: changes beliefs and attitudes of followers to correspond new vision and motivate them to achieve performance beyond expectation, four different behaviour :

Visionary: Communicates a compelling vision of the future.

Inspiring: Communicates the vision with passion, energy and conviction.

Stimulating: The leader arouses interests in new ideas and new solutions.

Coaching: Gives personal attention, treats each employee individually, coaches, advises.

Team-building: The leader builds teams by selecting individuals with complementary skills, and encourages the team to work together.

Skills: Intellectual Stimulation: People are stimulated to think about problems, issues, and strategies in new ways. • This contributes to the “new vision” aspect of transformational leadership. • It often involves creativity and novelty. Individualize Consideration: • This involves treating employees as distinct individuals, indicating concern for their needs and personal development, and serving as a mentor or coach when appropriate. • The emphasis is a one-on-one attempt to meet the concerns and needs of the individual in question in the context of the overall goal or mission. Inspirational Motivation: This involves the communication of visions that are appealing and inspiring to followers. • Leaders with inspirational motivation stimulate enthusiasm, challenge followers with high standards, communicate optimism about future goal attainment, and provide meaning for the task at hand. • They inspire followers using symbolic actions and persuasion Charismatic: Charisma – ‘gift’ in Greek Charismatic leaders use referent power • Potential for high achievement & performance • Potential for destructive & harmful courses of action.

24 Ethical leadership: the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal action and interpersonal relationship and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two way communication, reinforcement, and decision making Ethical leadership is knowing your core values and having the courage to live them in all parts of your life in service of the common good Authentic leadership a positive form of leadership that involves being true to oneself, known and act upon true value, beliefs and strengths and they help others do the same 6 dimension to global leaders: charismatic/value based, team oriented, participative, humane oriented, autonomousl, self protective, global leadership is set of capabilities required to function effectively using different culturs and ability to cross language, social, economic and political borders CHAPTER 10: COMMUNICATION What is communication? Process by which information is exchanged between sender and receiver, er are looking into interpersonal communication within this chapter Words: 10% Tone: 35% Body Language 55% communication: process by which information is exchanged b/w a sender and receiver. Sender must encode his/her thoughts transmitted to receiver. (writing mail) then perceive message and decode it, feedback from receiver Thinking Encoding Transmitting Perceiving Decoding Understanding Effective communication: communication whereby the right people receive the right information in timely manner Basic Organization Communication

Chain of command: lines of authority and formal reporting relationship (workers report to supervisor reports to manager)

Downward communication : Top of organization to bottom Upward Communication – bottom to top

Horizontal communication: coordinating effort with other departments Deficiencies in Chain of Command

Informal Communication helps perform more effectively, but informal grapevibne may spread rumours

Filtering tendency for message to be wattered down/stopped during transmission employees are supposed to filter but this precludes people getting correct information, upward filtering = fear, downward filtering=time pressure SOLUTION: Open door policy

Slowness: chain of command can be slower for horizontal communication b/w departments therefore, crossfunctional communication provides a solution to the slowness

Manager-Employer Commitment perceptual issues lack of communication causes reducement in job satisfaction Barriers to effective manager-employer communication Leadership roles require manager to attend both task and social-emotional functions Mum effect: the tendency to avoid communicating favourable news to others. Neglect the bad news The Grapevine an organization’s informal communication network. Characteristics of the Grapevine: Generally think of grapevine as communicating information by word of mouth. several grapevine systems with organization can transmit information relevant to performance of organization as well as personal gossip Who participates in the grapevine? extroverts/ lack self esteem physical location related to opportunity to receive/transmit news Good or Bad PROS: keeps employees informed, potent informal recruiting doutce, “leak/plant” ideas CONS: become a problem of rumours, unverified the accuracy, spread faster and farther when information is ambiguous, difficult global competition, staff reduction and restructuring. Verbal language of work: Jargon specialized language used by job holders or members of particular occupation or organization, good motivator but also can be confusing for new members or people of other departments. Assert that your in an exclusive group Non-verbal communication –> transmission of message by some medium other than speech of writing convey the “real stuff”, i.e body language

Body Language: non verbal communication by means of sender’s bodily motion, facial expression or physical location. Senders communicate liking/interest in receiver when” position themselves physically close to receiver touch receiver during interaction maintain eye contact lean forward

Senders with higher status, act relaxed: casual placement of arms or legs, reclining seating position and lack of fidgeting and nervous activity

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Props, Artifact and Costumes office décor & arrangement, clothing communication Gender Differences in Communication: influences and communication styles are different. Girls do it for networking and building relationship, guys do it to achieve a status within groupe , men are sensitive to power dynamics, women concerned with rapport building MEN: Get credit, confidence, ritual opposition, communicate with superiors Women: ask question, apoligize, feedback, compliments, indirect in giving orders females are alsways looked negatively when it comes to communication Communication across culture be aware of language diffirence, non-verbal communication across cultures, etiquette and politeness across cultures, social convention, cultural context Computer mediated communication: forms of communication that rely on computer technology to facilitate information exchange information richness: potential information carrying capacity of a communication mediu Personal Approaches to Improving Communication Basic Principles: Take the time, be accepting of others, do not confuse the person with the problem, say what you feel and listen actively, give timely and specific feedback Organizational approaches to improving communication: Assume difference until you know otherwise, recognize differences within cultures, watch your language 360 Degree Feedback: Performance appraisal that uses the input of supervisors, employees, peers and clients or customers of appraisal individual Employee survey: an anonymous questionnaire that enables employees to state their candid opinions and attitudes about an organization that its practices Suggestion systems: Program designed to enhance upward communication by soliciting ideas for improved work operation from employees Greatergood.berkeley.edu/ei_quiz ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE & CHANGE Organizational culture: shared beliefs, values and assumption that exist in an organization determiune norms that develop and patterns of behaviour that emerge from these norms organizations can have subcultures: smaller culture develop within organizational culture based on difference training, occupation or department goal Strong culture: an organizational culture with intense and pervasive beliefs, values and assumption, great consensus of what the organization is about , stronger impact on members e.g Boston pizza, westjet airlines Assets of strong culture:

Coordination

Conflict resolution

Financial success Liabilities of strong culture:

Resistance to change

Culture clash

Pathology Contributors to culture:

Founders Role

Socialization Diagnosing a culture: rituals & stories Organizational change 2 pressures (external & internal), organizations work hard to establish input and output Internal change through low productivity, turnover, absent, strikes and conflicts What organization can change: goals and stratergy, technology, job design, structure, process, culture, people 1)change in one area affects others, goal and stratergy require structural changes 2) changes rquire organization to give serious attention to people change, skills & attitude need to be fostered The change process

Unfreezing: recognition that current state of affairs is unsatisfactory

Change: implementation of program or plan to move organization or members to more satisfactory state

Refreezing: condition exist when newly developed behaviours, attitudes, or structure become an enduring part of organization

CHAPTER 12: POWER, POLITICS AND ETHICS

Power: capacity to influence others who are in a state of dependence Determinants position in resources resources they can take over, Position + ability to confer rewards Bases of individual and power

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Legitimate power derived from a person’s position or job in an organization e.g move up organization, see members have more and more legit power

Reward power power derived from ability to provide positive outcomes and prevent negative outcomes e.g positive reinforcement recommend raises and performance evalves

Coercive power derived from use of punishment and threat managers dock pay, assign unfavourable task, block promotions

referent power power derived from being well liked by others stems from id of individual, anyone in organization may be well liked

Expert power derived from having special information or expertise by an organization corresponds to difficulty of replacement i.e secretaries aquire expertise through long experience of records, clients

How do people obtain power? Doing right things extraordinary activities (out of routine), visible activities, relevant activities

Cultivating the right people relationship with outsider, subordinates, peers and superiors

Empowerment – giving people the authority opportunity and motivation to take intiative and solve organizational problems Influence tactics assertiveness, ingratiation, rationality, exchange, upward appeal, coalition formation most effective managers have -high n pow - use power to achieve organizational goals -adopt a participative or coaching leadership style - are relatively unconcerned with how much others like them Controlling strategic contingencies – how subunits obtain power Subunit power: the degree of power held by various organizational subunits such as departments Strategic contingencies critical factors affecting organizational effectiveness that are controlled by a key subunit

Scarcity

Uncertainty

Centrality

Substituability: Organizational politics pursuit self0interest in organization, whether or not to respond to goals Machiavellanism: set of cynical beliefs about human nature, morality and permissibility of using various tactics to achieve one’s end Defensiveness: stalling, overconforming, buck passing, buffing, scapegoating ETHICS IN ORGANIZATION Ethics: systematic thinking about the moral consequences of decisions Stakeholders: people inside or outside of an organization who have the potential to be affected by organizational decisions The nature of ethical dillemmas occupationally specific Market researchers true sponsor of research is ongoing debate Ethical behaviour Honest communication, fair treatment, special consideration, fair competition, responsibility to organization, corporate social responsibility, respect for law Causes of Unethical Behaviour Gain : role of temptation Role conflict: very common form of role conflict that provokes unethical behaviour occurs when our bureaucratic role as an organizational employee is at odds with our role as the member of a profession Competition: scarce resources can stimulate unethical behaviour, personaility --? Strong economic value perform more unethically, high need for personal power prone to unethical decisions organizaitonal and industry culture: factors of consideration for employees, respect across groups, laws, and organizational rules. Whistle blowing: disclosure of illegitimate practices by a current or former organizational member to some person or organization that may be able to take action to correct these practices “whistle may be blown inside or outside| Sexual harassment power and ethics collide –> can cost millions of dollars, low productivity, increase of absenteeism and turnover, to effectively deal with sexual harrassement examine characteristic of deaf ear organization foster manager support and education stay vigilant Take immediate action, create state of art policy, establish clear reporting procesdures