PSYC37: Chapter 5

- Intelligence highly researched topic in psychology

o Definition to this is very elusive; filled with controversy and mystery

- Psychometrians- better at measuring intelligence than conceptualizing it

- Most tests we use is based on a specific theory of intelligence and its meaning to what

intelligence is

Definitions of intelligence

- Before giving a definition, one must know what a definition is

o Sternberg:

Operational definition-defines concept based on how its measured

In 1923 boring defined intelligence as what the test tests

2 short coming to this definition

Circular- tests were made to measure intelligence not define it

Blocks further understanding- foreclose discussions on adequacy

of theories of intelligence

Another problem is that is everything is based on operational definitions

then only the old tests that helped prove it are valid. Anything new would

be put in reference with the old tests.

This puts innovation and new possible ideas for definitions on hold

Real definition- seeks to tell us the true nature of the thing being defined

Expert definitions of intelligence

- Sternberg&Detterman (1986) gathered and edited the definitions of intelligence from

others:

o Spearman(1904,1923)- general ability that involves mainly the education of

relations and correlates

o Binnet and Simon (1905) - Ability to judge well, to understand well, to reason

well.

o Terman(1916)- Capacity to form concepts and grasp their significance

o Pinter(1921)- Ability of the individual to adapt adequately to relatively new

situations in life

o Thorndike(1921)- Power of good responses from the point of view of truth or fact

o Wechsler(1939)- Aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act

purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment

o Piaget(1972)- Generic term to indicate the superior forms of organization or

equilibrium of cognitive structuring used for adaptation to the physical and social

environment

o Sternberg(1985a,1986)- mental capacity to automatize info processing and to emit

contextually appropriate behaviour in response to novelty; Includes:

Meta-component

performance component

knowledge-acquisition component

o Eysenck(1986)- Error-free transmission of info through cortex

o Gardner(1986)- Ability or skill to solve problems or to fashion products that are

valued within one or more cultural settings

***PAGE 153***

- Problem with the above is that cultural factors were not given consideration because this

is all based on western perspective

- Even in other definitions there are two themes that occur consistently:

o Capacity to learn from experience

o Capacity to adapt to one’s environment

Layperson and Expert Conceptions of Intelligence

- In a study done by Sternberg and colleagues it was found that the conception of

intelligence by experts and laypersons were very similar. Both held the same importance

in terms of the kinds of intelligence that are crucial

o Lay persons:

Practical Problem-Solving Ability

Verbal Ability

Social Competence

o Experts:

Verbal Intelligence

Problem-Solving Ability

Practical Intelligence

- Intelligence test don’t measure practical intelligence is because of inertia

o Blinded accepted historical incomplete conceptions of intelligence

o Everything has been more conservative

o Not much has changed

- But soon tests will evolve with a little innovation

o Everyday problem Solving Inventory

A primer of Factor Analysis

- 2 forms of factor analysis:

o Confirmatory- confirm test scores and variables fit a specific pattern predicted by

theory; essential in validating other tests

o Exploratory- summarizes interrelationships among a large number of variables in

a concise and accurate manner as an aid in conceptualization

- Factors are another name for variables when speaking about tests

- Correlation Matrix- beginning point of facto analysis; a table that tells you all the

interrelations between the all the variables.

- Factor Matrix- table of correlations known as factor loadings

o Factor loadings- indicates the weighting of each variable on each factor

Each factor is a precise statistical combo used in analysis; derived from

adding and subtracting fractions of other tests.

Geometric representation of Factor Loadings

-usually there are about three factors as reference axes for a 2/3D space.

The rotated Factor matrix

- An important point that position of reference axes is random.

o Some data will cluster at a specific point but it can be rotated do a different

position and it does happen.

o Sometimes it is done to eliminate negative factor loadings

Rotation to positive manifold- computer programming seeks to eliminate

as many of the negative factor loadings as possible

Rotation to simple structure- Computer programming seeks to simplify

the factor loadings so that each test has significant loadings on as few

factors as possible.

Galton and Sensory Keeness

- 1st intelligence theory during brass instrument era

- Based on theory by Sir Francis Galton & J. Mckeen Cattell

o Outward events inform reaches us through our senses and the larger your field is

the more you can take in and the more intelligence you have

This theory was a psychometric dead end

Used in Reaction Time- Movement Time apparatus

Reaction time-time subject takes to react

Movement time- how long it takes to move finger from one place

to another based on reaction to stimulus

Spearman and the g Factor

- Charles Spearman proposed that intelligence consisted of 2 kinds of factors:

o A single general factor-g

o Numerous specific factors- s1,s2,s3…

- Wanted to know how many number factors was involved with what was being observed

for a certain factor

- Spearman viewed participants performance to be influenced by these 2 factors

o Since specific factors change between the type of test and participants it was

found that it was the g factor that had more of an influence on a persons

performance

o Said g factor is the energy or power that serves in common the whole cortex while

s factors to have a physiological substrate localized in group of neurons serving

the particular kind mental operation used for the test/subtest

Thurstons and the primary mental abilities

- Developed a facto analysis capable of searching correlations matrices for the existence of

group factors.

o It enables one to empirically find out the number of factors present in a matrix

and define each factor in terms of the test its in

o Came up with 7 factors that are frequently corroborated known as primary mental

abilities (PMA):

Verbal compression-

Word fluency-

Number-

Space-

Associative memory-

Perceptual speed-

Inductive reasoning-

- It was proven that some of these correlate with each other and have second order factors

o Good to tell when comparing ages but doesn’t really sum up intelligence

Cathell –Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory

- CHC theory is a taxonomic tour de force that synthesizes the findings

o Intelligence consists of pervasive, broad, and narrow abilities that are

hierarchically organized

o Starts off broad gets narrower and narrower

See table 5.5- Stratum I,II,III

Definitions of CHC Broad Ability Factors

- Broad factors of CHC

- Fluid intelligence/reasoning (Gf)- cannot be performed automatically usually used for

novel task and it is high level reasoning

o Fluid intelligence- drawing inferences, forming concepts ,etc

What makes up this intelligence is highly non-verbal and not culture

oriented

- Crystallized Intelligence/knowledge (Gc)- individuals breadth and depth of acquired

cultural knowledge

Crystallized intelligence- application of verbals and cultural knowledge

- Domain-specific knowledge(Gkn)-specific knowledge that shows a persons obtained

knowledge in something that has nothing to do with their culture like computer skills or

having knowledge in biology ( not affected by your culture).

- Visual-Spatial Abilities (Gv) - ability to imagine, retain, and transform images in your

head.

o This capacity includes visual memory

- Auditory Processing (Ga)- ability to perceive precise auditory inform and analyze,

comprehend, and synthesize patterns or groups of sounds.

- Broad retrieval [Memory] (Gr)- ability to consolidate and store new info in long term

memory

- Cognitive Processing Speed (Gs)- speed of executing over learned or automized

cognitive processes

- Decision/Reaction Time or Speed (Gt)- ability to respond quickly to simple stimuli

Utility CHC theory

- Practitioners are praise this theory because broad and narrow abilities are empirically

verified and possess meaningful real-world implications

Guilford and the structure-of-intellect (SOI) Model

- Proposed that the number of mental disabilities lay far more than the 7 that Thurstone

talked about

o Found a lot of correlations between big batter tests

So said group them under small amount of major headings

- Came up with the SOI model

o Has three factors: operations, contents, and products

Operations-the kind of intellectual operation required to test (5)

Content- nature of material or info presented to participant(5)

Products- different kinds of mental structures that the brain must produce

to derive correct answer(6)

5x5x6=150 factors of intellect ***PAGE 169

- SOI captures complexity of intelligence

- Divergent production- creation of numerous appropriate responses to a single stimulus

situation; is also essential element of intelligent behaviour.

Theory of Simultaneous and Successive Processing

- Simultaneous Processing- execution of several different mental operations

simultaneously.

- Successive processing- info is needed for mental activities in which a proper sequence of

operations must be followed.

Information-Processing theories of intelligence

- Architectural system (hardware) - refers to biologically based properties necessary for

information processing, such as memory span and speed of encoding/decoding

information.

- Executive System- Which refers to environmentally learned components that steer

problem. Includes:

Knowledge base

Schemes

Control processes

Metacognition

Gardner and the Theory of multiple intelligence

- Howard Gardner proposed that there’s an existence of several relatively independent

human intelligence. Admits however nature, extent, and number of intelligence have not

yet been definitively established.

- He outlines criteria for autonomous intelligence:

o Potential isolation by brain damage-

o Existence of exceptional individuals such as savants

o Identifiable core operations

o Distinctive developmental history-

o Evolutionary plausibility-

o Support from experimental psychology

o Support from psychometric findings

o Susceptibility to symbol encoding

REFER to page 172

- Based on these 7 natural intelligences were proposed

o Linguistics

o Logical-mathematical

o Spatial

o Musical

o Bodily-kinestic- ***PAGE 172

o Interpersonal

o Intrapersonal

RED- well known , BLUE- somewhat novel require more detailed

presentation

Sternberg and the Triarchic theory of intelligence

- Takes wider view on the nature of intelligence

- In addition to proposing that certain mental mechanisms are required for intelligent

behaviour, also emphasizes intelligence involves adaptation to the real-world

environment

- Theory emphasizes successful intelligence-ability to adapt and shape and select

environments to accomplish one’s goal

- Triarchic theory- Sternberg’s theory which deals with 3 aspects

o Componential intelligence- aka analytical intelligence

Consists of internal mental mechanisms responsible for intelligent

behaviour. Has 3 components:

Metacomponent

Performance component

Knowledge-acquisition component

o Experimental intelligence- able to deal effectively with novel tasks also known as

creative intelligence

o Contextual intelligence- Also known as practical intelligence. Has 3 parts:

Adaptation

Selection

Shaping

- This test is unique because it looks at the practical and creative side of intelligence

- Most comprehensive and ambitious model yet

o But some researchers feel basic cognitive should be looked at before higher level

constructs

Orientation to individual intelligence tests

- Individual tests is a major achievement of psychology

o Application of this inspired educators and psychologists to look for ways to

improve student academic progress

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV (WAIS IV)

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (WISC IV)

Standford-Binet-5th

edition (SB5)

Detroit Tests of learning aptitude-4 (DTLA-4)

Kaufman assessment Battery for Children-II (KABC-II)

Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test-2 (KBIT-2)

- The Wechsler scale has been the popular one in recent years but there are still others

available

o In some sense other scales are even better

The Wechsler Scales of Intelligence

- David Wechsler began to work on the 1st test in 1932 inspired by the Binnet scales and

army alpha and beta tests

o 1st Wechsler test was called the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scales-1939

In this test the items possessed no appeal for adults

Too many questions emphasized mere manipulation of words

The instructions emphasized speed at the expense of accuracy

The reliance on mental age was irrelevant to adult testing

- To correct these shortcomings:

o Wechsler designed his test specifically for adults

o Added performance items to balance verbal questions

o Invented a new method for getting IQ

IQ= Mental Age/ Chorological Age

IQ= Attained or actual score/ Expected Mean Score for Age (newer one)

- IQ constancy: basic assumption of all scales where relative degrees of intelligence are

defined in terms of it.

- Wechsler also wanted to use this test for psychiatric aid

o Had verbal subtest and performance subtests; if participants did better:

V>P pattern = organic brain diseases, psychoses, and emotional disorders

P>V pattern = psychopaths, and persons with mild mental retardation

- General features of the Wechsler tests:

o Latest editions are WPPSI-III, WISC-IV, and WAIS-IV all have common

features:

14/15 subtests

Empirical based breakdown into composite scores and full scale IQ

Common metric for IQ and Index scores

Common subtests for the different test versions

Wechsler Subtest

- Wechsler also believed we can only know someone’s intelligence by it makes the

person done

o So came up with array of underlying abilities so as to estimate the global

capacity of intelligence

Came up with 17; Table 5.7 pg182***

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale –IV

- Significant revision of WAIS-III

- Doesn’t do the usual bi-fold breakdown of Verbal IQ and Performance IQ

o instead it’s a four-fold break down of

Verbal Comprehension Index-similar to verbal IQ but better

Perceptual Reasoning Index- similar to performance IQ but better

Working Memory Index- subtests to attention and immediate

memory

Processing Speed Index- highly speeded process of visual info;

sensitive to neurological and neuropsychological conditions

WAIS-IV Standardization

- Was taken with great care based on data collected in 2005 by the U.S. Bureau

- There was a sample done of 2200 adults based on gender, race/ethnicity,

education level, and geographic region

o There were also however several exclusionary criteria:

Uncorrected vision

Hearing impairment

Current hospitalization

Evidence of drug/alcohol problems,

Upper extremity impairment

Use of certain prescribed drugs

Variety of potentially brain-impairing conditions (head

injuries,stroke,etc)

- The WAIS-IV and WAI-III don’t give the same results in terms of IQ. In a study

done WAIS-IV results were points lower- this was because the test is harder

Reliability

- Reliability for WAIS-IV is really good

o Not just with general populations but with special populations like those

of Alzheimer’s or intellectual disabilities

- WAIS-IV IQ has an 8 point bad of error- +/- 4points

o Within the 15 subtests:

Only information and vocabulary have high strong coefficients (.9

and .91 respectively)

Others fall in the range of low 0.7 to mid 0.8

Validity

- Many lines of evidence to show validity

- Good content validity from the start

o Through comprehensive literature review

- Good criterion related validity through mainstream intelligence tests and other measures

- Construct validity also shown by confirmatory factor analyses of subtest scores from the

standardization sample

- In general validity proven through the strong data and results from the previous three

versions of this test

WISC-IV

- Was publishes in 1949 as a downward extension of the original Wechsler-Bellevue

o Psychometricians found many flaws:

Absence of non-whites in standardization sample

Ambiguities of scoring

Inappropriate items for children (reference to cigars)

Absence of females and African Americans in pictorial content of items

o WISC-R, WISC-III, WISC-IV all corrected these flaws

- WISC-IV has 15 subtests :

10 are core- help compute full IQ

5 are supplemental – offer important diagnostic info; also suitable

substitution for a core subtest

- Standardization was based on a sample of 100 boys and girls with respect to many

ethnicities

- Reliability is high but IQ scores2.5 point lower than WISC-III and 3 points lower than

WAIS-III

Seems the newer tests yield lower scores than the old

- The 10 core subtests grouped:

o Verbal Comprehension Index:

Similarities

Vocabulary

Comprehension

o Perceptual Reasoning Index:

Block design

Picture Concepts

Matrix reasoning

o Working Memory Index:

Digit Span

Letter-Number Sequencing

o Processing Speed Index:

Coding

Symbol Search

- 4 indexes scores are based on familiar mean of 100 and St.dev of 15

SB5 Model of intelligence

- Earlier Standford-Binet examined only the composite IQ

o 4th

/5th

corrected this shortcoming

- Guided by the thought that each 5 intelligence can be assessed by 2 distinct domains:

o verbal

o non-verbal

- 5 factors of intelligence are:

o Fluid reasoning

o Knowledge

o Quantitative Reasoning

o Visual-spatial Processing

o Working memory

- 5x 2= 10 subtests

- The SB5 brings so much different perspectives:

o 10 sub tests

o 3 IQ scores ( Full, verbal, nonverbal)

o 5 factor scores

- Normed to a mean of 100 and St.dev of 15

- Routing procedure- identifies the appropriate starting points for subsequent subtests

o Advantages- shorter efficient test administration

o Use of modern item response theory

- Extra features that make SB5 better than SB4

o Extensive high end items

o Improved low end items

o Also screened items for fairness based on religion and traditional concerns

o Has working memory factor (with verbal and nonverbal)

Detroit Tests of Learning Aptitude-4 (DTLA-4)

- Test individually administered and designed for school children age 6-17

- Reliability is high just like the other tests

- 10 subtests that form basis of 16 composites- 14 of which are ability areas

o 10 subtest are normed of mean of 10 and st.dev of 3

o 16 composites are based on familiar mean of 100 and st.dev of 15

Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-11 (KABC-II)

- Individually administered test of cognitive abilities for children and adolescents 3-18

years

- Grounded from 2 theoretical backgrounds:

o Luria model

o CHC theory

- Has different subtests and global scales for each of the 3 age ranges (age 3, 4-6 and 7-18)

- KABC-II consists of 18 subtests (figure 5.11 pg.200)

Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test (KAIT)

- Brief measure of intelligence constructed broadly within the CHC of fluid and

crystallized intelligence. Suitable for ages 11 to 85+

- Core battery of test consists of 6 subtests that can be administered in roughly 2/3 the time

needed for most individual intelligence test

Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test-2 (KBIT-2)

- Well-normed screening test of general intelligence that consists of vocab and matrices

- Shows strong correlations with other mainstream measures of intelligence

Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement-II

- Designed to appraise student progress in academic areas like reading, mathematics,

written language, and oral expression

- Essential in evaluating of learning disabilities