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PROJECT OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAIVOR

SUBMITTED TOSIR WAQAS RAJA

SUBMITTED BY FARZANA PERVEENSHABANA BATOOL

MADIHA SEHAR

FATIMA JINNAH WOMEN UNIVERSITY

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

May ALLAH bless me with such kind of dedicatedteacher in future.

Thanks to Sir Waqas Raja , under his dynamic guidance Iam able to express myself. And I am now at the stage tocomplete my project. He is beyond my thoughts and muchmore than this acknowledgement.

And finally I am thankful that he cooperated with me

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS PAGE NOACKNOWLEDGEMENT 2TABLE OF CONTENTS 3DEFINITION AND HISTORY OFREINFORCEMENT THEORY

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REINFORCEMENT,EXTINCTION ANDPUNISHMENT

4,5

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT 7RULES OF REINFORCEMENT 8REINFORCEMNT THEORYIMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS

9,10

REINFORCEMENT AT INDIVIDUALLEVEL

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REINFORCEMENT ATORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL

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REINFORCEMENT AT TEAM LEVEL 13EFFECTS OF REINFORCEMENT ATORGANIATIONAL FUNCTIONS

14,16

ARTICLE 17SIMILARITES AND DIFFRENCES 20

CONCLUSION 21REFERENCES 21

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REINFORCEMENT THEORY

Reinforcement theory is the process of shaping behavior by controlling the consequencesof the behavior. In reinforcement theory a combination of rewards and/or punishments isused to reinforce desired behavior or extinguish unwanted behavior.

BACKGROUND AND DEVELOPMENT OF REINFORCEMENTTHEORY

Behavioral theories of learning and motivation focus on the effect that the consequencesof past behavior have on future behavior. This is in contrast to classical conditioning,which focuses on responses that are triggered by stimuli in an almost automatic fashion.Reinforcement theory suggests that individuals can choose from several responses to agiven stimulus, and that individuals will generally select the response that has beenassociated with positive outcomes in the past. E.L. Thorndike articulated this idea in1911, in what has come to be known as the law of effect. The law of effect basicallystates that, all other things being equal, responses to stimuli that are followed bysatisfaction will be strengthened, but responses that are followed by discomfort will beweakened.

B.F. Skinner was a key contributor to the development of modern ideas aboutreinforcement theory. Skinner argued that the internal needs and drives of individuals can

be ignored because people learn to exhibit certain behaviors based on what happens tothem as a result of their behavior.

REINFORCEMENT, PUNISHMENT, AND EXTINCTIONTYPES OF REINFORCEMENT:

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Positive reinforcement is an increase in the future frequency of behavior due to theaddition of a stimulus immediately following a response. Giving (or adding ) food to adog contingent on its sitting is an example of positive reinforcement (if this results in anincrease in the future behavior of the dog sitting).Negative reinforcement is an increase in the future frequency of behavior when the

consequence is the removal of an aversive stimulus. Turning off (or removing ) anannoying song when a child asks their parent is an example of Negative reinforcement (if this results in an increase in asking behavior of the child in thefuture). Another example is if a mouse presses a button to avoid shock. Do not confusethis concept with punishment.

Avoidance conditioning is a form of negative reinforcement that occurs when behavior prevents an aversive stimulus from starting or being applied.Skinner discusses that while it may appear so, punishment is not the opposite of reinforcement. Rather, it has some other effects as well as decreasing undesired behavior.

decreases likelihood of

behavior

increases likelihood of

behavior

presented positive punishment positive reinforcement

taken away negative punishment negative reinforcement

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POSITIVE AND NEGATIVEREINFORCEMENT:

Distinguishing "positive" from "negative" can be difficult, and the necessity of the

distinction is often debated. For example, in a very warm room, a current of external air

serves as positive reinforcement because it is pleasantly cool or negative reinforcement

because it removes uncomfortably hot air. Some reinforcement can be simultaneously

positive and negative, such as a drug addict taking drugs for the added euphoria and

eliminating withdrawal symptoms. Many behavioral psychologists simply refer to

reinforcement or punishment—without polarity—to cover all consequent environmental

changes.

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Generally speaking, there are two types of reinforcement: positive and negative. Positive

reinforcement results when the occurrence of a valued behavioral consequence has the

effect of strengthening the probability of the behavior being repeated. The specific

behavioral consequence is called a reinforcer. An example of positive reinforcement

might be a salesperson that exerts extra effort to meet a sales quota (behavior) and is then

rewarded with a bonus (positive reinforcer). The administration of the positive reinforcer

should make it more likely that the salesperson will continue to exert the necessary effort

in the future.

Negative reinforcement results when an undesirable behavioral consequence is withheld,

with the effect of strengthening the probability of the behavior being repeated. Negative

reinforcement is often confused with punishment, but they are not the same. Punishment

attempts to decrease the probability of specific behaviors; negative reinforcement

attempts to increase desired behavior. Thus, both positive and negative reinforcement

have the effect of increasing the probability that a particular behavior will be learned and

repeated. An example of negative reinforcement might be a salesperson that exerts effort

to increase sales in his or her sales territory (behavior), which is followed by a decision

not to reassign the salesperson to an undesirable sales route (negative reinforcer). The

administration of the negative reinforcer should make it more likely that the salesperson

will continue to exert the necessary effort in the future.

As mentioned above, punishment attempts to decrease the probability of specific

behaviors being exhibited. Punishment is the administration of an undesirable behavioral

consequence in order to reduce the occurrence of the unwanted behavior. Punishment is

one of the more commonly used reinforcement-theory strategies, but many learning

experts suggest that it should be used only if positive and negative reinforcement cannot

be used or have previously failed, because of the potentially negative side effects of

punishment. An example of punishment might be demoting an employee who does not

meet performance goals or suspending an employee without pay for violating work rules.

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Extinction is similar to punishment in that its purpose is to reduce unwanted behavior.

The process of extinction begins when a valued behavioral consequence is withheld in

order to decrease the probability that a learned behavior will continue. Over time, this is

likely to result in the ceasing of that behavior. Extinction may alternately serve to reduce

a wanted behavior, such as when a positive reinforcer is no longer offered when a

desirable behavior occurs. For example, if an employee is continually praised for the

promptness in which he completes his work for several months, but receives no praise in

subsequent months for such behavior, his desirable behaviors may diminish. Thus, to

avoid unwanted extinction, managers may have to continue to offer positive behavioral

consequences.

The timing of the behavioral consequences that follow a given behavior is called the

reinforcement schedule.

Types of reinforcement schedules:

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CONTINUOUS:

If behavior is reinforced each time it occurs, it is called continuous reinforcement.

Research suggests that continuous reinforcement is the fastest way to establish new

behaviors or to eliminate undesired behaviors. However, this type of reinforcement is

generally not practical in an organizational setting.

INTERMITTENT.Intermittent reinforcement means that each instance of a desired behavior is notreinforced. There are at least four types of intermittent reinforcement schedules: fixedinterval, fixed ratio, variable interval, and variable ratio.Fixed interval schedules of reinforcement occur when desired behaviors are reinforcedafter set periods of time. The simplest example of a fixed interval schedule is a weekly

pay check. A fixed interval schedule of reinforcement does not appear to be a particularlystrong way to elicit desired behavior, and behavior learned in this way may be subject torapid extinction.Example: reinforcement provided for the first response after 1 secondLab example: rat is reinforced for the first bar press after 15 seconds passes since thelast reinforcementReal world example: calling a radio station is reinforced with a chance to win a prize,

but the person can only sign up once per day

Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement applies the reinforcer after a set number of occurrences of the desired behaviors. One organizational example of this schedule is asales commission based on number of units sold. Like the fixed interval schedule, the

fixed ratio schedule may not produce consistent, long-lasting, behavioral change.Example: every second response is reinforcedLab example: rat reinforced with food after each 5 bar-presses in a Skinner boxReal-world example: Used car dealer gets a $1000 bonus for each 10 cars sold on thelot.Variable interval reinforcement schedules are employed when desired behaviours arereinforced after varying periods of time. Examples of variable interval schedules would

be special recognition for successful performance and promotions to higher-level positions. This reinforcement schedule appears to elicit desired behavioral change that isresistant to extinction.Example: reinforcement is provided for the first response after an average of 3 seconds

since the last reinforcement.Lab example: a rat is reinforced for the first bar press after an average of 10 seconds

passes since the last reinforcementReal world example: a predator can expect to come across a prey on a variable intervalscheduleVariable ratio reinforcement schedule applies the reinforce after a number of desired

behaviors have occurred, with the number changing from situation to situation.Organizational examples of variable ratio schedules are bonuses or special awards that

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are applied after varying numbers of desired behaviors occur. Variable ratio schedulesappear to produce desired behavioral change that is consistent and very resistant toextinction.Example: on average, every third response is reinforcedLab example: on average, a rat is reinforced for each 10 bar presses

Real world example: a roulette player betting on specific numbers will win on averageonce every 37 triesRULES OF REINFORCEMENTThere are three basic principles of this theory. These are the Rules of Consequences. Thethree Rules describe the logical outcomes which typically occur after consequences.

Rewards increase behavior.

Punishments decrease behavior.

Neither Rewards nor Punishments extinguish behavior.These Rules provide an excellent blueprint for influence. If you want to increase a

behavior (more frequent, more intense, more likely), then when the behavior is shown,

provide a Consequence of Reward. If you want to decrease a behavior (less frequent, less

intense, less likely), then when the behavior is shown, provide a Consequence of

Punishment. Finally, if you want a behavior to extinguish (disappear, fall out of the

behavioral repertoire), then when the behavior is shown, then provide no Consequence

(ignore the behavior).

Anything that increases the behavior is the reward and anything that decreases the

behavior is punishment.

REINFORCEMENT THEORY IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS:

Reinforcement theory provides implications for managers. 1st managers should keep in

mind that motivated behavior is influenced by employee's learning what is acceptable /

unacceptable to the organization,

When working with employees to develop motivation, managers should do the

following:

Tell individuals what they can do to get positive reinforcement: the work standard

lets all employees know what kind of behavior is acceptable;

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Tell individuals what they are doing wrong: if rewards are not coming, the employee

must know why. Providing feedback/information will allow the employee to improve

motivated behavior;

Rewards on performance: managers should not reward individuals in the same way.

The higher the performance the better the reward should be;

Administer the reinforcement as close in time to the related behavior as possible: to

achieve maximum impact, the reinforcement should immediately follow the good

performance;

Recognize that failure to reward can also modify behavior: if a manager does not

praise for good performance, the employee will not know what behavior the manager

wants.

By applying these guidelines managers help employees to focus on the organizational

objectives while at the same time modifying employee behavior.

REINFORCEMENT AT INDIVIDUAL LEVEL

Reinforcement at individual level can be both intrinsic and extrinsic. Rewards areintrinsic in the form of employee recognition and extrinsic in the form of compensationsystem. Reinforces such as pay can motivate people that is why reinforcement can beused to motivate employees. Companies often underestimate its importance. A 2006study found that only 41% of employers thought that pay was a key factor in losing toptalent whereas 71% of top performers indicated that it was a top reason. Management cantake three major strategic decisions to reward employees which are:

What to pay?

How to pay?

How to construct employee recognition programs?

REINFORCEMENT AT ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL

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Employee recognition programs range from a spontaneous and private “Thank you” up towidely publicized formal programs in which specific types of behavior are encouragedand the procedures for attaining recognition are clearly identified. Some research hassuggested that whereas financial incentives may be more motivating in the short term, inthe long run non financial incentives are more motivating. A few years ago, 1500

employees were surveyed in a variety of work settings to find out what they consideredto be the most powerful workplace motivator. Their only response was recognition.

]

REINFORCEMENT AT TEAM LEVEL

While rewarding individuals, management must take care that in addition to individual performance evaluations and incentives, it should give group based appraisals, smallgroup incentives and any other kind of rewards that reinforce team effort andcommitment as now days most companies are team based. The drawback of rewardingonly individuals is that it can hinder or interfere with the development of high

performance teams by setting competition among team members.

So management must take such strategic decisions that individuals and teams, both arerewarded because if only individuals are rewarded then the team effectiveness will suffer and if only teams are rewarded then it can lead to social loafing.

EFFECTS OF REINFORCEMENT AT ORGANIZATIONALFUNCTIONS :

PRODUCTIVITY

ABSENTEEISM

TURNOVER

JOB SATISFACTION

EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT

PRODUCTIVITY:

A performance measure including effectiveness and efficiency.

An organization is effective if it achieves its goals and does so by transferring inputs tooutputs at the lowest cost. Reinforcement counts for both its positive and negative effects

because its effect can be repeated by any individual having influence of it.

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ABSENTEEISM:

Failure to report to work.

It’s obviously difficult for an organization to operate smoothly and to attain its objectivesif employees fail to report to their jobs. The work flow is disrupted, and often importantdecisions must be delayed. In organizations they rely heavily upon assembly line

production, absenteeism can be considerably more than a disruption; it can result indrastic reduction in quality of output, and, in some cases, it can bring about a completeshut down of the production facility. But absenteeism has direct impact on theeffectiveness and efficiency of the organization.

To reduce this kind of absenteeism reinforcement can be used by higher authorities. Likeif bonus, Honour-rarium, sick leaves and promotions are given to the employees thenthere is less chances of absenteeism in any organization because if employee is satisfied

then he can work with full devotion and concentration with the increase in theorganization’s production. Not all absences are bad because it can have a negative impacton the organization there are many situations in which the organization may benefit by anemployee’s voluntarily choosing not to come to work. For instance illness, fatigue, or excess stress can significantly decrease an employee’s productivity.

TURNOVER:

Voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from the organization.

A high rate of turnover can also disrupt the efficient running of an organization whenknowledgeable and experienced personal leave and replacements must be found and

prepared to assume positions of responsibility. All organizations, of course, have someturnover. In fact, if the right people are leaving the organization – the marginal and submarginal employee’s turnover can be positive. It may create the opportunity to replace anunderperforming individual with someone who has higher skills and motivation, open upincreased opportunities for promotions, and add new and fresh ideas to the organization.But on other hand turnover can also be harmful for organization as it lost its old trainedand skillful employees, to retain these employees there should be some kind of reinforcement like rewards, promotions, bonus and extra pay for extra work so theworkers and employees will work hard with full concentration and their will be employeeinvolvement in the job as well which will cause low turn over and organization will notloose its employees, so there will be more production due to job satisfaction. Suchreinforcement can be helpful in maintaining a constant environment in the organization.

JOB SATISFACTION:

A general attitude towards ones job; the difference between the amount of rewardsworkers receive and the amount they believe they should receive.

It is also an important element for any employee working in any organization because if

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an employee is not satisfied with his job then he may cause some trouble for hisorganization through absenteeism, turnover and less job involvement. The reason might

be not contented with the pay or the facilities that particular organization is providing. Itcan be some domestic problem as well. Thus it would affect the level of productivity inany organization for this purpose if the organization provides him with the necessary

facilities and other conveniences as a reward of working hard on his task or completingthe task on time would a reinforcement for him. This would motivate him to improve hiswork and he will be much satisfied with his job and will work with more concentration.

EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT:

A participative process that uses the entire capacity of employees and is designed toencourage increased commitment to the organization success.

The underlying logic is that by involving workers in those decisions that affect them and by increasing their autonomy and control over their work lives, employees will becomemore motivated, more committed to the organization, more productive and more satisfiedwith their jobs. This shows that employee involvement also plays an important role in theorganization. So the involvement of the workers can also be used as a source of reinforcement. This would be too much helping for the organization to retain itsemployees.

ANALYSIS OF ARTICLE:

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CONCLUSION:

Reinforcement theory is simple and widely applicable. It is also probably the oneinfluence tool that almost every manager knows. Given the discussion of the limitationsof reinforcement theory, one should realize that it is not the Swiss Army Knife of

persuasion that can be ingeniously applied anytime anywhere with anyone. In fact it isused too often by managers and typically under the wrong conditions. The reinforcementtheory will work marvelously when it is properly employed. Under the correctconditions, everyone will be strongly influenced through the skilful use of reinforcement

principles.

USING REINFORCEMENT TO BEST EFFECT

For using reinforcement to its best following conditions should be fulfilled:

1. The source is well-trained in the theory and practice of reinforcement.

2. The source has complete control of all significant reinforces for all receivers.

3. The source has complete control of each receiver (i.e. what the receiver does, whenthe receiver does it, what other receivers are in the situation).

4. The source has a detailed and consistent plan of reinforcement.

5. The reinforces are always delivered under the same conditions to each differentreceiver.

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REFERENCES

WWW.GOOGLE .COM

WWW.JSTORES

WWW. SCRIBD .COM

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http://www.jstores/

http://www.jstores/

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