Reading Guides AP Biology Created by Lynn Miriello

Name ______________________________

Chapter 2 BiochemistryThis chapter is a review of basic chemistry.

1. Contrast the term element with compound.

2. Label the diagram below and define the terms that you label.

3. Contrast the terms atomic mass and atomic number.

4. What is the difference between the terms atomic mass and atomic weight?

5. What is an isotope and what is special about radioactive isotopes?

6. Explain how radioactive tracers are used in science?

7. Explain how the movement of electrons relates to the concept of potential energy use the diagram below to help answer the question.

8. What determines interactions between atoms? Why are valence electrons important?

9. Define the following terms: a. Chemical bond b. Covalent bond c. Single bond d. Double bond e. Valence f. Electronegativity g. Nonpolar covalent bond h. Polar covalent bond 10. How do ionic bonds compare with covalent bonds?

11. Compare and contrast hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions.

12. Based on the reading, what is an example, in a living system, of how molecular shape is critical?

Chapter 3 Properties of Water 1. Why is water considered a polar molecule?

2. For each of the below listed properties of water briefly define the property and then explain how waters polar nature and polar covalent bonds contribute to the water special property. Include an example in nature of each property also. a. Cohesion

b. Adhesion

c. Surface tension

d. High specific heat

e. Heat of vaporization

f. Evaporative cooling

3. What is special about water and density?

4. Define the following terms: a. Solute b. Solvent c. Aqueous solution d. Hydrophilic e. Hydrophobic f. Colloid g. Hydration shell h. Molarity

5. Label the diagram below to demonstrate the dissociation of the water molecule and then relate this diagram to pH.

6. What defines an acid and a base?

7. Why are small changes in pH so important in biology?

8. What is a buffer? Explain why the carbonic acid buffer is important in human blood.

9. What is acid precipitation and how does it affect living organisms?

Chapter 4 Carbon 1. Why is organic chemistry so important in the study of biology?

2. What is special about carbon that makes it the central atom in the chemistry of life?

3.

Use the diagram below to label and contrast the three types of isomers.

4. After each functional group draw the structure, name the compound, write and example and note the functional properties. a. Hydroxyl

b. Carbonyl

c. Carboxyl

d. Amino

e. Sulfhydryl

f. Phosphate

Chapter 5 Organic Molecules 1. Label the diagram below identify: monomer, polymer, condensation reaction, and hydrolysis.

2. What are the three hexose monosaccharides?

3. What is a glycosidic linkage?

4. Compare and contrast the two storage polysaccharides.

5. Compare and contrast the two structural polysaccharides.

6. How are lipids grouped together (what are their characteristics)?

7. What are the building blocks of fats?

8. Contrast saturated and unsaturated fats how does this relate to the concept that structure and function are linked?

9.

Label and name the molecule below.

10. How would you recognize a basic steroid molecule?

11. List the eight types of proteins and their basic function.

12. What are the names for the monomers and polymers of proteins?

13. Label the diagram below concerning the catalytic cycle of an enzyme:

14. Draw two amino acids label the amino group, the carboxyl group and the alpha carbon, circle the water molecule to be removed and then note the peptide bond formed when the two are joined.

15. Explain the four levels of protein structure a. Primary

b. Secondary

c. Tertiary

d. Quaternary

15. How does the characteristics of an amino acid nonpolar, polar, acidic or basic relate to the issue of tertiary and quaternary structure?

16. What does denaturation mean and why is it important?

17. What are chaperonins and what is their role in protein structure?

18. What are the roles of nucleic acids?

19. Label the blank diagram below:

20. What is meant by the term that DNA is antiparallel?

Chapter 6 The Cell 1. What is resolving power (in terms of a microscope) and why is it important in biology?

2. How does an electron microscope work?

3. What is the difference between a scanning and transmission electron microscope?

4. Describe the process and purpose of cell fractionation.

5. Label the prokaryotic cell below with the structure and function.

6. Why is surface area to volume such an important concept as it applies to the size of a cell?

7. For each of the structures below describe the specific structure and the function of the organelle or part of the organelle. Note how the specific structure allows for the specific function. a. Nucleus i. Nuclear envelope ii. Nuclear lamina iii. Chromosomes iv. Chromatin v. Nucleolus b. Ribosomes

c. Endoplasmic reticulum

i. Smooth ER

ii. Rough ER

d. Golgi Apparatus

e. Lysosomes

f. Vacuoles i. Food ii. Contractile

iii. Central

g. Endomembrane system (overall)

h. Mitochondria i. Mitochondrial matrix

ii. Cristae

i.

Chloroplast i. Thylakoids ii. stroma

j.

peroxisomes

k. cytoskeleton

i. microtubules 1. centrosomes and centrioles

2. cilia and flagella

3. dynein walking

ii. microfilaments

1. actin

2. myosin

3. pseudopodia

4. cytoplasmic streaming

iii. intermediate filaments

l.

Cell walls

m. Extracellular matrix

8. What are intercellular junctions and why are they important?

9. Contrast plasmodesmata, tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions.

Chapter 7 Membranes 1. What does selective permeability mean and why is that important to cells?

2. Describe and provide an example of an amphipathic molecule?

3. How is the fluidity of cell membranes maintained?

4. Label the diagram below for each structure briefly list its function:

5. List the six broad functions of membrane proteins.

6. How do glycolipids and glycoproteins help in cell to cell recognition?

7. Why is membrane sidedness an important concept in cell biology (think endo/exocytosis)?

8. How has our understanding of membrane permeability changed since the discovery of aquaporins?

9. What is diffusion?

10. How does concentration gradient relate to passive transport?

11. Why is free water concentration the driving force in osmosis?

12. Why is water balance different for cells that have walls as compared to cells without walls?

13. Label the diagram below:

14. What is the relationship between ion channels, gated channels and facilitated diffusion.

15. How is ATP specifically used in active transport?

16. Define and contrast the following terms: a. membrane potential

b. electrochemical gradient

c. proton pump

17. What is cotransport and why is an advantage in living systems?

18. What is a ligand?

19. Define the following terms: a. phagocytosisb. pinocytosis c. receptor-mediated endocytosis

Chapter 8 Energy Transformations 1. Contrast catabolic and anabolic pathways.

2. Define the following terms: a. Energy b. Kinetic energy c. Heat/thermal energy d. Chemical energy e. Thermodynamics f. First Law of Thermodynamics

g. Second Law of Thermodynamics

h. Free Energy

3. Contrast exergonic and endergonic reactions in terms of: free energy, stability, capacity to do work.

4. How do you know if a reaction is spontaneous?

5. List and give an example of the three main kinds of cellular work done by ATP.

6.

Label the diagram below and indicate how cellular work is done by ATP.

7. Define phosphorylated.

8. In your own works, explained the concept of coupled reactions and ATP doing work.

9. What is the relationship between exergonic reactions, endergonic reactions and the use and regeneration of ATP?

10. What is activation energy?

11.

Label the diagrams below including the change in free energy.

12. Define the following terms: a. Substrate b. Enzyme substrate complex c. Active site d. Induced fit

Explain the action of an enzyme using the above terms.

13. Label the following diagram:

14. How do temperate and pH (specifically) affect enzyme activity?

15. Compare and contrast competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors.

16. What is allosteric regulation and how does assist in the regulation of metabolism?

17. What is cooperativity?

18. How does feedback inhibition work?

Chapter 9 Cellular Respiration 1. Define the two catabolic pathways: a. Fermentation

b. Cellular respiration

2. Use the following terms correctly in a sentence: redox reactions, oxidation, reduction.

3. Why is being reduced equivalent to having a greater potential energy?

4. In cellular respiration, what is being oxidized and what is being reduced?

5. Label the diagram below of the electron movement with regard to the coenzyme NAD+.

6. Why are electron transport chains an advantage to living systems?

7. What are the three stages of aerobic cellular respiration?

8. What is substrate-level phosphorylation?

9. Complete the chart below re: glycolysis

10. Label the transition reaction converting pyruvate to acetyl coA below:

11. Label the citric acid cycle below:

a. Where does the C go that is removed?

b. What is happening when NAD+ NADH + H+ and when FAD FADH2?

c. Where is substrate level phosphorylation happening?

12. What is oxidative phosphorylation?

13. What are cytochromes?

14. Label the diagram below of the activities occurring on the ECT.

15. Define chemiosmosis and label the diagram below. chemiosmosis:

16. Complete the summary diagram of cellular respiration. You are responsible for these #s and locations!

17. Describe the overall process of lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation. Explain in which organisms each occurs.

18. Does aerobic cellular respiration happen in prokaryotic organisms if yes where?

19. What is the overall purpose of fermentation? Why does it have to occur?

20. What is a facultative anaerobe?

21. What is the evolutionary significance of glycolysis?

22. Why do fats provide a little more than twice as many calories per gram as compared to carbohydrates or proteins? Hint: Think of the output of the Citric Acid Cycle.

23. Why would AMP stimulate cellular respiration and ATP inhibit it?

24. Why would the allosteric regulations of phosphofructokinase be an advantage to the control of cellular respiration?

Chapter 10 Photosynthesis 1. Use the diagram to label and identify the two broad stages of photosynthesis.

2. What is carbon fixation?

3. What is a photon?

4. Why are leaves green?

5. What happens to chlorophyll when it is hit by light? How does this relate to potential energy?

6. Identify the following parts of a photosystem: a. Photosystem b. Light harvesting complex c. Reaction center d. Primary electron acceptor

7. What are the steps in noncyclic electron flow in photosynthesis?

8. How does cyclic electron flow differ from noncyclic flow?

9. Label the diagram below and summarize the activities in the light reactions of photosynthesis below the diagram.

10. Use the diagram below to write a compare and contrast of chemiosmosis in mitochondria and chloroplasts.

11. Describe and explain the overall purpose of the Calvin cycle and each phase listed below: a. Calvin cycle

b. Carbon fixation c. Reduction d. Regeneration

12. Label the diagram below of the Calvin Cycle.

13. What is a plants most valuable resource and why did plants need to evolve adaptations for hot, arid climates?

14. Why is photorespiration such a waste?

15. Label the diagram and explain the functioning of C4 plants.

16. What are CAM plants and what is their advantage?

17. Label the diagram below and summarize photosynthesis beneath the diagram.

Chapter 12 Mitosis 1. Compare and contrast the role of cell division in unicellular and multicellular organisms.

2. Define the following terms: a. Genome b. Chromosomes c. Somatic cells d. Gametes e. Chromatin f. Sister chromatids g. Centromere h. Mitosis i. j. Cytokinesis Meiosis

3. List the activities of the cell cycle: a. Mitotic phase

b. Interphase

c. G1 phase

d. G2 phase

e. S phase

4. Define the following terms: a. Mitotic spindle b. Centrosome c. Microtubule organizing center d. Aster e. Kinetochore f. Label below:

How do they work together to keep the chromosomes at the metaphase plate?

5. Label the diagram below and briefly explain each stage of mitosis:

6. Contrast cytokinesis in plant and animal cells.

7. Define binary fission and label the diagram below:

8. Discuss the hypothetical evolution of mitosis.

9. What is the cell cycle control system and how do checkpoints play into this?

10. What is a cyclin and what does it activate?

11. What are Cdks?

12. What does MPF stand for and what does it promote?

13. Label the diagram below illustrating the molecular control of the cell cycle. Describe the process of cell cycle control to the side of the diagrams.

14. What is a growth factor?

15. What is density-dependent inhibition?

16. What is anchorage dependence?

17. Define the following terms: a. Transformation

b. Benign tumor

c. Malignant tumor

d. Metastasis

Chapter 13 Meiosis 1. Compare and contrast asexual and sexual reproduction.

2. Define the following terms: a. Life cycle b. Somatic cell c. Karyotype d. Homologous chromosomes e. Sex chromosomes f. Autosomes g. Diploid cell h. Haploid cell i. j. Fertilization Zygote

k. meiosis

3. Complete the diagram below outlining an overview of meiosis.

4. What are the two broad goals of meiosis?

5. Label the following diagrams of meiosis, noting the key events below each picture.

6. Create a table that compares and contrasts mitosis and meiosis.

7. Describe in detail the three sources of genetic variation in meiosis. a.

b.

c.

Chapter 11 Cellular Communication 1. What is a signal transduction pathway?2. How do yeast cells communicate while mating?

3. How do intercellular connections function in cell to cell communication?

4. Explain the two types of local signaling: a. Paracrine signaling

b. Synaptic signaling

5. How are long distance signals sent?

6. Define the three stages of cell communication: a. Reception

b. Transduction

c. Response

7. What is a ligand?

8. What is special about intracellular receptors (think of the structure of the cell membrane and how this relates)?

9.

Label the diagram below of a steroid interacting with an intracellular receptor.

10. Where would you expect most water soluble messengers to bind and why?

11. What is a G-protein-linked receptor?

12. Explain (in your own words) the G protein signal transduction.

13. What is a kinase?

14. Explain (in your own words) the tyrosine signal transduction.

15. Explain (in your own words) the ligand (ion) gated signal transduction.

16. What does conformation mean?

17. What is a conformational change and which molecule typically causes the change in STPs?

18. What is a signal transduction pathway?

19. Explain (in your own words) phosphorylation cascades.

20. What are protein phosphatases and why are they so important?

21. What are second messengers and what are two characteristics of a second messenger?

22.

Complete the diagram below of cAMP as second messenger:

23. How and why are the calcium concentrations kept different and separate comparing the endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria and cytoplasm?

24.

Label the diagram below showing calcium and IP3 in a cell.

25. How is signal amplification accomplished in the cell?

26. How is specificity accomplished in cell signaling?

27. What is a scaffolding protein and why is it important?

28. How is the termination of a signal accomplished and why is it so important that termination be accomplished?

Chapter 21 Genetic Basis of Development1. What is meant by the phrase model organisms are representative groups?

2. Define the following terms: a. Cell differentiation

b. Morphogenesis

c. Apical meristems3.

Label the diagram to contrast stages of development in plants and animals.

4. What is meant by the statement that an organism has genomic equivalence?

5. What does totipotent mean?

6.

Label the steps in the diagram below that accomplished reproductive cloning of a mammal by nuclear transplantation.

7. What are some of the problems associated with animal cloning?

8. Define the following: a. Stem cell b. Pluripotent

9. What is apoptosis and why is it important in development?

Chapter 14 Mendel and Genetics1. Define the following terms: a. Character b. Trait c. True-breeding (purebreeds) d. Hybrids e. P generation f. F1 generation

g. F2 generation h. Alleles i. j. Punnett Square Homozygous

k. Heterozygous l. Phenotype

m. genotype 2. In your own words, what is Mendels Law of Segregation?

3. What is the Law of Independent Assortment and how does this law relate to meiosis?

4. Contrast codominance and incomplete dominance.

5.

Does having a dominant allele mean that it will be found in greater frequency in the population? Why or why not?

6. What is meant by multiple allelism?

7. Define the following terms: a. pleiotropy b. epistasis c. polygenic inheritance

8.

What is a pedigree and how does it help in our understanding of genetics?

9. Describe and discuss the genetics of the following inherited disorders: a. Cystic Fibrosis

b. Sickle cell disease

c. Achondroplasia

d. Huntingtons disease

Chapter 15 Chromosomes and Inheritance1. What is the chromosomal basis of inheritance?

2. IN YOUR OWN words, explain what is demonstrated by 15.2 on page 275.

3. What does wild type mean?

4. Why was Morgans choice of fruit fly such a good one for genetic experiments?

5. How did Morgan associate traits with the sex of the fruit fly?

6. What is meant by recombination or recombinant offspring?

7. What does it mean when genes are linked or there is linkage?

8. In what step of meiosis, would recombinants form and why?

9. What is the difference between a genetic map, a linkage map and a cytogenetic map?

10. Explain the chromosomal basis of sex determination in the following organism: a. Mammals

b. Grasshoppers

c. Birds and some fish

d. Bees and ants

11. What is the SRY gene and why is it important?

12. What is a sex-linked gene?

13. What is X inactivation?

14. Why are most Calico cats female?

15. How could a Calico cat be a male?

16. What is nondisjunction and when in meiosis can it occur? Explain its results in the final gametes

.

17. Define the following terms: a. Aneuploidy

b. Monosomic

c. Polyploidy

18. Label the following alterations in chromosomal structure. Define the term alongside the diagram. These terms will be used in the coming chapters.

19. Explain the following human disorders that result from chromosomal alterations. a. Down Syndrome

b. Klinefelter Syndrome

c. Turner Syndrome

d. CML

20. What is genomic imprinting?

21. What are extranuclear genes? Where are they found?

22. What are two diseases carried in maternal mitochondria?

Chapter 16 DNA1. Explain Griffiths experiment and the concept of transformation.

2. What did Avery, MacLeod and McCarty contribute to Griffiths line of investigation?

3. What is a bacteriophage?

4.

Label the diagram below and explain the Hershey Chase experiment below.

5. How did Chargraffs work contribute to understanding the structure of DNA?

6. Why was Rosalinds Franklins work essential to the understanding of the structure of DNA?

7. Label the structure below:

8. Why does adenine always pair with thymine and guanine with cytosine in DNA?

9. What is meant by the term that DNA replication is semiconservative?

10. Explain the Meselson and Stahl experiment concerning DNA replication and their results.

11. How is bacterial DNA replication accomplished?

12. What are DNA polymerases?

13. In your own words, what is meant by the term DNA is antiparallel in arrangement?

14. Define the following terms: a. Leading strand

b. Lagging strand

c. Okazaki fragments

d. DNA ligase

e. Primer 15. In your own words, how is eukaryotic DNA replication accomplished?

16. Label the diagram below:

17. List the functions of the following enzymes: a. Helicase b. Single stranded binding protein c. Topoisomerase d. Primase e. DNA Polymerase III f. DNA Polymerase I

g. DNA Ligase

18.

Identify and label the diagram below. Describe the process to the side of the diagram

19.

Identify and label the diagram below:

20. What is mismatch repair?

21.

Label the diagram below:

22. Why is there a short section of a cells DNA that cannot be replicated, repaired or replaced at the ends of linear chromosomes? Draw your own diagram explaining the problem. It is very important that you understand this conceptually.

23. What are telomeres and why are they important? How does telomerase play a role in gamete formation?

Chapter 17 Protein Synthesis 1. What was Beadle and Tatums final hypothesis? 2. Label the diagram below. To the side of the diagram write the definition of the term.

3. Why does the DNA code have to be in triplets and not singles or doubles?

4. What is the template strand?

5. Compare and contrast the codon and anticodon? 6. What is the reading frame?

7. What conclusions can be drawn from the similarities of the genetic code among livingorganisms?

8. Use the diagram below to understand transcription: Define all terms.

9. What is a transcription unit?

10. Describe the prokaryotic promoter and terminator.

11. Use the diagram below to demonstrate initiation of transcription at a eukaryotic promoter.Write definition of all terms in diagram.

12. Contrast termination of transcription for prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.

13. Why is important that the promoter be upstream of the transcription unit?

14. Why is RNA processing necessary? 15. What does adding a 5 cap and poly A tail mean and why is it important?

16. Define the following terms:a. RNA splicing

b. Introns

c. Exons

d. Spliceosome

e. snRNPs

f.

ribozymes

g. Alternative RNA splicing

h. domains

17. Describe the structure and function of transfer RNA.

18. Why is the enzyme aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase important to translation and protein synthesis?

19. Describe the structure and function on ribosomal RNA use the diagram below.

20. Detail the steps of initiation of translation.

21. In your own words, explain the elongation cycle of translation. Define terms.

22. Use the diagram below to detail the termination of translation define all terms.

23. What are polyribosomes?

24. What is an example of a post translational modification of a protein?

25. What is a signal peptide?

26. What is a signal recognition particle? What does it allow for?

27. Use the diagram below to highlight the signal mechanism for targeting proteins to the ER.

28. You are responsible for the content in Table 17.1 on page 327. 29. Define the following terms:a. Mutations b. Point mutations c. Base pair substitution d. Missense e. Nonsense f. Insertions

g. Deletions h. Frameshift mutation i. Mutagen

30. How has a gene been redefined and why?

31. Use the diagram below to help you study the whole picture.

Chapter 19 Eukaryotic Genomes1. Explain the levels of DNA packing in the chromosomes.

2. In the diagram below highlight all of the potential locations for gene expression regulation in eukaryotic cells. How does this compare with prokaryotic cells?

3. What effect do the following have on gene expression? a. Histone acetylation

b. Histone deacteylation

c. DNA methylation

4. How does methylation relate to genomic imprinting?

5. Define epigenetic inheritance.

6.

How do the following control elements assist in regulation? a. Transcription factors

b. Enhancers

c. Activators

d. Repressors

7.

Use the diagram below to explain the interactions of enhancers and transcription activators.

8.

Explain how RNA processing is a mechanism of post-transcriptional regulation.

9. How can errors during meiosis lead to duplication of genes?

Chapter 18 Viral and Bacterial Genomes 1. How was the existence of a virus finally confirmed?

2. What kinds of nucleic acids are the viral genomes made of?

3. What is the name for a protein shell enclosing the viral genome?

4. What are the subunits of capsids?

5. What are viral envelopes and what is their function?

6. Where are the most complex capsids found?

7. Define host range.

8. List steps of the simplified lysogenic viral reproductive cycle.

9. List steps of the simplified lytic viral reproductive cycle?

10. What kind of phage only reproduces by a lytic cycle?

11. How do bacteria defend themselves against phages?

12. What are phages called that care capable of using both modes of reproduction?

13. What is a prophage?

14. What is an example of the interaction between a prophage and a bacterium?

15. What is the use of a viral envelope in animal viruses?

16. Does this reproductive cycle kill the host cell? Why or why not?

17. What are retroviruses and how do they use reverse transcriptase?

18. Describe the reproductive cycle of an enveloped RNA virus.

19. Describe the reproductive cycle of HIV, a retrovirus.

20. Is it believed that viruses evolved before or after the first cells appeared and what evidence is used to support the idea?

21. What are vaccines?

22. What are the three processes that contribute to the emergence of viral diseases?

23. What are viroids?

24. Define prions. Explain one prion disease.

25. What is the main component of most bacterial genomes?

26. How is the DNA arranged in the nucleoid region of the bacterial genome?

27. What is a plasmid?

28. Describe the process of binary fission.

29. Why do mutations make such a large contribution to bacterial genetic variation as compared to humans?

30. Explain the experiment and the results that demonstrated evidence of genetic recombination in bacteria.

31. Define transformation.

32. What famous experiment in the previous unit described this process?

33. Define transduction and explain the steps of transduction.

34. Define conjugation and explain the steps of conjugation?

35. What is special about the F plasmid?

36. What are R plasmids and why are these a problem to humans?

37. How does this relate to natural selection?

38. Define transposable elements. What is a common name for transposable elements?

39. What is the benefit to bacteria with transposable elements?

40. What are the two ways that metabolic control can occur within bacteria?

41. What is the key advantage of grouping genes of related function in to one transcription unit?

42. What is this switch called? 43. Where is an operator positioned and what does it control?

44. What is the name for the operator, promoter, and the genes they control?

45. What can happen if the trp operan is turned on?

46. What turns the switch off?

47. How does a repressor work?

48. What are the two states that the operator vacillates (switches between)?

49. How is the trp repressor protein an allosteric protein?

50. Define corepressor. 51. What are the two methods of negative gene regulation?

52. Why is the trp operan considered repressible?

53. What is the definition of an inducible operan? What does the inducer do?

54. Why are repressible enzymes generally associated with anabolic pathways and how is this an advantage to the organism?

55. How does positive gene regulation work?

Chapter 22 Darwin 1. Define the following terms: a. Natural selection

b. Evolutionary adaptation

c. Evolution

d. Taxonomy

2. What part did adaptation play in Darwins thinking?

3. What did Darwin mean by descent with modification?

4. What did Mayr take from Darwins work summarize the observations and inferences.

5. How did the concept of artificial selection impact Darwins ideas?

6. What three word phrase summarizes Darwins mechanism of evolution?

7. Explain the evolution of Drug Resistance in bacteria in terms of natural selection.

8. Define the following terms: a. Homologous structures

b. Vestigial structures

c. Analogous structures

9. What is biogeography and why is it important to the study of evolution?

10. How do the fossil record and sedimentary rock provide evidence to evolution?

Chapter 23 Evolution of Species 1. What is the smallest unit of evolution and why is this important to understand?

2. Define the following terms: a. Microevolution b. Population c. Population genetics d. Gene pool 3. What is the Hardy-Weinberg Theorem and why does it appear to be an apparent contradiction to evolution?

4. What is Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?

5. Use the blank diagram below to relate the H-W equation to a Punnett square.

6. What are the five conditions for H-W equilibrium to maintained?

7. What are the two broad processes that make evolution possible?

8. What is the impact of the following: a. Point mutation b. Gene duplication c. Sexual recombination 9. What is the relationship between mutation rates and generation span?

10. Define the following: a. Genetic drift

b. Bottleneck effect

c. Founder effect

d. Gene flow

11. Why would we discuss adaptive evolution and what role does natural selection play?

12. Give examples of phenotypical variation that is not inheritable.

13. Explain the terms phenotypic polymorphism and genetic polymorphism in common terms giving an example from your own experience.

14. How do we measure genetic variation?

15. How can very small differences in nucleotide sequences lead to such diversity in the human population?

16. What is geographic variation and how does the term cline relate?

17. What is different about the terms fitness and relative fitness?

18. Why is it said that evolution acts on phenotypes and not genotypes?

19. Differentiate between the three modes of selection discussing both genotype and phenotype changes.

20. Why does diploidy preserve genetic variation?

21. How does balancing natural selection relate to the term balanced polymorphism?

22. Define and give an example of the following: a. Heterozygote advantage b. Frequency dependent selection c. Neutral variation d. Sexual dimorphism e. Intrasexual selection f. Intersexual selection 24. What are the limitations of Natural Selection.

Chapter 24 Origin of Species1. Define the following terms: a. Speciation b. Anagenesis c. Cladogenesis 2. What is the biological species concept?

3. What are the differences between prezygotic and postzygotic barriers to reproduction?

4. Identify each of the following as prezygotic or postzygotic barriers and write a brief definition of each: a. Habitat isolation b. Temporal isolation c. Behavioral isolation d. Mechanical isolation

e. Gametic isolation f. Reduced hybrid viability

g. Reduced hybrid fertility h. Hybrid breakdown

5. What is the basis for allopatric speciation? 6. What does sympatric speciation mean?

7. In what types of organisms are polyploidy speciation more common and why do you think this occurs?

8.

What is adaptive radiation and why do island chains tend to be studied in this topic?

9.

Compare and contrast the models of punctuated equilibrium to gradualism as models for the rate of evolution. Does one have to exclude the other?

10. Define the following terms: a. Heterochrony b. Allometric growth c. Paedomorphosis d. Homeotic genes 11. What impact have the Hox genes had on vertebrates?

14. How does the evolution of the horse exemplify the concept that evolution is driven by the interactions of the organism and its environment?

Chapter 25 Phylogeny 1. Define the following terms: a. Phylogeny

b. Systematics

c. Molecular systematics

d. Taxonomy

e. Phylogenetic trees

f. Cladogram

g. Clade

h. Cladistics

i.

Shared primitive character

j.

Shared derived character

2. What is the relationship between the ingroup and the outgroup in classification?

3. What domains have been agreed upon?

Chapter 35 Plant Structure1. Label the parts of a flower in the following diagram:

2. Describe the three different root systems.

3. Describe all types of leaves and conclude as to why there are different shapes.

4. Define the following terms: a. Stem b. Nodes c. Internodes d. Axillary bud e. Terminal bud f. Apical dominance

5. Explain how the dermal tissue system functions.

6. What is the purpose of the Xylem and Pholem and how do they work together to form a system?

7. Compare and contrast the three types of plant cells.

8. Define meristems and say why they are important.

9. Define the following terms: a. Primary plant body b. Root cap c. Zone of cell division d. Zone of elongation e. Zone of maturation f. Endodermis g. Pericycle

10. Describe the function and importance of stomata.

Chapter 39 Plant Responses1. Define the following terms: a. etiolation b. de-etiolation c. second messengers 2. Explain the two ways that signaling pathways activate enzymes.

3. Define the following terms: a. tropism b. phototropism

4. Explain the importance of auxin in plants.

5. Using the figure below explain how cell elongation occur.

6. Include a brief description of the following: a. ethylene

b. triple response

c. apoptosis

7.

Explain the meaning of each word root in the word photomorphogenesis.

8.

What is the action spectrum and how do photoreceptors determine it? a. blue-light photoreceptors

b. phytochromes

9.

Explain what circadian rhythms are and how each plant determines them:

10. Define the following terms in a way that makes sense to you. a. statoliths b. thigmomorphogenesis c. thigmotropism d. gravitotropism e. f. action potentials

g. abiotic h. biotic i. j. heat-shock proteins Hypersensitive response

k. Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) l. Salicylic acid

11. Other than light what types of stimulus do plants respond to?

12. What are the 5 types of environmental stress?

13. Compare and contrast how plants defend themselves from herbivores and how they defend themselves from pathogens.

14. How do plants use gene-for-gene recognition?

15. Complete the following figure, and explain what it is showing.

Chapter 36 Vascular Transport1. What 3 scales does transport in vascular plants occur on?

2. These terms are a review, but also very critical to know to understand the transportation of nutrients in vascular plants. Define these terms in your own words. a. Passive Transport b. Active Transport c. Transport Proteins d. Proton Pump e. Membrane Potential f. Cotransport

g. Chemiosmosis

h. Water Potential i. Megapascals ii. Solute Potential iii. Osmotic Potential iv. Pressure Potential

3. Explain the overall transport of water, nutrients, photosynthetic products and gases in a vascular plant.

4.

Define the following terms: a. Flaccid b. Turgid c. Plasmolyze d. Aquaporins e. Vacuolar membrane (Tonoplast) f. Symplast

g. Apoplast

5. Compare and contrast the bulk flow of nutrients in the xylem and phloem.

6. How do root hairs, mycorrhizae, and cortical cells assist vascular plants?

7. What are the roles of the apoplast and the symplast, and how does the Casparian regulate flow of materials in these structures?

8. Label the following diagram to explain lateral transport of minerals and water in roots.

9. Describe the process of transpiration in your own words and how it affects the transportation of minerals and water.

10. Explain how water potential affects transport of nutrients and minerals through vascular plants.

11. Explain how cohesion and adhesion affects transport of water through vascular plants

12. What are stomata and how do they help regulate the rate of transpiration?

13. What are some factors that could possible stimulate the opening and closing of stomata?

14. What are some evolutionary adaptations that allow xerophytes to survive in arid climates?

15. What is translocation?

16. Define these terms and give an example a. Sugar source b. Sugar sink c. Transfer cells

17. Describe pressure flow in a sieve tube. Use your own words.

18. Label the parts of the following diagram.

19. Compare and contrast primary and secondary growth.

20. Describe plant growth and cell expansion.

Chapter 37 Plant Nutrition1. How do nutrients enter plants?

2. What is the difference between macronutrients and micronutrients? What are the macronutrients and what are their functions in the plant?

3. Why is magnesium important to plants?

4. How do plants absorb cations from the soil?

5. Why are root hairs important to plants?

6. Describe the path of nitrogen from the atmosphere to plant protein. Include the role of each of the following. a. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria

b. Ammonifying bacteria

c. Nitrifying bacteria

d. Denitrifying bacteria

7. Describe the following unique nutritional relationships. a. Rhizobium bacteria & legumes

b. Mycorrhizae

c. Parasitic plants

d. Carnivorous plants

Chapter 38 Angiosperm Reproduction1. Complete the diagram below outlining angiosperm reproduction.

2. What is the difference between complete and incomplete flowers?

3. Define the following words: a. Staminate

b. Carpellate

4. Label the following diagram of the development of angiosperm gametophytes. Underneath the diagram contrast angiosperm gametophytes.

5. Why is self-incompatibility important to plant diversity?

6. Use the following diagram to explain growth of the pollen tube and double fertilization.

7. Describe the development of a eudicot plant.

8. Define the following words: a. Seed Coat b. Hypocotyl c. Radicle d. Epicotyl

9.

What is vegetative reproduction?

10. How are the various methods for asexual propagation used for improving crops and ornamental plants?

11. How are genetically modified plants used to reduce world hunger and malnutrition?

12. Explain the controversies over genetically modified foods.

Chapter 40 Animal Form1. How do Anatomy and Physiology differ?

2. Explain how convergent evolution applies to animal form.

3. Compare and contrast diffusion in a single-celled protist to an animal with two cell layers.

4. Label the diagram of the internal exchange surfaces.

5. Define the following: a. Tissuesb. Epithelial Tissuesc. Mucus membranesd. Cuboidal cellse. Columnar cellsf. Connective Tissues-

g. Collagenous fibersh. Fibroblastsi. j. MacrophagesMuscle Tissues-

k. Nervous Tissue-

6. How are the tissues arranged into organs and then into organ systems? Explain this using the digestive system as an example.

7. Label the diagram explaining bioenergetics in animals

8.

What is metabolic rate and how is it determined?

9. Explain the three influences on metabolic rate.

10. How does an energy budget vary in four different animals?

11. Define and explain the following: RegulatorsConformersNegative feedbackPositive feedbackThermoregulation12. Compare and contrast ectotherms and endotherms.

13. Describe each of the thermoregulation adaptations and how they work in your own words. a. Insulationb. Circulatory Adaptationsc. Cooling by Evaporative Heat Lossd. Behavioral responsese. Adjusting Metabolic Heat Production14. Describe how three of the organ systems help with thermoregulation by complex negative feedback mechanisms.

15. Define the following: a. Acclimatizationb. Stress-induced proteinsc. Heat-shock proteinsd. Torpore. Hibernationf. Estivation-

g. Daily torpor-

16. First, explain how a thermostat regulates temperature in your house. Then, explain how temperature is regulated in the human body.

Chapter 41 Animal Nutrition 1. Define the following types of feeding mechanisms:a. Suspension b. Substrate c. Fluid d. Bulk

2. Complete the diagram below concerning animal homeostasis and blood sugar regulation. Describethe process in your own words next to the diagram

3. How do hormones regulate appetite in humans?

4. What are essential amino acids and essential fatty acids?

5. Contrast vitamins and minerals.

6. Define the following terms:a. Ingestion b. Digestion c. Enzymatic hydrolysis d. Absorption e. Elimination

7. Contrast intracellular and extracellular digestion. 8. Label the diagram below of the human digestive system.

9. What are the accessory glands of the digestive system and why are they call accessory are theypart of the digestive tract?

10. What is peristalsis? Using the process of swallowing, explain the process of peristalsis.

11. What are the three cell types of the gastric glands and what does each of them secrete?

12. Why is it an advantage that pepsin is secreted in its inactive form?

13. Describe the first part of the small intestine what activity is occurring here?

14. What is bile? Is its action mechanical or chemical digestion? Why?

15. Complete the chart below use it as a study guide for the process of enzymatic digestion and therespective enzymes.

16. Explain the roles of the hormones listed below on digestive activity note whether each stimulatesor inhibits. Why is this level of control an advantage to the organism? a. Enterogastrone

b. Gastrin

c. Secretin

d. Cholecystokinin

17. How does the body control the absorption of nutrients in the small intestine?

18. What is the route for fat absorption? Include the term chylomicrons and the role of bile.

19. What role does the liver play in homeostasis with regard to digestion?

20. What is the major role of the large intestine in the digestive process?

21. Does the appendix have a role in the human body? What is it evolutionary significance?

22. How can you infer an organisms diet based on its teeth?

23. What general trends are noted in the digestive tracts of herbivores and carnivores?

24. What is different about the ruminants digestive system that adapts it to eating a diet ofcellulose?

25. How does symbiotic interactions impact digestion?

Chapter 42 Circulatory System and Gas Exchange 1. What are the limits to diffusion as a means of transport for living organisms?

2. Compare and contrast open and closed circulatory systems. Be certain focus on advantages of each.

3. Contrast arteries, arterioles, capillaries and venules and veins,

4. Contrast the vertebrate circulatory systems of fish, amphibians, non-avian reptiles and mammals/birds.

5. What is the advantage to double circulation?

6. Write the path of blood through the heart. Include the levels of CO2 and O2 (high/low).

7. Define the following terms: a. Cardiac cycle (describe in terms of valves opening and closing)

b. Systole c. Diastole d. Cardiac output e. Stroke volume

8. What does the SA node do?

9. Label the diagram below concerning the structure of blood vessels.

10. What is the lymphatic system and why is it important to the circulatory system with regard to blood volume?

11. What are the major components of plasma and what are their functions?

12. What are the three cell types in blood and what are their relative amounts and functions?

13. What are pluripotent stem cells and where do they come from? What role does erythropoietin play?

14. Label the diagram below concerning blood clotting and explain the process in your own words below the diagram. Include the type of feedback system.

15. What is the difference between the LDLs and HDLs?

16. Define the following: a. Heart attack b. Stroke

17. Why is gas exchange essential to all living organisms?

18. Considering the rate of diffusion, why is it essential for respiratory surfaces to maximize surface area?

19. What is meant by the term countercurrent exchange and why is it an advantage to animals?

20. How does the tracheal system work in insects and how is this an advantage to gas exchange?

21. Why do organisms with lungs require a circulatory system?

22. Label the respective structures and then briefly list the function of each below the label.

23. Contrast amphibian and mammalian breathing with regard to pressure.

24. Describe the process of inhalation and exhalation with regard to the contraction of the diaphragm which is an active process and which is passive?

25. Explain how a bird breathes. Why is this an advantage to organism that require energy to fly?

26. Label the diagram below and explain the control of breathing in humans.

27. What is the relationship between oxygen releasing from hemoglobin and the pH of the blood why does this make it critical that humans maintain pH within a very strict range?

28. How is carbon dioxide transported?

29. What is the adaptation of diving mammals that allow them to swim to great depths for very long periods of time?

Chapter 44 Osmoregulation and Excretion 1. Define the following terms: a. Osmoregulation b. Excretion c. Osmolarity d. Osmoconformer e. Osmoregulator

3. Describe how saltwater fish deal with osmoregulation.

4. Describe how freshwater fish deal with osmoregulation.

5. How do birds deal with excess sodium that drink seawater?

6. What are the three forms that animals use to dispose of nitrogenous waste?

7. Use the diagram below to label and define filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion be very clear on their meanings.

8. Label the kidney and a single nephron. Explain the use of peritubular capillaries to the side.

9. Describe the blood that is flowing in the following vessels in terms of where it came from, where it is going or what it is surrounding? a. Afferent arteriole

b. Efferent arteriole

10. Label the diagram (note by different colors active and passive transport) and explain the activities in the below locations:

a. Proximal tubule

b. Descending loop of Henle

c. Ascending loop of Henle

d. Collecting duct

11. Summarize figure 44.15 in text. How do the changing concentrations in osmolarity reflect the ability of the human kidney to concentrate urine. Why is this system called a countercurrent multiplier system?

12. Describe the hormonal control of the kidney by the below negative feedback mechanisms. a. ADH

b. Juxtaglomerular appartatus

c. Angiotensin II

d. Aldosterone

e. RAAS

f.

Atrial natriuretic factor

Chapter 43 Immune System1. Label the diagram below:

2. Contrast the four types of leukocytes (white blood cells).

3. Describe the process of phagocytosis by macrophages.

4. Describe the role of histamine in the inflammatory response.

5. Define the following terms: a. Natural Killer (NK) cells

b. Antigen

c. Epitope

d. B lymphocyte

e. T lymphocyte

6. Label the diagram below concerning antigen receptors on lymphocytes.

7.

Contrast the way T cell receptors recognize and bind with antigens with the way that B cell receptors do?

8. Label the diagram below concerning clonal selection of B cells and explain the process to the side.

9. Contrast the primary immune response with the secondary immune response.

10. Define the following terms: a. Humoral immune response

b. Cell-mediated immune response

c. Helper T cell

11. Label the following overview of the acquired immune response:

12. Label the following diagram concerning the role of helper T cells

13. Contrast active and passive immunity.

14. Describe the various compatibilities and incompatibilities of the ABO blood group and Rh factors.

15. Describe how MHC molecules are responsible for rejection of tissue or organ transplants.

16. Label the diagram below concerning the allergic response.

Chapter 48 Nervous System 1. What is a nerve net?

2. Compare and contrast the central and peripheral nervous systems.

3. Using the below organisms: How does the organization of the nervous system of a _____ compare with the organization of the nervous system of a ____? a. Hydra and insect

b. Hydra and flatworm

c. Leech and salamander 4. What are the functions of the following: a. Sensory neurons b. Interneurons c. Motor neurons d. Effector cells

5. Explain the reflex response using a real life example.

6. Draw and label a neuron below. Define the terms used.

7. Why are glial cells important?

8. What are astrocytes?

9. What is the blood brain barrier and why is it important?

10. What is myelin sheath and explain why it is important in nerve conduction?

11. Define the following terms: a. Membrane potential

b. Resting potential

12. Discuss the three types of gated ion channels below: a. Stretch

b. Ligand

c. Voltage

13. Define the following terms: a. Hyperpolarization b. Depolarization c. Graded potentials d. Threshold e. Action potential 14. In your own words, explain the generation of an action potential. How does it continue down an axon?

15. How do the various factors affect the speed of an action potential? a. Larger axon

b. Myelination and salutatory conduction 16. What happens at the synaptic cleft?

17. Contrast excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials.

18. Contrast temporal and spatial summation.

19. Discuss the neurotransmitters listed below: a. Acetylcholine b. Epinephrine and norepinephrine c. Dopamine d. Serotonin e. GABA f. Endorphins g. Nitrous oxide

20. Contrast the somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system.

21. Contrast the core functions of the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system.

22. What are the three brain regions during embryonic development? What do they become in the adult brain? What processes allows for these changes?

23. What are the parts of the brainstem and what are its functions?

24. What is the purpose of the reticular formation?

25. What are the core functions of the cerebellum?

26. What are the parts of the diencephalons and what are its functions?

27. What are circadian rhythms?

28. Describe the functions of the cerebral lobes.

29. What is the corpus callosum?

30. What is the limbic system and what is its function?

Chapter 49 Sensory and Motor Mechanisms 1. Define the following words:a. Mechanoreceptorsb. Thermoreceptorsc. Chemoreceptorsd. Electromagnetic receptorse. Pain receptors-

2. Discuss how sound is interpreted in the human ear. Make sure to describe how the movementof fluids helps organisms to hear.

3. Describe the relationship between taste and smell in most organisms.

4. Label the following diagram of the structure of the vertebrate eye.

5. Describe the function of the following terms.a. Sclerab. Choroidc. Cornead. Irise. Pupilf. Retina-

g. Lensh. Rodsi. Cones

6. How is rhodopsin important to sight?

7. What purposes does the skeleton serve for land mammals?

8. How does the muscular system interact with the skeletal system to create movement?

9. Use the following diagram to explain muscle contraction from the nerve all the way to the rolesof actin and myosin.

10. Compare and contrast the different types of muscles.

Chapter 45 Endocrine SystemThis chapter can be a difficult read as there are many unfamiliar physiologic pathways. Take your time and focus on the diagrams first and then reread the text. This chapter focuses on regulation and regulatory processes which overlap. 1. What is a hormone?

2. What constitutes the endocrine system and what are its functions?

3. What are endocrine glands?

4. How do neurosecretory cells demonstrate the overlap between the endocrine and nervous system?

5. Review the basics of negative feedback explain negative feedback using the following terms: receptor, control center, effector, and efferent signal.

6. Explain the basic patterns of hormonal control.

8. What are the three major classes of molecules that function as hormones in vertebrates?

9.

Use the diagram below to review basics of signal transduction pathways.

9. How can one chemical signal cause different effects?

10. What type of molecules are intracellular receptors? Include the why and give an example in your answer.

11. Detail the following local regulators.

a) cytokines

b) growth factors

c) nitric oxide

d) prostaglandinsStudy the table on page 949 it is overwhelming when presented with a long list of information the easier way to approach it by first looking through the list for what you already know and would associate together for example pancreas and insulin/glucagon. Then attack the glands with the least amount of information. You do not need to know every single hormone/control system. Find one that you like best and then know that one the BEST. 12. How does the hypothalamus integrate information?

13. What two hormones are released by the posterior pituitary and what are their actions?

14. What is the importance of tropic hormones?

15. List three tropic hormones and their action.

16. What is the general function on the anterior pituitary nontropic hormones?

19. What are the types of hormones that nonpituatary?

20. Label the feedback loop for regulation of the thryroid?

21. Complete the diagram below of the feedback loops concerning calcium regulation.

24. Complete the diagram below (you have seen this before) concerning glucose homeostasis.

25. How does the body respond differently to long term and short term stress and why is this an advantage to the organism?

26. How could chronic short term stress responses be a disadvantage to the organism?

27. Compare and contrast glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.

28. What are the gonadal sex hormones?

29. What is the pineal gland and why is it important?

Chapter 46 Animal Reproduction1. Define the following terms: a. Fragmentation

b. Regeneration

c. Parthenogenesis

d. Hermaphroditism

2. Compare and contrast internal and external fertilization.

3. Define the term pheromone and explain its uses.

4. Compare and contrast the embryos of eutherian mammals and marsupial mammals.

6. Describe the evolutionary benefits of the spermatheca.

7. Label the diagram showing human female reproductive anatomy.

8. Discuss the mammalian reproductive importance of mammary glands.

9. Label the diagram showing human male reproductive anatomy

10. Describe two characteristics of semen that helps sperm survive the hostile environment of the vagina and travel through the female tract.

11. Compare and contrast the two types of mammalian gametogenesis (oogenesis and spermatogenesis).

12. Compare and contrast menstrual cycles and estrous cycles.

13. Label the diagram concerning human oogenesis..

14.Why might a womans body NOT reject an embryo as a foreign body?

15. Explain the hormonal control of the reproductive cycle of human females.

16. Label the diagram concerning human spermatogenesis.