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PRESERVATION OF THE FROZEN TOMBS OF THE ALTAI MOUNTAINS

5PRESERVATION OF THE FROZEN TOMBS OF THE ALTAI MOUNTAINSThe views expressed in the articles contained in

this publication are those of the authors and notnecessarily those of UNESCO.Staff Head in the Formof Large Gryphons Headwith a Deers Head in itsBeak.Wood and leather;carved. H. 35 cm PazyrykCulture. 5th century bc.Inv. no. 1684/170. The State HermitageMuseum, St. Petersburg.

7Table of ContentsForeword Kochiro Matsuura 9Introduction J. Han 11Maps and Chronology 1617CHAPTE R I SCYTHIANS IN THE EURASIAN STEPPE AND THE PLACE OF THEALTAI MOUNTAINS IN ITThe Scythians: Nomadic Horsemen of the Eurasian Steppe H. Parzinger 19The Frozen Scythian Burial Complexes of the Altai Mountains: Conservation and SurveyIssues V.I. Molodin 25Culture and Landscape in the High Altai E. Jacobson-Tepfer 31Ancient Altai Culture and its Relationship to Historical Asian Civilizations H. P. Francfort 35The Silk Roads and the Road of the Steppes: Eurasia and the Scythian World P. Cambon 41CHAPTER I I UNESCO PROJECT PRESERVATION OF FROZEN TOMBS OF THEALTAI MOUNTAINSBackground to UNESCO Preservation of the Frozen Tombs of the Altai Mountains Projectand Perspectivesfor Transboundary Protection through the World Heritage Convention J. Han 49UNESCO-Sponsored Field Campaigns in the Russian and Kazakh Altai J. Bourgeois and W.Gheyle 55Climate Change and its Impact on the Frozen Tombs of the Altai Mountains S. Marchenko 61

CHAPTER III CHALLENGE FOR CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENTThe Altai: Heartland of Asia Y.P. Badenkov 65Excavation and Sampling Techniques in the Frozen Tombs of Kazakhstan J. Vasquez 67Recommendations of the Gorno-Altaisk UNESCO Workshop, March 2006. 73Afterword Ivan Belekov 77Acknowledgements 79

9ForewordKochiro MatsuuraDirector-General of UNESCO

The safeguarding and protection of the worlds cultural heritage has long been considered one


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Altai Mountain region is recognized internationally and protected accordingly.Thus far, this project has served to focus wider international attention on the larger problemsconfronting other natural and cultural heritage sites affected by global warming and climatechange.Indeed, this project has already enriched the international debate on this issue. I am confident

thatthis booklet, with its insightful articles on the Altai region by several eminent specialists, willstimulatefurther reflection on matters related to conservation, sustainable development and climatechange tothe benefit of heritage in other regions of the world.I would like to express my gratitude to the UNESCO/Flanders Funds-in-Trust for its generouscontribution to this landmark project and to the publication of this booklet. My sincere thanksalso goto all of the contributing authors and institutions, which have graciously lent their time andexpertise

to ensuring the quality of this booklet.Kochiro MatsuuraSwan. Felt; applique.H. 30 cm PazyrykCulture. 5th - 4thcentury bc.Inv. no. 1687/262. The State HermitageMuseum, St. Petersburg.

11The publication of this booklet marks theend of the Preservation of the Frozen Tombs ofthe Altai Mountains project, which was launchedin 2005 and carried out by the UNESCO WorldHeritage Centre with financial support from theUNESCO/Flanders Funds-in-Trust (Fig. 1).Until quite recently, issues surrounding thefrozen tombs of the Altai Mountains were knownabout by only a limited number of specialists, dueto difficulties of international access to regions of

the former Soviet Union. The frozen tombs andmaterial contained in them constitute invaluableresearch material to shed light on the nomadic

peoples that inhabited the Eurasian Steppe inthe first millennium bce, as well as on theirneighbouring civilizations, such as the PersianAchemaenid Empire.Excavations carried out on the Scythian barrowslying between the Ural and Altai mountainranges in the 17th and 18th centuries ce, whichformed the basis of the collection put together

by Peter the Great that is now in the StateHermitage Museum in St. Petersburg (Fig. 2),


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already yielded considerable information on theScythians and on the other nomadic tribes thatonce inhabited this region. However, certain customsand cultural aspects of these peoples couldnot have been confirmed had it not been for excavations

carried out in the frozen tombs of theAltai Mountains themselves. For this reason,these frozen tombs are invaluable for the lighttheir contents shed over what is still a littleknown

period in the history of the peoples thathave occupied the Eurasian steppe.Over the last three years, the UNESCO projectthat this publication records has beensuccessfully raising awareness of the importanceof frozen tombs of the Altai Mountains at internationallevel. The aim of the present publication is

both to record this project and to shed furtherlight not only on the uniqueness of the tombs asresearch material, but also on the mountain landscape,which shows how the nomadic peoples ofthis region have interacted with their naturalenvironment over the millennia.The first section of this booklet deals withsome of these issues, looking at historical, anthropological,archaeological and art-historicalaspects of the Altai Mountains. The first article,The Scythians: Nomadic Horsemen of theEurasian Steppe, introduces the Scythians andwhat is known about them, taking readers fromthe coasts of the Black Sea to Tuva (the Republicof Tuva in the Russian Federation) on the southernedges of Siberia. It was in this region that theso-called Scytho-Siberian style of art is now

believed to have originated, thanks to the recentresearch carried out on the kurgan, or burialmound, Arzhan-2 in Tuva by a joint German andRussian team (H. Parzinger, Deutsches Archologisches

Institut (DAI) and K. Cugunov, StateHermitage Museum) (Fig. 3 and 4). By describingIntroductionJunhi HanWorld Heritage Centre, Culture, UNESCOFig. 2 Comb with aScythians in Battle.Gold; cast and chased.12.6 x 10.2 cm Scythianculture. Late 5th - early4th century bc Solokha

Barrow.Inv. no. Dn-1913.1/1


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The State HermitageMuseum, St. Petersburg.INTRODUCTIONvthe position of the Altai in the broad context of

Eurasia as a whole, the article serves as an introductionto those that follow dealing with specificthemes.The second article, The Frozen ScythianBurial Complexes of the Altai Mountains:Conservation and Survey Issues, introduces twoof the most important valleys in the AltaiMountains, the Bashadar and Ukok Valleys,which are parts of the UNESCO World HeritageSite, and suggests future challenges in carryingout research on the frozen tombs that are located

in them.The third article, Culture and Landscape inthe High Altai, concerns the cultural landscapeof the Altai, providing readers with a chronological

profile of the region. When travelling in theAltai, it is easy to appreciate the many humancivilizations that have flourished there over themillennia: Bronze and Iron Age structures arescattered across the landscape in the form of

petroglyphs and deer-stones, as well as in theshape of the burial mounds themselves. LaterTurkic Period (ca. 500 to 900 ce) culture is represented

by the presence of beautiful anthropomorphicstanding stones, or balbals (Fig. 5, 6 and 7).The article describes how the combination ofarchaeological remains in the Altai from different

periods in the last three millennia has given riseto a unique cultural landscape. This is, in part, aFig. 1 Archaeologicalremains in the GoldenMountains of Altai:

burial mounds(kurgans), Bronze-Agestelae and stonecircles. Gary Tepfer.Fig. 3 and 4 Hair Pinsfrom the Arzhan-2kurgan,Tuva Republic,Russian Federation. DeutschesArchologisches

Institut, DAI, Berlin.12


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landscape that is human-made, created over millenniaby people who had a profound knowledgeof the mountains. The objects that they have left

behind convey their builders sensitivity to thecolours of nature and the textures of the stones

and other natural materials, shaping these tobecome the expressions of human culture.Research carried out in the Altai Mountainsand in neighbouring areas has indicated thekinds of interaction and mutual influence thatonce existed between the Altai and neighbouringregions. It has also been suggested thattrade routes existed across the regionlong before the famous SilkRoads came to life that once

joined East and West across

Eurasia. It is this aspectthat the fourth article,Ancient Altai Cultureand its Relationship toHistorical Asian Civilizations,concentrateson, providing a comparativeanalysis of objectsfrom the Altai, fromthe Xinjiang and Gansuregions of China, and fromthe ancient Persian AchaemenidEmpire.The last article in this sectiontraces the influence of thePazyryk culture of the Altai

peoples on those further to the east and beyondsouthern Siberia. Objects (Fig. 8) found in thekobuns, or burial mounds, belonging to the early

period of the Shilla Kingdom (ca. 57 bce to 668ce) in ancient Korea show striking similarities

with those found in the frozen tombs of the AltaiMountains, as well as with objects discoveredin the Central Asia, for example at Tillia Tepe inwhat is todays northern Afghanistan. Magnificenttreasures from this site were recently shownto the public for the first time at an exhibitionorganized by the Muse Guimet in Paris(Afghanistan, Rediscovered Treasures:Objects from the National Museumof Kabul) (Fig. 9). Objectsyielded from the Shilla

kobuns, consists of theitems of weaponry, horse


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equipment and gold, formindeed the Scythiantriad found in the easternmost

parts of theEurasian continent. This

raises the question ofwhether such similarcultural phenomenacould have coexistedwithout there at thesame time having

been connectionsbetween Central andFar East Asia.Fig. 5 A balbal. Gary Tepfer.

Fig. 6 Stone balbals:often found near the

burial mounds, thesestanding stones, or

balbals, vary in shapefrom rough,unpolished stonesteles to skilfullycarvedanthropomorphicstone figures.They arethought to bememorial monuments(Turkic period,ca. 500-900 ce). Gary Tepfer.Fig. 7 A balbal, Gorno-Altaisk Museum,Republic of Altai. UNESCO, J. Han.INTRODUCTION

13By searching for the missing links that onceconnected Central Asia to the Korean peninsular,the author of this article attempts to show that aRoute of the Steppes could have existed acrossthis part of Asia in ancient times, joining CentralAsia with Far East Asia along the southern edgesof Siberia and through the Altai Mountains.Further study should now be carried out to fill inthis missing chapter in the history of the Eurasiancontinent, and this will have profound implications

for our understanding of the interactionsand extension of nomadic culture across the


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Eurasian continent.The booklets second section deals with the

background and various technical aspects of theUNESCO project, along with future challengesfor research and conservation, including how to

safeguard the research material contained in thefrozen tombs. The project has helped produce adetailed inventory and map of the frozen tombsin certain parts of the Altai by using the mostmodern mapping techniques developed with theaid of satellite images. Such geophysical techniqueshave also been used to monitor the permafrostin the Altai, and these are described in thearticles in section two.The third section of the booklet describes variouschallenges facing the Altai and the frozen

tombs. The first article, The Altai: Heartland ofAsia, examines how the sustainable developmentof the region might be pursued by incorporatinginsights from existing international programmes,such as UNESCOs Man and Biosphere(MAB) and World Heritage programmes, as wellas from other programmes linked to sustainabledevelopment. The challenge here is to arrive atan appropriate balance between the conservationof the Altai Mountains and their existing ecosystemand rich archaeological heritage, andthe development process, taking into accountthe social and economic needs of the local population.Finally, as a result of research on thefrozen materials found in the tombs, a relativelynew issue has emerged: how to conserve theorganic material that the tombs contain, includinghuman bodies. The last article, Excavationand Sampling Techniques in the Frozen Tombs ofKazakhstan, deals with this subject.Despite the wealth of information contributed

by the authors of these articles, thisbooklet is nevertheless all too limited in scopeand detail when compared to the complexity ofthe issues facing the frozen tombs and the AltaiMountains as a whole and the challenge of protectingthem from various threats, including climatechange. However, it is our hope that it maycontribute to raising awareness of the fragileenvironment in which the tombs are found andthe natural and man-made threats currently confrontingthem, as well as of the need not only to

protect these sites at an international level, butalso to recognize their great cultural value. In the


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light of this, the larger objective of the booklet isto draw the international communitys attentionto these crucial issues, in order that it may reflecton them and mobilize international resources forwhatever future actions are deemed necessary.

In closing, I should like to express my gratitudeto the Flanders Government of Belgium, notonly for its funding for the project, but also forthe support it has provided throughout. I alsoshould like to extend my gratitude to the Ministryof Information and Culture and to the NationalMuseum of Kabul (Islamic Republic ofAfghanistan), to the Muse Guimet (France), tothe Museum for Pre- and Early History, StaatlichMuseen zu Berlin, and to Bordon Art Design(Germany), and to the State Hermitage Museum

(Russian Federation), for their cooperation in thepublication of the booklet. Finally, I would like toexpress my personal thanks to all the authors ofthe articles, who kindly accepted to contribute tothis publication in spite of their tight schedules.Fig. 8 Shilla GoldenCrown from Kyungju,Shilla Kingdom,5th-6th century ce. GiltBronze, H: 59.5 cm;D. at base: 17 cm,MA 1642.

National Museum ofKorea Thierry Ollivier /Muse Guimet.Fig. 9 Golden crown,Afghanistan,TilliaTepe,Tomb VI,1st century ce.Gold, 45.0 x 13.0 cm.MK 04.40.50.

National Museum ofAfghanistan ThierryOllivier / Muse Guimet.14PRESERVATION OF THE F ROZEN TOMBS OF THE A LTAI MOUNTA INS

16Ca. 750: Arzhan 1 Ca. 600: Arzhan 2P E R I O D O F -1000 -900 -800 -700 -600 B R O N Z E A G EEurasian SteppeChronology

BORDON/ SMB17


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Ca. 440-400:Tuekta 1 Ca. 314-311:Ulandryk 4Ca. 300-282: Pazyryk 2Ca. 299: Pazyryk 3Ca. 295: Pazyryk 1Ca. 294-293: Berel 11

Ca. 274: Ak-AlakhaCa. 264: Pazyryk 4Ca. 250: Pazyryk 5F I R S T N O M A D S-500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 ADThe Altai Mountains BORDON/ SMBLocations of famous kurgansFrom various recent publications.PRESERVATION OF THE F ROZEN TOMBS OF THE A LTAI MOUNTA INS18

CHAPTER 1SCYTHIANS IN THE EURASIAN STEPPEAND THE PLACE OF THE ALTAI MOUNTAINS IN ITCHAPTE R I SCYTHI A N S I N THE EURASIAN STEPPE AN D THE P LACE O FTHE A LTAI MOUNTA I N S I N I T19Over the past 300 years, kurgans from theScythian age have been discovered betweenthe Yenisei River in the east and the middleDanube in the west, drawing attention to themonumental burial mounds and highly decoratedgolden objects of the Eurasian nomadichorsemen that built them during the 1st millennium

bce. Originating in southern Siberia in thelate 9th and early 8th centuries bce, and extendingduring the 7th century to Kazakhstan, the southernUrals, Russia and through the Ukrainiansteppe to the Carpathian Basin, the Scythiansand related horse-dependent nomadic peoples(the Sauromatae and Saka, etc.) were replaced

by other peoples (the Xiongnu, Wusun and

Sarmatians) around 200 bce before finally disappearingfrom history.The Ancient Greeks wrote about the extraordinarycustoms of the Scythians, and the historicaltradition stated by Herodotus places theirorigins in Central Asia, southern Siberia and thenorthern borders of China and in areas whereour knowledge of them depends on archaeologicalsources.Scythian life on the steppe depended onmobility since pastures had to be periodically

relocated to support the herds that representedwealth and prosperity, and therefore often


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needed to be defended from other nomadicgroups. This led to the stratification and militarizationof nomadic society, which furtherincreased the importance of the warrior horsemen.However, the many Scythian forts to the

north of the Black Sea indicate settlement,craftsmanship and even agriculture. The town ofGelonus (probably todays Belsk), for example,described as a large fortress by Herodotus, was

built completely out of wood and surrounded bya 5km-long wall. While there is a need for furtherresearch on Scythian settlements, much more isknown about these peoples burial customs.These had a special meaning for the Scythians,

particularly for members of the ruling class,called basileis, or kings, by Herodotus. Several

of these large kurgans, or burial mounds, havebeen excavated since the 19th century, and theygive an impression of the grandeur of theScythian ruling class.The kurgan mounds of Certomlyk, Solokha,Kozel, Kul-Oba, Oguz, Tatjanina Mogila,Ryzanovka and Tolstaja Mogila, among others,have yielded bodies wearing grave-clothes decoratedwith sheets of gold. These ornaments aremade of thin gold foil, and they often showScythian-style animal figures, as well as motifsof Greek origin. The same applies to the goldused to make the quivers, dagger-handles andscabbards, the decorative plates of buckles,sceptre-handles, and so on, all found in thetombs. Torcs, pectoral decorations and braceletsare also made of solid gold. All these objects havesymbolic meaning, since they signify the status ofthe buried person. Plates made of preciousmetals, bronze cauldrons, Greek chalices andThe Scythians: Nomadic Horsemen

of the Eurasian SteppeHermann ParzingerPresident, Stiftung Preussischer Kulturbesitz, GermanyFig. 1 Gilded figuresof stags from theFilippovka princelygrave in the SouthUrals. The State HermitageMuseum, St. Petersburg.Left The highest

peaks of the AltaiMountains:Tavan


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Bogd in theMongolian sectionof the Altai. Gary Tepfer.v

vwine-amphoras complete the inventory of objectsfound in such tombs.While Herodotus describes the Scythians

burial rituals in detail, he barely mentions thewealth of gold in the graves. Instead, he providesa great deal of other material that helps us tounderstand the archaeological discoveries thathave been made in the Scythian zone to the northof the Black Sea, as well as in those territorieslocated further to the east. Herodotus explains

that when a Scythian king died he was buried in alarge, square tomb. The bodys intestines wereremoved before it was filled with scented herbsand embalmed in wax. The preserved Scythianmummies found in the kurgans of the permafrostzone of the Altai Mountains prove Herodotussaccount of Scythian burial customs. He adds thatthe Scythian kings wife, cupbearer, servants,horsemen and messengers would follow theirmaster to the tomb, along with horses and sometimeseven cattle. All these were strangled orkilled. Archaeological excavations carried out inmany parts of the Eurasian steppe have borne outHerodotuss descriptions.Monumental kurgans for the use of the rulingclass were also built by the eastern neighboursof the Scythians, for example by the Matiani inthe Kuban area of the north-western Caucasus.In Kostromskaja and Kelermes (7th c. bce), thecentral grave pit of the kurgan was topped by aconstruction in the form of a wooden hut.

The dead bodies of horses, still wearing theirbridles, were arranged in the grave. In the hillsof Uljap, the kurgans (4th c. bce) contain woodenstructures that house the graves, these containinggold, silver and bronze plates and Greekceramics, but no traces of the dead body.Perhaps these were symbolic graves (cenotaphs),

built for Scythian-Matiani chiefs whohad been killed fighting elsewhere.Fig. 2 Reconstruction

by D. Pozdnjakov of

the male body foundin princely grave 5 of


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the Arzhan-2 kurgan.Fig. 3 Reconstruction

by D. Pozdnjakov ofthe female bodyfound in princely

grave 5 of theArzhan-2 kurgan.20There are also complexes of this kind in theSarmatian region of the lower Volga Valley and inthe southern Urals. While these are mostlyempty, gold artifacts have been found in themthat exhibit remarkable artistry. The princelygrave of Filippovka (4th c. bce), close to themouth of the Ilek River in the Urals, might bementioned, for example. Here, a long dromos, or

narrow entrance passageway, leads into a tentlikewooden construction that forms the gravechamber, this containing gold weapons, gold andsilver plates and other prestige objects made of

precious metals. (Fig. 1)Although substantial differences exist in thedetails of the construction of the kurgans and inthe configuration of the grave chamber, theyrepeat the same basic principles, connecting themto the monumental burial mounds of the northPontic steppe. Beneath the monumental stone

barrow, built with enormous effort, the undergroundgrave construction is found, and this symbolizesthe status of the deceased through themany prestige objects made of gold and other

precious metals found in it, as well as the numerousvaluable imported items it contains.However, our information about the peoplesof the Central Asian steppe and their customs isnot as reliable as that about the north PonticScythians. According to Herodotus, the Argippaei

people are to be found at the foot of high mountainsafter crossing a vast area of steppe north ofthe Caspian and Aral Seas. These people, hewrites, are typically bald from birth and havesnub noses and long chins, which could be seenas evidence of a predominantly Mongolian-type

population in the region. While their costume,consisting of hooded-and-belted sleeved shirts,long trousers and boots, was like that of theScythians, the latter were not able to communicatewith the Argippaei without an interpreter,

leading to the conclusion that they belonged to adifferent language group. (Fig. 2 and 3)


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Herodotus also says (Book IV, 27) that griffinsguarding gold are to be found further east. If bythis he actually means a human tribe, then theterm griffin could be understood as being atribal symbol, because the griffin plays a prominent

role in Scythian-Siberian animal style. It issurely no coincidence that Herodotus indicatesthe presence of griffins guarding gold in an areathat seems to correspond to the Upper Ob andthe Altai Mountains. This region is rich in golddeposits, and mineral wealth of this sort mighthave led to Greek, Persian and Scythian interestin the region.However, the history of this region duringthe 1st millennium bce is unknown, due to a lackof written evidence. As a result, archaeological

discoveries have an important role to play inreconstructing the history of the ancient nomadichorsemen of southern Siberia. Many of thecharacteristics of the Scythian culture of thenorthern Black Sea area can also be found here,including the horse-based nomadic economy andlifestyle, the use of animal style in artifacts andthe construction of monumental kurgans, whichexpress the social structure of a society with awarrior elite.As is the case in the north Pontic region, theSiberian-Kazakh kurgans have in many cases

been looted. East of the Ural Mountains, onlyone golden hoard has been found, namely thatdiscovered during the excavation of an undisturbedgrave in the Issyk kurgan in south-eastKazakhstan (5th c. bce). Here, the head-dress,clothes and weaponry of the so-called GoldenMan of Issyk have been found, decorated withinnumerable sheets of gold, together withsilver plates and other items. This region was in

the south of the original steppe belt and in theFig. 4 Arzhan-1kurgan excavated byM. P. Grjaznov.CHAPTE R I SCYTHI A N S I N THE EURASIAN STEPPE AN D THE P LACE O FTHE A LTAI MOUNTA I N S I N I T21settlement area of the Central Asian Saka people,who ruled large parts of Central Asia from theAral Sea in the west to the foot of the Tien Shanin the east and whose contacts reached into

neighbouring parts of north-west China and thePersian Achaemenid Empire.


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The excavated princely graves in southernSiberia are similar to the Pazyryk Culture kurgansin the Altai Mountains (Pazyryk, Tuekta andBashadar). Seepage and condensed water collectsin the tombs beneath the massive burial mound,

this then freezing to form ice that not only freezesthe embalmed body in the tomb, but also all theother organic materials, such as clothing, shoes,carpets, ceremonial wagons, wooden carvings,horses and their saddle blankets, head-dressesand decorative straps, etc. As a result, it has been

possible to ascertain that the preserved bodieswere tattooed with animal motifs. These bodieshad also undergone a special embalming procedurein which the intestines, brain, muscles andother soft tissues were removed, the body stuffed

with organic material and then sewn up withhorsehair.Many more of these so-called frozen kurganshave been found on the Ukok Plateau (Ak-Alakha,Verkh-Kaldzhin and Ulandryk), as well as in theKazakh (Berel) and Mongolian parts of the AltaiMountains (Olon-Kurin-Gol). These demonstratethe lively mental world and complexity of theearly nomadic horsemen, owing to their extraordinarystate of preservation.Other monumental Scythian burial moundsin southern Siberia show that these originallycontained golden hoards in the same way as didnorth Pontic catacomb graves. Tuva, a region inthe heart of Asia between the western Sayan andthe Tannu Mountains, has a special significancehere, since along the banks of the Uyuk, a tributaryof the Yenisei River, the princely necropolisof Arzhan is located. This huge cemetery, containinghundreds of kurgans, offers a rare concentrationof monumental burial mounds. The

Arzhan-1 kurgan was excavated by M. P. Grjaznovin the 1970s, laying bare a complex wooden constructionthat features a unique wheel-like burialchamber covered by a flat stone platform (Fig. 4).A doubled beam chamber in the centre containedFig. 5 Steppe nearSalbyk in Khakassia insouthern Siberia.Fig. 6 Tagar Culturekurgan near Salbyk inKhakassia in southern

Siberia.Photos: DAI, Berlin.


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22PRESERVATION OF THE F ROZEN TOMBS OF THE A LTAI MOUNTA INSthe looted burial goods that originally belongedto a princely couple. The many small gold objectsleft behind by the grave-robbers show the wealth

that existed at the time, these graves containingweapons, ornaments, jewels and horse harnessesdating back to the late 9th and 8th century bce.The Arzhan necropolis in Tuva has thus far

provided the oldest discoveries of Scythian-typeremains. However, a few other materials foundnearby (in the Minusinsk Basin and the Altairegion) can be considered along with these discoveries,these additional items providing thecontext and real significance of the discoveriesmade at Arzhan, since researchers now agree that

the origins of the nomadic horsemen and theirrelated Scythian-type culture, in which animalstyle plays a central role, should be looked for inthese areas of Siberia. (Fig. 5 and 6)The Arzhan-2 kurgan, a princely grave datingfrom the very late 7th century bce and excavatedat the beginning of the present century, containsover 5,600 golden objects and is the first undisturbedhoard of its kind found in Siberia. It is alittle later in date than the Arzhan-1 kurgan,

belonging to a later period of the early Scythianage (7th-6th c. bce). Numerous masterpieces in theshape of artifacts employing animal style werefound in it, together with other items of a qualitythat had previously not been found in southernSiberia. As a result, the discovery of this kurganFig. 8 Princely grave 5in the Arzhan-2kurgan.Fig. 9 Finds and maleskeleton from princely

grave 5 of theArzhan-2 kurgan.Fig. 7 Arzhan-2 kurganduring excavation.Photos: DAI, Berlin.CHAPTE R I SCYTHI A N S I N THE EURASIAN STEPPE AN D THE P LACE O FTHE A LTAI MOUNTA I N S I N I T23changed ideas about the death rituals employed

by the elite of the Scythian nomadic horsemen inthe region. It is not only great wealth and

grandeur that distinguish this double grave of aman and his wife, but also the way in which the


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couples burial seems to have been staged,employing rituals that were strictly performedfor members of the elite. (Fig. 7-8-9-10)We are now sure that the Arzhan-2 kurgan isnot just an isolated example, but that on the

contrary it represents just the tip of an iceberg.The discovery tells us that we should expect thediscovery of further princely burials beyond theUrals that contain hoards of gold, this realizationonly coming after some 300 years of archaeologicalactivity in Siberia. However, this, after all, isone of the most significant and most fascinatingcharacteristics of archaeology as a scientific

pursuit: the fact that archaeology is still yieldingsubstantial, and at the same time unexpected,discoveries that not only add to or help to clarify

views of bygone periods of human history, butalso help to change them profoundly and overthe long term.It was also lucky that the princely grave of theArzhan-2 kurgan came to light at the beginning ofthe 21st century, since modern archaeology is

better equipped than it was decades or centuriesago. Such new archaeological techniques andfacilities need to be employed in order to allow usfurther insights into the lives of the Scythiannomadic horsemen, whose remains are found inthe permafrost of the Altai Mountains and in theunique frozen kurgans of Eurasia.Translated from German by David TresilianCugunov, K.V., Parzinger, H. andA. Nagler. Der Goldschatz von Arzan. EinFrstengrab der Skythenzeit in dersdsibirischen Steppe (Mnchen, 2006).Grakov, B.N. Die Skythen (Berlin, 1980).Grjaznov,M. P. Der Grokurgan von Arzanin Tuva, Sdsibirien. Materialien zur

Allgemeinen und VergleichendenArchologie 23 (Mnchen, 1984).Jettmar, K. Die frhen Steppenvlker(Baden-Baden, 1964).Kossack, G.Von den Anfngen des skythoiranischenTierstils. Skythika. BayerischeAkademie der Wissenschaften,Philosophisch-Historische Klasse,Abhandlungen Neue Folge 98 (Mnchen,1987): 24-86.Lebedynsky, I. Les Saces.Les Skythes dAsie,

VIIIe sicle av. J.-C. IVe sicle apr. J.-C. (Paris,2006).


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Meliukova, A. I. The Steppes of theEuropean Part of the USSR in Scythian andSarmatian Times (Moscow, 1989).Moshkova, M. G. The Steppes of the AsianPart of USSR in Scythian and Sarmatian

Times (Moscow, 1992).Parzinger, H. Die Skythen (Mnchen, 2004).Parzinger, H. Die frhen Vlker Eurasiens.Vom Neolithikum bis zum Mittelalter(Mnchen, 2006).Polosmak, N.V. Ukok Horsemen(Novosibirsk, 2001).Rudenko, C. I. The Culture of the Populationof the Altai Mountains in Scythian Times(Moscow & Leningrad, 1953).Rudenko, C. I. The Culture of the Population

of the Central Altai in Scythian Times(Moscow & Leningrad, 1960).Wiesner, J. Die Kulturen der frhenReiternomaden. Studienausgabe zurKulturgeschichte (Frankfurt a. M., 1973).Fig. 10 Gold animalfigures from thehead-dress of themans body found in

princely grave 5 of theArzhan-2 kurgan. The State HermitageMuseum, St. Petersburg.24PRESERVATION OF THE F ROZEN TOMBS OF THE A LTAI MOUNTA INSR E F E R E N C E SvvvCHAPTE R I SCYTHI A N S I N THE EURASIAN STEPPE AN D THE P LACE O FTHE A LTAI MOUNTA I N S I N I T

25The Altai Mountains are extremely rich inarchaeological sites, among the oldest ofwhich are the sites of Karama and Ulalinkathat bear witness to a human presence on this territory800,000 years ago.1 Remains dating backto the Palaeolithic, Neolithic, Bronze and IronAges and the Early and High Middle Ages have

been discovered and surveyed in the Altai,2(Fig. 1) among the most important of them beingthe Scythian frozen burial complexes of the socalled

Pazyryk Culture.As a result of a unique set of circumstances


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the severe climatic conditions in the high mountainson the one hand, and the specific architectureof the burial sites on the other these tombshave been preserved in ice lenses, thanks towhich unique objects made of various organic

materials have been conserved, including itemsmade of wood, textiles, thick felt, horn andleather. Some of these objects are masterpieces ofarts and crafts (Fig. 2). In some cases, the icelenses have also preserved mummified human

bodies with intact tattoos and hair-dresses(Fig. 3). All these findings have led to a comprehensiveunderstanding of the burial practices ofthis culture, as well as of the clothes, weaponsand horse trappings that existed two-and-a-halfthousand years ago, allowing for study at an

almost ethnographic level.The elevated artistic style of almost all theeveryday objects found, as well as that of thoseused in warfare, is testimony to the high level ofculture among the populations concerned, andconsequently also of the high level of their spiritualworld. This allows the Pazyryk Culture to beranked among the outstanding cultures ofScythian Eurasia. There is also no doubt that thisculture was closely linked at an ethnic and culturallevel to the leading centres of civilizationat the time in China, India and Achaemenid Iran.This makes the study of the Scythian remains ofthe greatest interest in the context of the Eurasiansubcontinent in general. For this reason, too, thisculture is interesting not only for the scientificcommunity, but also for anyone interested in thehistory of humanity as a whole.The frozen burial complexes of the AltaiMountains were first discovered in Berel andKatanda by the Russian academician V.V. Radloff

in 1865. Further studies were undertaken byM. P. Gryaznov (kurgan 1 of the Pazyryk necropolis)and S. I. Rudenko (kurgans 2-5 of thePazyryk necropolis, Bashadar), as well as byV. D. Kubarev (Yustyd, Ulandryk, the Sailugem

burial complexes), N.V. Polosmak and V. I.Molodin (Ukok Plateau), Z. Samashev andH.-P. Francfort (Berel necropolis), V. I. Molodin,H. Parzinger, D. Tseveendorj (the Olon-Kurin-Gol6 and 10 necropolis).3 Considering that more thana thousand burial complexes of the Pazyryk

Culture have been studied,4 the above-mentionedsample represents only a small number of them.


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The Frozen Scythian Burial Complexesof the Altai Mountains:Conservation and Survey IssuesVyacheslav I. MolodinFirst Vice-Chairman of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences,

Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, Russian FederationFig. 1 Tavan-Bogda Ullapeak in the central partof the Altai Mountains. V. Molodin.However, compared to other known archaeologicalcomplexes, these ones are incredibly rich interms of information, and they contain a uniquevariety of objects and remains of burial practices.The scientific and cultural value of these complexeshas clearly enriched the worlds knowledge,

bringing new understanding of the peoplesand cultures of this Asian region during the 6th 3rd c. bce (Fig. 4).The study of the Pazyryk sources of the UkokPlateau has been conducted in a multi-disciplinaryway.5 As a result of investigations that haveinvolved specialists in the domains of physics,chemistry, biology, anthropology, genetics,

paleo-zoology, paleo-botany and geology, newinformation has been obtained, allowing for asignificantly higher level of interpretation of thesources to be attained.6 Among the most significantrecent findings is the fact that the populationsof the Pazyryk Culture were very closelyrelated to todays Samodi populations (Selkups)in Western Siberia, as well as to the Kazakhs andUigurs, which was discovered through evolutionaryand genetic analysis. Through a techniqueinvolving calculations of genetic distance, a

philological-genetic tree was drawn up showinglinkages in the mitochondrial gene pool of different

ethnic groups in North Asia.7 A model of theethnogenesis of the Pazyryk populations wasdeveloped, and this showed them to be of syncretic,Iranian-Samodi origin.8The comprehensive examination of Ukokmummies has also been undertaken,9 with data

being collected concerning the preparation ofbodies for burial and the particular use of mercurycompounds.10 Study of the mummies hairthrough carbon and nitrogen isotopic analysisand synchrotron radiation has led to conclusions

about diet, which included fish as an importantcomponent,11 and about possible causes of death,


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for example through poisoning as a result ofinhaling copper vapour.12 Such studies have also

proved that gold was locally available and thatthe Pazyryk populations had the means to makegold foil or amalgam.13

One of the most important objectives ofarchaeology is the dating of archaeological sites.The fact that wood has been well preserved inthe frozen complexes means that dendro-chronologicaldating techniques can be used, whichoffer major possibilities for the relative andabsolute dating of sites, being as precise as theexact year. Based on the materials from thePazyryk sources of the Altai, a number of floatingor relative dendro-chronological scales have

been developed, the longest of which covers a

period of 415 years.14 The main results of multidisciplinarystudies have been reflected in a numberof monographs and dozens of articles.15Today, the critical issue is the conservationand study of the frozen tombs within the burialcomplexes of the Pazyryk Culture in the AltaiMountains, there being two main threats to theirconservation. First, there is global warming,which is leading to the melting of the areas glaciersand of the ice lenses in the tombs. The thoroughanalysis of meteorological data collectedPRESERVATION OF THE F ROZEN TOMBS OF THE A LTAI MOUNTA INS26Fig. 2 Pazyryk Culturehair decoration in theform of a carvedwooden reindeer.Upper-Kaldjin-IInecropolis, excavated

by V. I. Molodin. V. Molodin.

by the Kosh-Agach meteorological station for the40-year period between 1958 and 1998 has showna clear tendency towards the warming of theclimate, this being particularly evident duringthe winters. This warming has multiple consequences,including the thawing of the permafrost.16 This causes damage to the frozen archaeologicalcomplexes, as has been demonstrated atthe Pazyryk kurgan of Upper Kaldjin-1.17The second threat is anthropogenic. Activehuman influence on the environment and on

cultural-heritage sites is linked to economicactivities, and these sometimes lead to the irreplaceable


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loss of archaeological properties.In order to mitigate this, a new law concerningcultural-heritage properties in the RussianFederation now regulates the study of archaeologicalsites situated in economic-development

zones. Article 40 of this law stipulates that underexceptional circumstances, the terms of conservationof archaeological properties includesemergency field archaeological activities undertakenwithin the procedures determined inArticle 45 of the present Federal Law.18 This lawand other measures aim to facilitate the study ofendangered sites that are deteriorating becauseof anthropogenic and natural factors, includingthe frozen sites on the Ukok Plateau and in otherlocations in the Altai Mountains.

High-quality field surveys of the archaeologicalcomplexes are also necessary, as is a multidisciplinaryapproach to the objects of such surveys.Of course, each archaeological property is unique,and each can in theory give exceptionally valuablescientific and cultural information. This is particularlyimportant to bear in mind when focusingon the preservation and study of the frozen sites,which are probably under the greatest threat

because of the above-mentioned factors.Thanks to the long history of surveys of theScythian archaeological sites in the AltaiMountains, it has been possible to determine thezones where the most-valuable sites of thePazyryk Culture, including the frozen kurgans,are concentrated. Two large areas of concentrationcan be pointed to.First, there is the Karakol River Valley situatedin the central part of the Russian AltaiMountains in the part of the mountains that ismost convenient for human habitation. At the

administrative level, this area is located in theOnguda province of the Altai Republic (RussianFederation). The Valley is approximately 40kmFig. 3 Pazyryk Culturemale mummy with

preserved hair andshoulder tattoos.Upper-Kaldjin-IInecropolis, excavated

by V. L. Molodin.Fig. 4 Detail of female

mummy in situ.Ak-Alakha-3


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necropolis, excavatedby N.V. Polosmak.Photos:V. Molodin.CHAPTE R I SCYTHI A N S I N THE EURASIAN STEPPE AN D THE P LACE O FTHE A LTAI MOUNTA I N S I N I T

27long from the Karakol river-head to its confluencewith the Ursul River. The entire left bank ofthe river features Pazyryk Culture burial sitesfrom the village of Boochi to Kulada, and theValley contains a concentration of complexescomposed of huge kurgans made of piled stonesseveral dozen metres in diameter. Kurgans ofsuch dimensions can be found in other Altaiareas, but only as rare and isolated specimens.Their dimensions are comparable to those of the

widely known Pazyryk burial complex studied byS. I. Rudenko and M. P. Gryaznov.19These burial complexes most certainly

belonged to the highest rank of Pazyryk society(chiefs or kings). This assumption is confirmed bythe results of excavations at two large kurgans ofthe Bashadar necropolis (Fig. 5) situated in theValley near the village of Kudala and studied inthe past by Professor S. I. Rudenko.20 All thesekurgans have traces of looting from ancient times,

but it is certain that some of them contain icelenses, which have preserved a variety of objects.This, at least, is what happened at the Bashadarand Pazyryk kurgans. In addition, it is importantto note that all the large kurgans of the PazyrykCulture that probably belonged to the highestrank of Pazyryk society (including the kurgans ofthe Pazyryk and Bashadar complexes) were surveyedin the first half of the last century accordingto field methods that were accurate at the time

but that have now become outdated. The use of

geophysical methods, as well as a comprehensivestudy of the over-burial monuments, would certainlyprovide further very valuable scientificinformation.There is a need to document and map thesesites, as well as to delimit them physically fromeconomic activities and to monitor them geophysically,in order to determine anomalies in the

permafrost. The methodology of such surveyswas developed by Russian geophysicists duringstudies of Pazyryk Culture complexes in the

Mongolian Altai.21 After conducting surveys ofthis sort, it should be possible to consider excavations


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at one or two sites and the subsequentconservation of any finds in museums. However,in order to meet present scientific and methodologicalstandards, costly activities of this sortcan only be carried out by large academic expeditions.

It is also important to note that anysuch surveys should be preceded by awarenessraisingactivities among the local Altai people.The second area of concentration of archaeologicalsites in general, and of Pazyryk sites in

particular, is the Ukok Plateau situated in thesouth of the Russian Altai Mountains at the junctureof Russia, Mongolia, China and Kazakhstan(Fig. 6). In the early 1990s, the Institute ofArchaeology and Ethnography of the SiberianBranch of the Russian Academy of Science executed

large-scale surveys in this region, resultingin the mapping of more than 400 archaeologicalsites situated on the Plateau.22 Two groups ofarchaeologists, led by Prof. N. Polosmak and academicianV. I. Molodin, surveyed 22 complexes ofthe Pazyryk Culture, including seven monumentswith permafrost (Fig. 7).23 Unlike the central partof the Altai Mountains, this section represents the

periphery of the Pazyryk Culture, and findingsmade in it do not include burial complexes of theelite of Pazyryk society. The largest kurgans, excavated

by N.V. Polosmak (first, the Kuturguntaskurgan),24 belonged to the middle level ofPazyryk society at best.However, thanks to the specific situation ofthe Plateau, including its difficulty of access andsevere weather conditions, a significant numberof the archaeological sites have remained in their

primordial state. It is also more likely that the icelenses they contain will survive global warming,given the severe climatic conditions on the

Plateau. It should also be noted that pilot activitieshave been undertaken on the Ukok Plateau,with the aim of developing methods of geophysicalmonitoring for the identification of frozenzones in the Pazyryk kurgans.25 These methodswere subsequently successfully applied in thesurvey carried out under the Russia-Germany-Mongolia project, which aimed to identify andexcavate frozen tombs in the Mongolian Altai.26These considerations all go to show that theFig. 6 The Ukok

Plateau beyond theAk-Alakha River.


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V. Molodin.28Plateau is a very promising area for carrying outmultidisciplinary surveys of frozen burial complexes.Thanks to improvements in geophysical

methods, it is possible that monitoring of thePlateau could help identify complexes with frozenareas, as well as determine the level of threat theyare exposed to, with a view to conducting salvageexcavations of these unique monuments.However, a major issue in the conservation ofthe archaeological heritage is the lack of aninventory of the archaeological monuments ofthe Altai Mountains in the Russian Federation, aswell as of those in Kazakhstan, Mongolia andChina. In fact, surveys have only been undertaken

in some selected areas. Data are scatteredthrough various, often difficult-to-access publications,and they remain partial, often collectedwithout topographical references or reliable linksto a coordinates system.A good example of a modern archaeologicalmap of the region is the inventory of the archaeologicalmonuments of the Ukok Plateau prepared

by scholars at the Institute of Archaeology andEthnography of the Siberian Branch of theRussian Academy of Science.27 This map includesmore than 400 properties from various times andcultures, linked on a reliable topographic basisand accompanied by an account of the culturaland historical processes that have taken place inthis region of Asia, from the early human populationsin the region (in the Upper Palaeolithic) tothe ethnographic situation that exists today.A second good example of surveys aiming to

produce an archaeological map of a large regionare the activities undertaken within the UNESCO

project with the expertise of the Universityof Ghent in Belgium and the Gorno-AltaiskUniversity (Russian Federation) in the Kosh-Agach region of the Altai Republic. A significant

portion of the results of these activities has beenpublished and put into scientific circulation.28Evidently, the creation of an archaeologicalmap of the Altai Mountains should be the mainaim of the authorities responsible for the preservationof the cultural heritage, as well as of thescientific communities of all the countries having

territory in this mountainous region. When thiswork has been done, other issues can be considered


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in a practical rather than in a theoreticalspirit, such as documenting and preserving theextremely rich scientific and cultural heritageconcentrated in this region. This includes thefrozen burial complexes of the Pazyryk Culture

that are situated on the territories of differentstates, as well as the larger variety of other scientificand cultural-heritage sites that equallyrequire studying and preservation.Translated from Russian by Lise SellemFig. 5 A giant PazyrykCulture kurgan in theKarakol Valley.Fig. 7 Excavation ofthe Pazyryk CultureUpper-Kaldjin-II

necropolis.Photos:V. Molodin.CHAPTE R I SCYTHI A N S I N THE EURASIAN STEPPE AN D THE P LACE O FTHE A LTAI MOUNTA I N S I N I T2930PRESERVATION OF THE F ROZEN TOMBS OF THE A LTAI MOUNTA INS1. Derevianko, A. P., et al. The KaramaEarly Palaeolithic Site in the Altai.(Novosibirsk, 2005), pp. 69-70.2. History of the Altai Republic.(Gorno-Altaisk, 2002), p. 360.3. Molodin,V. I. Surveys of the FrozenKurgans of the Altai Mountains:Historical Notes. (Moscow, 2005),

pp. 5-27; Molodin,V. I., et al.Multidisciplinary Surveys of theRussian-German-Mongolian Expeditionin the Mongolian Altai. Issues ofArchaeology, Ethnography andAnthropology in Siberia and Contiguous

Regions (Novosibirsk),Vol. 12, 2006,Part 1, pp. 428-433.4. Tishkin, A. A. and P. K. Dashkovskiy. TheSocial Structure and World ConceptionSystem of the Populations of the Altai inScythian Times. (Barnaul, 2003), p. 10.5. Molodin,V. I.Archaeology:The Resultsand Future of MultidisciplinaryStudies. Bulletin of the RussianAcademy of Science (Moscow),Vol. 71,2001, No. 9, pp. 788-796.

6. Molodin,V. I.Siberian Archaeology inthe Palaeo-Metal Age: the Results and


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Future of Multidisciplinary Studies.Historical Sciences on the Eve of the 21stCentury. (Novosibirsk, 2001), pp. 84-102.7. Molodin,V. I., et al.MultidisciplinaryAnalysis of Pazyryk Culture Populations

(Archaeology, Anthropology andGenetics). Scythians and Sarmats fromthe 7th to 3rd Centuries bce: Palaeo-Ecology, Anthropology and Archaeology.(Moscow, 2000), pp. 59-66.8. Molodin,V. I.Ethnogenesis, EthnicHistory and Historical Destiny of thePazyryk Culture Populations in the AltaiMountains. Projects of the SiberianBranch of the Russian Academy ofScience (Novosibirsk),Vol. 1, 2003,

pp. 148-178.9. The Phenomenon of the Altai Mummies.(Novosibirsk, 2000), pp. 200-212.10. Polosmak N.V.Mummification andEmbalming by the Pazyryk. ThePhenomenon of the Altai Mummies.(Novosibirsk, 2000), pp. 120-124.11. OConnell,T.Determination of thePazyryks Diet through Carbon and

Nitrogen Isotope Analysis. ThePhenomenon of the Altai Mummies.(Novosibirsk, 2000), pp. 234-236.12. Polosmak, N.V. and V. D. Trunova.Hairfrom the Pazyryk Tombs (X-RayFluorescence Analysis includingSynchrotron Radiation, Archaeology,Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia

No.1, 2004, pp. 73-80.13. Scherbakov, Y. G. and N.V. Rosliakova.Composition of Gold and BronzeObjects: Sources and Metal Work.

The Phenomenon of the Altai Mummies.(Novosibirsk, 2000), pp. 179-187.14. Sliusarenko, I.Y.Dendro-chronologicalAnalysis of Wood from Pazyryk CultureSites in the Altai Mountains.Archaeology, Ethnology andAnthropology of Eurasia No.4, 2000,

pp. 122-130.15. The Phenomenon of the Altai Mummies.(Novosibirsk, 2000); Polosmak, N.V.The Ukok Horsemen. (Novosibirsk, 2001),

p. 336; Molodin,V. I. et al. ArchaeologicalSites on the Ukok Plateau (Altai


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Mountains). (Novosibirsk, 2004).16. Yaskov, M. I.Linkages betweenObserved Tendencies to ClimaticWarming in the Chuya Basin andIncreases in Desertification Processes.

Mountains and Mountain People of theAltai and of Other Countries in CentralEurasia. (Gorno-Altaisk, 2000), pp. 41-43.17. Molodin,V. I.Frozen Burial Complexesin Siberia and Global Warming: PossibleConsequences. Ancient Cultures ofCentral Asia. (St. Petersburg, 1998),

pp. 156-158.18. Russian Federation Federal Law onCultural Heritage Properties (Historicaland Cultural Monuments) of the

Peoples of the Russian Federation.Rossiyskaia Gazeta No. 116-117,June 2002.19. Rudenko, S. I. The Culture of thePopulation of the Altai Mountains inScythian Times. (Moscow & Leningrad,1953), p. 403; Gryaznov,M. P. The FirstPazyryk Kurgan. (Leningrad, 1950), p. 90.20. Rudenko, S. I. The Culture of thePopulation of the Central Altai inScythian Times. (Moscow & Leningrad,1960), p. 359.21. Epov, M. I. et al.A Geophysical Survey ofthe Archaeological Sites in North-WestMongolia in 2005. Issues ofArchaeology, Ethnography andAnthropology in Siberia and ContiguousRegions (Novosibirsk),Vol. 11, 2005,Part 1, pp. 503-506.22. Molodin V. I. et al. Archaeological Siteson the Ukok Plateau (Altai Mountains).

(Novosibirsk, 2004), p. 255.23. Polosmak, N.V. and V. I. Molodin.Pazyryk Cultural Sites on the UkokPlateau. Archaeology, Ethnology andAnthropology of Eurasia No. 4, 2000,

pp. 66-87.24. Polosmak, N.V. Vultures: Guardians ofGold (the Ak-Alahin Kurgans).(Novosibirsk, 1994), p. 125.25. Epov, M. I. et al.In Quest of Ice (Resultsof Geophysical Surveys of the Kurgan

Necropolises on the Ukok Plateau).Issues of Archaeology, Ethnography and


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Anthropology in Siberia and ContiguousRegions (Novosibirsk),Vol. 9, 2003, Part 1,

pp. 528-534.26. Epov, M. I. et al.Electrical SurveyMapping of the Frozen Pazyryk

Kurgans of the Altai. Issues ofArchaeology, Ethnography andAnthropology in Siberia and ContiguousRegions (Novosibirsk),Vol. 12, 2006,Part 1, pp. 510-515.27. Molodin,V. I. et al. Archaeological Siteson the Ukok Plateau. (Novosibirsk,2004).28. Bourgeois, J. et al. The Ancient Nomadsof the Altai Mountains. (Brussels, 2000);Gheyle,W. et al.LUtilisation de

lexemple de lAltai. Paper originallygiven at the conference AerialPhotography and Archaeology 2003.University of Ghent, Belgium,8-12 December, 2003.R E F E R E N C E SCulture and Landscape in the High AltaiEsther Jacobson-TepferUniversity of Oregon, USAThe glaciated peaks known as Tavan Bogd(the Five Masters) punctuate the juncture ofMongolia, Russia and China. They also define thespatial centre of a rich cultural tradition going

back at least to the upper Paleolithic period andmarked, at least in part, by a striking interconnection

between archaeological monumentsand the larger landscape. This tradition is bestknown through the burials preserved in the highmountainous areas of Tuva, the Russian Altai,eastern Kazakhstan and western Mongolia andassociated with an emerging nomadic tradition

within the Altai-Sayan uplands during the firstmillennium (9th 3rd c.) bce.Yet despite the fame surrounding their culturalremains, the early Altai-Sayan nomadsshould be understood as only one segment of along cultural chain centred in the high Altai butextending east, north, west and south from thehigh river valleys and ridges into surroundingmountain steppe. An examination of that longertradition, extending over thousands of years,allows us to understand the particular interconnection

of archaeology and landscape within theAltai mountain region.


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Bayan lgiy aimag,Mongolia. Gary Tepfer.CHAPTE R I SCYTHI A N S I N THE EURASIAN STEPPE AN D THE P LACE O FTHE A LTAI MOUNTA I N S I N I T

31These conditions and economic way of lifehave persisted up to the near present. Within theRussian Altai, economic development during theSoviet period significantly altered the traditional

pastoral way of life; until recently, the effects ofmodernization were far less apparent within themore remote Mongolian Altai. Now, however,global climate change is causing a rapid meltingof the Altai glaciers, permafrost, and snowfieldsand a radical loss of surface water. These changes

together with stresses created by the ramificationsof our global economy threaten the traditionalway of life and the steppe environment thathas supported it. This is particularly evident inthe Mongolian Altai.There are no recognized surface monumentsfrom the late Paleolithic period, but a few concentrationsof rock-pecked images offer glimpses intothe culture of Stone Age peoples. The concentrationof such rock art at Aral Tolgoi and the complexof Tsagaan Salaa / Baga Oigor both withinthe Mongolian Altai reflect a concern with largeanimals such as mammoth, aurochs (wild cattle)and horses represented in a static, profile style(Fig. 2).These images are echoed in the small Kalgutsite on the Ukok Plateau close, as the crow flies,to the Mongolian complexes. In these complexes,in that of the Upper Tsagaan Gol under theeastern slopes of Tavan Bogd, and scatteredthroughout other sites in the high Mongolian

Altai, rock-pecked imagery of the late Stone Age(early-middle Holocene) continued to reflect thecultural and economic significance of large gameanimals (elk, aurochs, horses, and bear) and ageneral lack of interest in the representation ofhuman activities. This changed, however, duringthe Bronze Age (2nd millennium bce). Imageryfrom that period, recorded in the Mongolian andRussian Altai, suggests an increasing density ofhuman communities based on animal husbandryand a growing interest in self-representation.

Hunting remained an important theme in BronzeAge rock art (Fig. 3), but it was supplemented by


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scenes of the herding of large animals, peopledriving wheeled vehicles, families caravanning(Fig. 4), and even by scenes of raids and conflict.Hero hunters and hunters facing off large animalssuggest the emergence of an heroic epic tradition.

Similarly expressive of cultural texture isthe sheer variety of distinctive and expressivestyles of representation.The wealth of cultural expression reflected inBronze Age rock art is evident, also, in surfacemonuments tentatively assigned to that period.Massive standing stones aligned within stoneframes from north to south are among the moststriking of these monuments (Fig. 5). No lessimpressive are the so-called khirigsuur (khereksur)characterized by stone mounds surrounded

by circular or squared walls embellished byradii to the north, south, east and west, and bysmall stone circles (Fig. 6).These structures and a great variety of othersenlarging on the themes of circle, mound andFig. 2 Petroglyphshowing elk andaurochs. LatePleistocene or EarlyHolocene, Aral Tolgoi,Bayan lgiy aimag,Mongolia.Fig. 3 Petroglyphhunting scene. BronzeAge,Tsagaan Salaa I,Bayan lgiy aimag,Mongolia.Fig. 4 Petroglyphcaravan scene. LateBronze Age, UpperTsagaan Gol complex,

Bayan lgiy aimag,Mongolia.Photos: Gary Tepfer.32PRESERVATION OF THE F ROZEN TOMBS OF THE A LTAI MOUNTA INSvertical axis indicate the development of a richritual life within the Bronze Age. It is still uncertainwhether any or all of the mounded structureswere intended as burials, or whether they wereerected first for ritual purposes but later becamede facto burial sites. Another surface structure

that vividly picks out the shape and internaldivisions of an actual dwelling points in the direction


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of virtual burials that is, of structures thatcommemorated a persons death and gave that

person a dwelling in the next world. The actualplacement of the bodies for which thosedwellings were intended remains a mystery.

Surface structures from the Bronze Agereflect a keen awareness of the surrounding landscape,of directionality and of aspect. The powerfulforms of standing stones and their placementat passes, against cliffs, overlooking the flow ofrivers or at the opening of small valleys into largeones suggest a preoccupation with the integrationof the cardinal directions and particular placesin the landscape. Within the Mongolian Altai, onerepeatedly finds that the placement of khirigsuurmay correspond to impressive views out to eastflowing

rivers, to snow-crested ridges (Fig. 6), orto distant mountains considered to be sacred. Atthe same time, the khirigsuur reaffirm the expansiveopenness of high plains and their radii andentrances reflect a concern for directionality.The khirigsuur become, in effect, diagramsrelating cosmos and quadrant, not unlike mandala.A particular form of massive mound, sometimeswith a marked collar or rim, appears regularlyon terraces facing out to rivers or to highmountains. Dwellings are characterized byentrances on the west marked by low stones;the greater significance of the east is indicated bylarger standing stones of an unusual texture orcolouration. Indeed, in all cases one senses ameticulous sensibility to the colour and texture ofstone. Obviously, local builders of these monumentswould have wished to use the stones closeat hand; but in many cases it is no less certain thatthey deliberately imported stones contrasting incolouration and marked by unusual textures: for

example, to crown a khirigsuur, or to mark theentrances into the khirigsuur or its four corners.Although we look at these surface structures interms of the typologies of archaeology, a morecareful consideration would indicate that theyalso convey a keen sense of style and the beautyof material; that they are, in other words, indicativeof an expressive culture.When we come down to the age of the earlynomads represented so vividly by finds fromArzhan, Pazyryk, Ukok, Berel and the upper

Oigor drainage in Mongolia, we find that imagesand structures present variations on earlier


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themes. The rock art of that period is still organizedprimarily around hunts and individual animals,but the execution is frequently more stylized(Fig. 7) and conventionalized than one findsin the Bronze Age. The women and horse-drawn

carts seen regularly within earlier rock art virtuallydisappear while riders appear more often.Fig. 5 Massive BronzeAge standing stones.Valley of Khovd Gol,Bayan lgiy aimag,Mongolia.Fig. 6 Bronze Agekhirigsuur seen fromnorth-northwest.Khara Zharyk, Bayan

lgiy aimag,Mongolia.Fig. 7 Late Bronze-Early Iron Age hunterand wild goats. BagaOigor IV, Bayan lgiyaimag, Mongolia.Photos: Gary Tepfer.CHAPTE R I SCYTHI A N S I N THE EURASIAN STEPPE AN D THE P LACE O FTHE A LTAI MOUNTA I N S I N I T33In the case of surface structures, we continue tofind new variations on old typological themes, aswell as a ritual preoccupation with the cardinaldirections. Burial mounds are organized in linesrunning roughly from north to south, while smallstanding stones (balbal) are often set in straightlines running out from the east side of themounds. In many cases, the eastmost of thesestones are marked by two specific elements:unusual colouration and texture and a carving

that suggests a human form facing to the east.This shaped aspect recalls the particular kindof stone known as deer stone, which appearedin a number of forms across north Mongolia,Tuva, the Altai Republic and into northernChina during the late Bronze and early Iron Ages.Within the Mongolian Altai, there are at leastfive deer stones embellished with a human faceand one known case in the Chuya steppe. Like thesimple standing stones, the shaped deer stones,and the balbal, these stones with human faces

reaffirm the significance of the direction east.This and the general concern for directionality


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coincide with all the indications of the actualearly nomadic burial ritual.Monuments of the Hunnu (Xiongnu) period(late first millennium bce 5th c. ce) have beenonly occasionally attested in the high Altai

region, and we are not certain which rock art,if any, may be associated with that periodof nomadic culture. Materials relating to theTurkic period (c. early 6th late 8th c. ce and later)are much clearer. They indicate that the ritual

preoccupations that seem to have shaped themore ancient archaeology of the Altai reachedtheir final expressive form with the archaeologyof the Turks. Rock-pecked or engraved imagesindicate a preoccupation with riding, huntingand combat, as well as a great delight in the

apparel and weaponry of the mounted rider.In addition to a burial ritual remarkablysimilar to that of the Early Iron Age nomads, theTurks built framed memorial enclosures alignedto the cardinal directions and displaying, also, anacute interest in contrasts of stone colourationand texture. In some cases these enclosures wouldinclude within their frames or on their east sidetall stones of a vaguely anthropomorphicreference. That these simple stones were intendedto refer to human figures is indicated by the manyTurkic figures that take their place on the east sideof the commemoration structure. Within theRussian Altai, most of these figures have beenremoved from their original settings. Within theMongolian Altai, however, most can still be foundin situ and obeying a specific formula: the figuresalways appear to be male warriors, and with theirright hand they hold a cup or vessel before theirchest, while with their left hand they grasp a beltor a hanging sword. Embellished by earrings,

small beards and fine mustaches, these figureslook steadfastly to the east. In almost all casestheir view was once extended to the east by a longrow of small standing stones (balbal) (Fig. 8).In effect, the great period of Altai archaeologyends with the Turkic period. Even with that,however, the cultures that left vivid traces acrossthe high Altai region created a steady traditionlasting many thousands of years. Stone monumentsand rock-pecked and engraved imagescover the high Altai like a fine cultural web. Yet,

despite its solidity, that stone is vulnerable toimpacts brought into the Altai region by climate


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change and a globalized economy. With the meltingof the permafrost, burials are sinking andtheir preserved contents are deteriorating.Standing stones and Turkic images are literallydisappearing into the earth. The influx of tourists

into the high mountain regions has also resultedin the degradation and theft of unguarded materials.In these several respects, the integrity ofthe Altais ancient cultural heritage is now seriouslythreatened.Fig. 8 Turkic periodmemorial enclosure,image stone and

balbal seen from thewest.Valley of theSogoo Gol, Bayan

lgiy aimag,Mongolia. Gary Tepfer.34PRESERVATION OF THE F ROZEN TOMBS OF THE A LTAI MOUNTA INSCHAPTE R I SCYTHI A N S I N THE EURASIAN STEPPE AN D THE P LACE O FTHE A LTAI MOUNTA I N S I N I T35The Altai is located within the very largeand high mountains of the Eurasian continent.However, the Altai never functioned as acomplete barrier, and it was never either a nomansland or a totally inhospitable environment.The ancient Altai cultures began during theglacial and post-glacial age, as has been demonstrated

by discoveries of archaeological remainsand examples of rock art in the region. However,the focus here is on the period of the Iron Age,called the Age of the Ancient Nomads. This latter

period, dating from c. 1,000 to 200 bce, is namedthe Pazyryk Culture after its most brilliant

phase that extended from c. 450 to 250 bceaccording to the latest research, and it is thisshort but extremely important period that will bediscussed.The Pazyryk Culture was contemporary withthe fall of the Achaemenid Empire in 329 bce,conquered by the Greeks up to Bactria, and it wascontemporary, too, with many important eventsthen taking place in China with the advent of theWarring States period. Discovered as a result ofthe excavations of kurgans since the 1920s, the

Pazyryk Culture was characterized by the replacementof the old hunting mode of subsistence by


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mounted pastoral nomadism. Pastoralists inhabitedthe wide meadows and valleys of the Altaiduring late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, andthey have lived in the Altai ever since. Pastoralnomadism is a way of life that permits large

demographic expansion in a landscape whereagriculture is not possible and where predation hunting and gathering is not very productive.However, one must also take into considerationthe important fact that all ancient nomadicsocieties in the Old World were in contact withagricultural sedentary societies, kingdoms andempires, and this is precisely what occurred duringthe Age of the Ancient Nomads. The splendiddiscoveries made in the frozen tombs of the Altaishow connections with the steppe cultures to the

north and west, as well as with north-westernand central China and, in the west, with Persiaand Greece. The exceptional function of the Altai,working as a kind of cultural hub, would haveremained completely unknown had it not beenfor the finds made in the frozen burial sites.On the steppe side, the ancient Altai nomadsshared many aspects of their way of life andmaterial culture with their neighbours, as isrevealed through their burial customs. It is clearthat ordinary people were not interred, or at leastwere not interred in large burial sites. Membersof the elite, on the other hand, were buried inlarge mounds, or kurgans, along with their

belongings, horses and sometimes attendants.This practice, along with other elements, is commonto kurgans found from the Yellow River tothe Black Sea, and it can be seen, for instance, inthe so-called Scythian triad of weaponry,horsemanship and steppe art. Common items ofdress include tunics, trousers and high pointed

Ancient Altai Culture and its Relationshipto Historical Asian CivilizationsHenri-Paul FrancfortDirecteur de rechercheCentre national de la recherche scientifique (CNRS), FranceFig. 1 Reconstructionof a steppe-stylehorned horses headdiscovered duringexcavation of theBerel 11 kurgan.

MissionArchologique Franaise


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en Asie Centrale (CNRSMAE)H.-P. Francfort.hoods, these also being depicted in Achaemenidreliefs and in finds made in Ak-Alakha and at theIssyk burial site in Kazakhstan.

The climatic conditions of the Altai havecaused the freezing of organic materials in thelarge and deep burials of the tombs, thereby

preserving a rich and colourful picture ofScythian life and of the Scythians long-distancerelationships. The nomadic steppe tradition ofAltai art can be seen in the wooden, leather andtextile artifacts found in the tombs, as well as inthe mummies themselves and in their dress,headgear and tattoos. Four iconographic motifs

particularly illustrate this tradition and the

specific character of Altai artistic expression.These four motifs are the horned horse, the flyingbeaked deer, the crested griffin and the elkwith lobed antlers.The horned horse is an ancient, compositeimage consisting of a horse with horns or antlers,and it is found among ancient rock-art imagesdating from the late Bronze Age, including thosefound in the Altai. The bodies of real horses werefound in the Scythian burial sites, these wearingmasks with elaborate deer or elk antlers or ibexhorns (Fig.1). The motif of the flying beakeddeer is also an ancient image of the steppe, originatingin rock-art and stele engravings, the beaklikefeature being meant either as the beak of a

bird or as a sharp stylization of the animalsmuzzle. Curiously, this motif is not used on artifacts,

but is found used in the tattoos on the bodiesof some Pazyryk individuals, where it featureswhat is clearly the beak of a bird of prey. Anothertypical motif of the Pazyryk Culture is the crested

griffin, which originates in the images of birdsof prey that are so numerous in all steppe art(Fig. 2). The elk with lobed antlers is another typicalimage, this one also being adopted by othercultures in north-western China (Fig. 3). Theseobservations confirm how deeply rooted Altainomadic culture was in common steppe tradition,even as it developed its own individuality.Steppe art is a local tradition, and the discoveriesmade at Arzhan-1 and Arzhan-2 (Tuva),together with the recent Chilikty finds from

Kazakhstan, confirm that during its early phasefrom the early 1st millennium bce (the Arzhan-


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Maiemir phase, according to Gryaznov) to the6th to 5th centuries this was a purely local artconcentrated in the Altai. However, during the5th and 4th centuries bce changes took place thatled to enhanced exchanges with other cultural

and artistic traditions. These exchanges seem tohave increased further over subsequent centuriesowing to Achaemenid, Greek and Chinese expansionin the steppes, as well as to the mobility ofthe nomads themselves.

Nomadic cultures developed during the sameperiod on the Chinese side of the Altai and innorth-western China, Xinjiang, Gansu, Qinghaiand Inner Mongolia. It seems clear that iconographicmotifs found among such cultures wereinspired by the art of the Altai nomads. The elk

head with lobed antlers, for example, found inNingxia, was definitely derived from the Altai, aswas the typical association of a palmetto with twoflanking raptor heads, though, as we shall see,Fig. 2 Bronze nail fromthe sarcophagus lid ofthe Berel 11 kurganshowing steppe-stylecrested griffin.Fig. 3 Typical steppestylegilded woodenhorse pendant in theshape of an elk withlobed antlers fromthe Berel 11 kurgan,a motif transmittedas far as China.Photos: MissionArchologique Franaiseen Asie Centrale (CNRSMAE)H.-P. Francfort.

36the latter feature ultimately originates inAchaemenid art. Other, more specific motifsinclude the one termed the cloud in China,which has been found at Jiaohe and Goubei inXinjiang, along with the motif of a birds scalyfeathers. Both motifs first appeared at Tuekta-1(400-440 bce) in the Altai during an early phaseof the Pazyryk Culture.A further typically Altai motif, the reversedhindquarters of animals (Fig. 4), was also

adopted by Chinese artists. This has been foundfrom Xinjiang (at Alagou, 3rd 2nd c. bce) to


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Xigoupan in Inner Mongolia (2nd century bce),but its most ancient occurrence is in tattoos ofthe Pazyryk Culture (c. 300 bce). This motif wasused in otherwise purely Chinese pieces, suchas in a toilet box belonging to Princess Dou Wan

(d. 113 104 bce) from Macheng (Hebei) and inthe painted coffin of the Marquise of Dai (datedto shortly after 168 bce) from Mawangdui,Changsha (Hunan). The motif disappears fromChinese art during the 1st century bce. More generally,it has also been observed that the steppecultures transmitted other artistic elements toChinese tradition, such as conventions for landscaperepresentation and the image of a chariot in

profile. In many cases, such transmission involvesboth the transmission of the ancient steppe tradition

and that of motifs from the Middle East (as isdiscussed below).Chinese crafts were also appreciated by membersof the Altai elite, with Chou and Mashansilks having been found in Pazyryk-5 (c. 250 bce),together with a bronze mirror. Chinese Chou silkfeaturing phoenix-type embroidery used bythe Pazyryk Culture has been found in Alagou inthe Tian Shan, this also dating from the early3rd century bce.On the Middle Eastern side, the adoption andtransformation of Achaemenid and Greek motifs

by the Pazyryk Culture is striking. Main findscome from the Pazyryk-1 and 2 (295-300 bce),Berel 11 (293-294 bce), Ak-Alakha-3 kurgan 1(274 bce) and Pazyryk-5 (250 bce) kurgans.Whether or not related to the conquest of Asia byAlexander the Great, this reflects the fact thatthe main Achaemenid influence occurred afterthe fall of the Persian Empire to Greek forces in329 bce. However, Greek influence is not always

easy to trace, and it is not certain whether it camevia the Empires eastern provinces (Bactria) orvia the steppes from the Graeco-Scythian

provinces of the Black Sea.Achaemenid influence appears in the nonfigurativeornaments used on horse trappings,such as the rosette, palmettos, lotus, scroll band,waves, egg or tongue band. A few of these patternsfirst appeared in trappings found atBashadar-2 and Tuekta-1, where local steppe decorativeornamental shapes (dot-comma or eyebeak,

beads) largely dominate. However, fromthe time of the Pazyryk-1, Berel and Ukok kurgans


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to that of Pazyryk-5, a selection of patterns wasmade by the Altai artists that did not changemuch over time, and the bead-and-reel motif, forexample, was never widely adopted. Palmetto orlotus patterns can be seen on the bridles of six

horses from Pazyryk-1, along with one fromFig. 4Wooden beltplaque from theBerel 11 kurganshowing a tigerattacking a deer andtypical steppe-stylereversed hindquarters,a motiftransmitted as faras China.

Fig. 5Wooden horsependant in the shapeof an Achaemenianlotus bud from theBerel 11 kurgan.Fig. 6 Gilded woodenhorse pendant fromthe Berel 11 kurganin the shape of anAchaemenian hairylion, here transformedinto a mouflon in the

beak of a griffin.Photos: MissionArchologique Franaiseen Asie Centrale (CNRSMAE)H.-P. Francfort.CHAPTE R I SCYTHI A N S I N THE EURASIAN STEPPE AN D THE P LACE O FTHE A LTAI MOUNTA I N S I N I T37Pazyryk-5, one from Pazyryk-2 and one from Ak-

Alakha-1 kurgan 1. The bridles of four horses fromAk-Alakha-3 kurgan 1 and two from Berel-11 alsofeature this motif. Achaemenid-looking patternsalso appear on various items of furniture, dressand ornaments.At the time of the Pazyryk-1 and 2 kurgans,horse trappings and felt decorations begin todisplay Persian-inspired figurative motifs,whether natural or mythical. These include animalelements, such as geese or swans with theirheads turned back, lion heads with hairy manes

(Fig. 5), or the heads of wild sheep with chevronson their horns (Fig. 6), as well as the faces of


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bearded men (the so-called Bes Mask).Possibly imported belt plaques depict lionand ibex in Pazyryk-2. From the same kurgan, animage of a horned lion is used to decorate awooden torque. In the fifth kurgan, imported

textiles and a famous carpet come from thePersian Empire, all possibly manufactured inBactria. It should also be noted that the lotusmotif was used in Bactria in the Hellenistic(3rd2nd c. bce) temple of A Khanoum in Afghanistan.Some of the motifs found in these kurgansseem to be of Greek or Greco-Persian origin,including basic compositions like a satyr headwith a palmetto-looking hair-dress (kurgan 1),the scalloped mane of a griffin (kurgan 1) and along-necked acanthus with a griffin (kurgan 1).

The joint excavation of the Berel-11 kurgan inKazakhstan (Fig. 7) by the Margulan Institute inKazakhstan, the CNRS in France, and the CentroStudi Ricerche Ligabue(CRSL) in Italy has addednew elements to this picture in the shape of aPersepolitan griffin, a horned lion, a palmettoand bird, a head en face and body in profile, aswell as images of lions and of a sphinx.If we look at a typical Achaemenid Persepolitanwooden griffin with leather horns and wings,used to decorate the head of a horse (Fig. 8), itwill be seen that this has been inspired by Persia,including its mane, ears, open beak and protrudingeyes. The intermediary find was not found inBactria, but instead was found at Chorasmia inthe shape of the Persepolitan griffin head mouldfrom Kalaly-Gyr.A second example is the horned lion (Fig. 9).Here, we can trace the animal back to a Persepolis

bas relief, where it is shown in a fight with thehero king, and from there to many representations

on vessels such as rhytons, the handles ofamphorae and on an Oxus Treasury aigrette. Theanimals mane, horns, paws and scorpion tail arerecognizably the same, and it appears in variousforms in Pazyryk Culture, recalling the torque inthe Siberian collection in the Hermitage Museumand a gigantic torque from Xinjiang. This image ofa horned lion can be traced as far as Xinjiang,where it was used to decorate the legs of Scythian

bronze cauldrons or offering tables. In Berel,however, the image is used in reduced form on

wooden horse pendants, shown, on some pieces,Fig. 7 The Berel 11


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kurgan.Fig. 11Wooden coffinornament from theBerel 11 kurgan in theshape of an

Achaemenian sphinxtransformed in steppestyle.Photos: MissionArchologique Franaiseen Asie Centrale (CNRSMAE)H.-P. Francfort.38PRESERVATION OF THE F ROZEN TOMBS OF THE A LTAI MOUNTA INSas recumbent on a four-petal lyre-palmetto

between the heads of long-necked birds of prey.

This palmetto and bird motif probably alsooriginates in the Persian Empire, as can be seenfrom its use on a silver bowl from Armenia andon a Persepolis stone tray. However, here againit can be traced to China, being used in theSino-Siberian art of the C. T. Loo Collection.Excavations of a burial at Chenyangchuan in

Ningxia have also brought to light a similarbronze ornament.Such patterns were selected out of thePersian ornamentation used in monumental orminor arts, such as textiles, court tableware andseals, and introduced into local material supports,artistic schemes and original compositions.Sometimes the patterns were reconstructedfollowing the rules of local stylistic conventions,and their meaning was therefore more or lessornamental, rather than symbolic as it had beenin the original use of such patterns in the NearEastern arts.One good example of this decomposition and

re-composition of Achaemenid art in the PazyrykCulture is found in the predation theme, where abeast of prey attacks an herbivorous animal withthe head en face and body in profile. Recently, atattoo was found on the hands of the female bodyfound in Pazyryk-5, depicting two tigers and aleopard attacking a deer and an elk. In this imagethe rendering of the big cats by the artist puts theheads en face and the bodies in profile. Scholarswho have studied the scene have drawn parallelswith the art of north-west China in the

Aluchaideng plaque tigers. However, if we simplylook at the Persepolis Apadana relief, or at the


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Treasury of the Siphnians in Delphi in Greece,lions with heads en face and bodies in profileattacking a bull or a Greek hoplite can also befound. These date from the 6th5th centuries bceand are therefore definitely earlier than the Altai

and Chinese pieces.Wooden horse pendants decorated withimages of horned lions heads en face and bodiesin profile have also been found in Pazyryk-5, andthese show clearly visible horns and scorpiontails. A similar stylistic transformation occurredat Berel-11, where images of horned lions restylizedin the manner of steppe art have beenfound both en face and in profile. The paws,horns, eyebrows, and muffle with a typicalPersian drop pattern (Fig. 10) are clearly recognizable.

The heads of such compositions aresometimes selected for ornaments, and lionheads of this sort, sometimes transformed intogeneric feline heads, are widespread in Asia.A tattoo recently found on the chest of the

buried man in the same Pazyryk-5 barrow hasbeen thought to show an image of a tiger. Yet, theabsence of stripes on the body of the animal andthe contrast with the enormous mass of the maneFig. 9Wooden horse

pendant from theBerel 11 kurgan inthe shape ofAchaemenian hornedlions transformed insteppe style, a motiftransmitted as far asChina.Fig. 8Wooden horseheadornament in theshape of a Persepolisstyle

Achaemeniangriffin from theBerel 11 kurgan.Photos: MissionArchologique Franaiseen Asie Centrale (CNRSMAE)H.-P. Francfort.CHAPTE R I SCYTHI A N S I N THE EURASIAN STEPPE AN D THE P LACE O FTHE A LTAI MOUNTA I N S I N I T39and the eye depicted in profile in Near Eastern

manner suggests instead that this is an image of alion. Here, the adaptation of an Achaemenid


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motif into steppe art can again be seen, this timein the form of the body art practiced by the Altai

peoples. In the Berel-11 kurgan, the image of aPersian lion with head and eye in profile and acurling hairy mane, known from Iran and

Pazyryk, has been transformed into a compositionin which a bird of prey grasps the head of awild sheep in its beak. Nevertheless, the compositionretains the canonical proportions of theAchaemenid original, as well as a row of beadsand curling mane. A transformed form of theAchaemenid sphinx was also found in Berel-11(Fig.11).Achaemenid-looking artifacts, whetherimported or by inspiration, only appear in elite

burials (except for one piece from kurgan 22 of

Justyd XII), and are seen on the dresses, artifactsand furniture, as well as on the trappings of thehorses discovered in the burial pits near thefunerary chambers. Most Achaemenid art in theAltai came from a process of selection of themes,motifs or stylistic elements by the ruling class andartists. The source of this process lay in the use ofthe objects (not monumental and courtly art, buthorse trappings for a nomadic way of life), in thematerials and techniques at hand (metal, wood,gold and tin worked by cutting, casting, hammering,etc.), and in the meaning of the images(ornamental of mythological).The Achaemenid elements are very oftenreworked or reshaped according to the stylisticrequirements of the local nomadic taste of thesteppe, following old artistic traditions. However,the importance of Achaemenid art far into thesteppes and late into the 3rd century until 250 bceshould not be underestimated. It appears atthe end of the 4th century, having been almost

completely absent from Central Asiabefore this date, as can be seenfrom artifacts found in Arzhan-2 (c. 600 bce), Tuekta-1 (c. 440)and Chilikty. Simi-larly, the main

period of exchange with the Chinesecultural area came after the 5th century.The role of the Altai as a cultural hub inspite of its apparent isolation was determined

by the prosperity of its pastoral population andpossibly also by that populations control of

mineral resources like gold and tin. The mobilityand speed of its nomadic population during


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the ancient Iron Age, and its contacts with theexpanding agrarian e

preservation of the frozen tombs of the altai mountains 1

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