rebranding – a possibility without...
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LinköpingUniversity
SE-58183Linköping,Sweden
+46013281000,www.liu.se
LinköpingUniversity|DepartmentofManagementandEngineering
MasterThesisinBusinessAdministration,30credits|
BusinessandEconomicsProgrammeandOneYearMaster
Spring2018|ISRN-number:LIU-IEI-FIL-A--18/02781--SE
Rebranding–A
PossibilitywithoutRisk?
ACaseStudyofCircleK
LejlaIsanovic
OliviaRotkirch
Supervisor:RamsinYakob
Preface
The four years of Business and Economics Programme and one year of One Year Master,
at Linköping University, are reaching an end. Although, new adventures are ahead.
We would like to start by acknowledging and thanking our supervisor, Ramsin Yakob,
for supporting us throughout our journey. Most importantly, we would like to thank him
for believing in us and our achievement.
We would also like to thank the following people from Linköping University, professor
in marketing Lars Witell, university lecturer Aku Valtakoski and Ph.D. candidate in
marketing Hugo Guyader, for supporting us during our research.
Additionally, the approval of conducting the interviews at Circle K enabled the
completeness of the research. The achievement would not have been possible without the
company’s permission.
Our family and friends have also been helpful and understanding during the writing of
the thesis, which encouraged us to do our best.
Last but not least, we would like to thank the students that contributed with constructive
critiques for our research during the seminar.
Thank you!
Linköping University,
2018-05-28
________________ ________________
Lejla Isanovic Olivia Rotkirch
Abstract
Title Rebranding - A Possibility without Risk? A Case Study of Circle K
Authors Lejla Isanovic and Olivia Rotkirch
Supervisor Ramsin Yakob
Background The number of acquisitions is continuously increasing and they are often
an important source for competitive advantage. Meanwhile, acquisitions
can be a hazardous investment and many do not succeed in creating the
expected value. When seeking value creation, corporations can
occasionally rebrand in the company. However, the challenges associated
with corporate rebranding are sometimes inevitable. Therefore, a
developed understanding of the challenges associated with corporate
rebranding is required by investigation.
Purpose The purpose of the research is to investigate the corporate rebranding,
from the aspect of customer satisfaction, brand equity and customer
mindset. Moreover, the relationship between customer satisfaction,
customer loyalty and brand equity will be examined.
Execution A quantitative research method is applied where empirical data is
collected through structured interviews with customers of Circle K. The
findings will be utilised for the data interpretation and analysis, as well as
for the conclusion of the research.
Conclusion Rebranding does not result into a negative customer mindset or brand
equity. However, the research shows that the rebranding has a positive
influence on the customer satisfaction, and that there is a positive
relationship between customer satisfaction and loyalty. In turn, the
customer loyalty is proven to affect the brand equity positively. The
customer satisfaction of the new brand decreased compared to the original
brand. Conversely, the difference in customer loyalty between the original
and new brand cannot be proven and therefore there is no negative
connection between loyalty to the original brand and loyalty to the new
brand.
Keywords Branding, acquisition, rebranding, customer mindset, customer loyalty,
brand equity, customer satisfaction.
ListofFigures
Figure 1: Hypotheses model. Own construct.
Figure 2: The research process. Own construct.
Figure 3: Bootstrapping Path model. Retrieved at SmartPLS.
ListofTables
Table 1: P-values of paths. Retrieved model at SmartPLS.
Table 2: T-test. Own construct.
Table 3: AVE. Retrieved at SmartPLS.
Table 4: HTMT. Retrieved at SmartPLS.
Table 5: Composite reliability. Retrieved at SmartPLS.
TableofContents
1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................1
1.1BACKGROUND........................................................................................................................1
1.2PROBLEMDISCUSSION.............................................................................................................2
1.2.1OccasionandContext..................................................................................................2
1.2.2Relevance....................................................................................................................4
1.3PURPOSE...............................................................................................................................4
1.4RESEARCHQUESTIONS.............................................................................................................4
1.5LIMITATIONS..........................................................................................................................5
2.THEORETICALFRAMEWORK..............................................................................................7
2.1BRANDING.............................................................................................................................7
2.2ACQUISITIONS........................................................................................................................8
2.3CORPORATECOMMUNICATION.................................................................................................8
2.4REBRANDINGINACQUISITIONCONTEXT......................................................................................9
2.5CUSTOMERMINDSETANDEVALUATIONWHENREBRANDING.........................................................9
2.6CUSTOMERLOYALTY..............................................................................................................10
2.6.1CustomerAttachmentandRelationship....................................................................10
2.7BRANDEQUITYWHENREBRANDING.........................................................................................12
2.8CUSTOMERSATISFACTIONWHENREBRANDING..........................................................................13
2.9THERELATIONSHIPBETWEENTHECONCEPTS.............................................................................15
2.9.1CustomerSatisfactionandLoyalty............................................................................15
2.9.2CustomerLoyaltyandBrandEquity..........................................................................16
3. SCIENTIFICAPPROACH.................................................................................................19
3.1THEIMPLEMENTATIONOFTHERESEARCH.................................................................................19
3.2CONFIGURATION...................................................................................................................20
3.2.1ResearchStrategy......................................................................................................20
3.2.2ResearchPerspective.................................................................................................22
3.2.3ResearchDesign........................................................................................................23
3.2.4TheCase....................................................................................................................24
3.3DATAGENERATION...............................................................................................................25
3.3.1SecondaryData.........................................................................................................25
3.3.2PrimaryData.............................................................................................................25
3.3.3StructuredInterviews................................................................................................27
3.3.4Critiques.....................................................................................................................31
3.4DATAINTERPRETATIONANDANALYSIS......................................................................................32
3.4.1SmartPLS....................................................................................................................32
3.4.2ReverseCoding..........................................................................................................33
3.4.3PathCoefficientsandOuterLoadings.......................................................................34
3.4.4P-valuesandHypothesisTesting...............................................................................34
3.4.5T-test.........................................................................................................................35
3.5VALIDITY,RELIABILITY,GENERALISABILITYANDTRANSFERABILITY..................................................35
3.5.1Validity.......................................................................................................................36
3.5.2Reliability...................................................................................................................37
3.5.3Generalisability..........................................................................................................38
3.5.4Transferability...........................................................................................................38
3.6ETHICS................................................................................................................................38
4. EMPIRICALEVIDENCE...................................................................................................41
4.1PATHCOEFFICIENTS...............................................................................................................41
4.2OUTERLOADINGS.................................................................................................................42
4.3EXCLUDEDINDICATORS..........................................................................................................43
4.4P-VALUESANDHYPOTHESISTESTING........................................................................................43
4.5T-TEST................................................................................................................................44
4.6VALIDITY..............................................................................................................................45
4.6.1ConvergentValidity...................................................................................................45
4.6.2DiscriminantValidity.................................................................................................45
4.7RELIABILITY..........................................................................................................................46
4.7.1InternalConsistencyReliability..................................................................................46
5. ANALYSIS.....................................................................................................................49
5.1REVERSECODING..................................................................................................................49
5.2PATHCOEFFICIENTS...............................................................................................................50
5.3OUTERLOADINGS.................................................................................................................52
5.3.1ExcludedIndicators....................................................................................................54
5.4P-VALUESANDHYPOTHESISTESTING........................................................................................55
5.5T-TEST................................................................................................................................57
5.6VALIDITY..............................................................................................................................58
5.6.1ConvergentValidity...................................................................................................58
5.6.2DiscriminantValidity.................................................................................................58
5.7RELIABILITY..........................................................................................................................59
5.7.1InternalConsistencyReliability..................................................................................59
6. DISCUSSION.................................................................................................................61
6.1PATHCOEFFICIENTS...............................................................................................................61
6.2P-VALUESANDHYPOTHESISTESTING........................................................................................61
6.3T-TEST................................................................................................................................63
7. CONCLUSION...............................................................................................................65
7.1RESEARCHQUESTIONS...........................................................................................................65
7.1.1TheEffectsofRebranding..........................................................................................65
7.1.2DoCustomerSatisfactionandLoyaltyChangebetweenTheOldandTheNewBrand?
............................................................................................................................................68
7.2CONTRIBUTIONOFTHESTUDY.................................................................................................69
7.3PROPOSALFORFUTURERESEARCH...........................................................................................70
8. REFERENCES.................................................................................................................73
9. APPENDIX....................................................................................................................94
9.1STRUCTUREDINTERVIEW........................................................................................................94
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1. Introduction
The introducing chapter will provide a background for the research topic, followed by a
problem discussion resulting in a purpose and research question.
1.1Background
The number of acquisitions increased and developed strongly during the 1990’s and have
moved in waves (Frensch 2007). The number of acquisitions continues to increase
worldwide and are often viewed as an important source for business survival (Jap, Gould
& Liu 2017; Frensch 2007). There can be several reasons for the strong development of
acquisitions globally; globalisation and increased competition in markets, represent a few
of the key drivers. The general motives behind acquisitions are growth, synergies and risk
diversification (Frensch 2007). Acquisitions can increase the market share and create
value for firms by entering new markets or expanding existing market segments (Rahman
& Lambkin 2015). Meanwhile, acquisitions can be a hazardous investment and many
acquisitions do not succeed in creating the expected value. During the last decades,
studies have shown that despite the significance of acquisitions, they have often resulted
in unsuccessful businesses (Frensch 2007).
When desiring expansion or value creation following an acquisition, corporations can
occasionally rebrand in the company in order to strengthen the brand significance and
improve operational efficiency (Melewar, Gotsi & Andriopolous 2012; Sonenshein
2010). Rebranding is common in the concept of branding and the corporate rebranding
and can involve renewal, reinvention and repositioning of the brand (Merrilees & Miller
2008).
Former Statoil AB is one corporation that has recently implemented a corporate
rebranding and a change in brand name, due to an acquisition in 2012 (Circle K 2015a;
Circle K 2018a: MarketLine 2015; Couche- Tard 2014). The rebranded Circle K captured
an opportunity to introduce new products around Sweden (Circle K 2018a) as well as to
improve their existing products and services (Circle K 2018a; Circle K 2017).
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There are challenges and risks associated with corporate rebranding and therefore a
developed understanding of the challenges associated with corporate rebranding should
be further considered (Miller, Merrilees & Yakimova 2014).
Due to the recent implementation of rebranding in the case of Circle K, an investigation
is necessary to determine the effects of rebranding.
1.2ProblemDiscussion
1.2.1OccasionandContext
Branding plays an important role in the creation of customer awareness and loyalty. If the
customers are more aware and loyal to the brand, they will be even more convinced of
the product or service (Wheeler 2013). Rebranding, on the other hand, is defined as the
process of selecting and establishing a new brand (Merrilees & Miller 2008). After the
implementation of the rebranding, the original and new brand can be compared. When
comparing the original and the new brand, the effect of rebranding can be determined.
Corporate rebranding can involve renewal, reinvention and repositioning of the brand
(Merrilees & Miller 2008), all of which are interrelated concepts. Repositioning is the
strategy that concerns communicating a new idea, product or service into the mind of the
customer, in a competitive way (Ries & Trout 1985, 2001). In order to stay competitive
on the market, a repositioning may be necessary for the company. The renewal can
involve altering, renewing and improving the products or services offered to the
customers. Moreover, the renewal can involve changing the customer perception about
the new brand, by altering the way the brand is communicated out to the customers
(Grossberg 2015). When rebranding, a successful communication between the company
and the customers can be critical. Reinvention involves the recreation of existing products
or services offered, in order to respond to the customer need (Bentley 2016).
Rebranding is relevant for corporations when desiring a greater brand significance and
improvements of the operations in businesses (Melewar, Gotsi & Andriopolous 2012;
Sonenshein 2010). The change of brand names is a common practice in many companies,
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although rebranding can be a costly investment (Tsai & Chintagunta 2015; Muzellec &
Lambkin 2006) which can bring reputation risks (Muzellec & Lambkin 2006).
Rebranding can have a large impact on a company’s identity and reputation, and its
impact is often underestimated (Lambkin & Muzellec 2008).
As the rebranding can be a result of acquisitions, the rebranding in corporations may have
an impact on companies’ brand identity and strategies (Muzellec & Lambkin 2006).
Rebranding can have negative implications on brand equity by replacing former
associations of the original brand (Muzellec & Lambkin 2006). Moreover, other elements
of brand equity which are the brand quality, brand loyalty, brand awareness and brand
value (Aaker 1991; Kapferer 1995; Muzellec & Lambkin 2006; Kaikati & Kaikati 2003),
can be affected by rebranding. Collange (2008) implies that the rebranding can confuse
the customers due to the need for them to adapt to the new brand.
On the other hand, the customer mindset involves customer’s perception, attitudes and
evaluation. In connection to rebranding, the customer mindset can be altered by
customers’ fear of changes in aspects of the brand, which were appreciated earlier
(Kapferer 2008). Through the change in customer mindset, the customers may evaluate
the company less desirably (Aimé-Garnier & Roux 2006; Muzellec & Lambkin 2006;
Collange 2014). Additional risks with rebranding are associated with a decreased level of
satisfaction, where the company’s inability to reach the customer expectations can occur
(Johnson & Fornell 1991; Fornell et al. 1996). If the expectations are not reached, the
customer will likely choose not to repurchase the product or service (Faullant 2007;
Boslau 2009).
The field of rebranding connected to acquisitions has not been explored to a great extent
in literature. Neither has the customer mindset in the context of rebranding been explored
to a greater extent. Although, it is known that the rebranding can bring possibilities to
corporations as well as lead to negative effects on the customer mindset, customer
satisfaction and brand equity. The effects of rebranding on customer mindset, customer
satisfaction and brand equity will be further investigated in order to determine the
connections between these concepts. Moreover, the relationship between customer
satisfaction, customer loyalty and brand equity is examined in order to create a model that
covers the connection between rebranding, customer mindset, customer satisfaction,
customer loyalty and brand equity.
4
1.2.2Relevance
The research will contribute to a knowledge extension by examining the rebranding, in
acquisition context, in the case of Circle K. The findings will complement the theoretical
framework and expand the existing knowledge about the topic. The research is examining
the positive and negative effects of rebranding in connection to the customer mindset,
customer satisfaction and brand equity. The connection of customer satisfaction to the
original and new brand, as well as the customer loyalty to the original and the new brand,
will be compared and examined.
1.3Purpose
The purpose of the research is to investigate the corporate rebranding, from the aspect of
customer satisfaction, brand equity and customer mindset. Moreover, the relationship
between customer satisfaction, customer loyalty and brand equity will be examined.
1.4ResearchQuestions
• How does rebranding affect the customer mindset, customer satisfaction and
brand equity?
• How does customer satisfaction and customer loyalty differ between the original
brand Statoil and the new brand Circle K?
5
1.5Limitations
The research is focusing on the effects of rebranding in the case of former brand Statoil
and new brand Circle K. The effects of rebranding on customer mindset, customer
satisfaction and brand equity will be focused upon. Moreover, the relationship between
the customer satisfaction, customer loyalty and brand equity of the former brand Statoil
and the new brand Circle K will be examined. A comparison between the brands in two
locations will be accomplished in order to determine whether there are differences in the
customer responses.
6
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2.TheoreticalFramework
The theoretical framework consists of relevant theories in order to examine the research
purpose and research questions. The relevant theories consist of branding, acquisitions,
corporate communication and corporate rebranding in acquisition context. The relevant
concepts; the customer mindset, customer satisfaction and brand equity, which are
related to rebranding, will be presented. Moreover, the relationship between the
customer loyalty, customer satisfaction and brand equity, will be further investigated.
The theoretical framework will involve a theoretical discussion, where hypotheses related
to the research purpose will be developed.
2.1Branding
Brands are used to create value for the customers and can be manifested through symbols,
logos, labels or design and packaging (Koch 2014). Furthermore, brands are used in
companies in order to sustain a competitive advantage over rivals (Koch 2014). Brands
can be a company’s driver when externally communicating the company profile and
identity (Olins 1989).
Occasionally, the dynamic markets and industries result in many companies being forced
to implement changes in their brand design (Muzellec & Lambkin 2006; Muzellec &
Lambkin 2008). Corporations are required to differentiate themselves from competitors,
in order to respond to the customer needs (Koch 2014). Branding facilitates
differentiation, by changing the mind of the customer (Lee & Bourne 2017). When
companies successfully manage to establish a brand, with which consumers can associate
a certain emotional state, the branded products or services are differentiated from those
of rivals.
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2.2Acquisitions
Acquisition is defined as the process of a company taking control of another company.
Due to the globalisation and liberalisation around the world, companies have further
expanded their resources and entered new markets through acquisitions. The strategy of
acquisitions can facilitate and strengthen the competitiveness of the company, on the
global market (Rani, Yadav & Pramod 2016). The continuously growing strategies of
acquisitions have resulted into increased revenues, less costs and overall more
competitive firms (Ibid.).
The competitive advantage needed by companies in today’s competitive environment,
can be provided through the creation of a strong and firm brand identity (Machado, de
Lencastre, de Carvalho & Costa 2011). Occasionally, companies are forced to rebrand
their name or logo which is a result of changes in ownership, such as by acquisition
(Muzellec & Lambkin 2006; Machado et al. 2011; Collange 2014). Muzellec and
Lambkin (2006) strengthen the claim and states that companies redefine their businesses
as a result of acquisition, due to the requirement for changes in the organisation’s culture
and identity.
2.3CorporateCommunication
Corporate communication is important in order to create and maintain a cohesive brand
(Ind 2007). According to Mahnert and Torres (2007), the internal branding should be
aligned with the external branding in order to reflect the brand values and consistency, as
well as to avoid customer confusion. Schultz and Kitchen (2004) claim that corporate
communication is a key activity for companies and that the companies should focus on
both internal and external communication if they want to succeed in reflecting a clear
picture of the brand values. The corporate communication can be essential when desiring
a clear and representative market position, as well as when building a clear brand image
(Smith & Zook 2016).
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2.4RebrandinginAcquisitionContext
Due to the constant changes on the markets and in order to represent a clear market
position, a great investment in the brand can occasionally be needed (Kapferer 1995;
Keller 2002; Muzellec & Lambkin 2006; Muzellec & Lambkin 2008). In order to sustain
a competitive advantage, companies need to meet the expectations of the customers
(Miller & Merrilees 2013; Lomax & Mador 2006) and are therefore forced to revitalise
their brand through diverse rebranding strategies (Lomax & Mador 2006; Keller 2012).
For instance, companies may desire to change the customers’ associations with the
current brand and therefore the rebranding can be a strategy towards this goal (Tsai, Dev
& Chintagunta 2015; Muzellec & Lambkin, 2006).
The reason for rebranding lies in the importance of creating or retaining a clear visual
brand identity for the sake of the corporation (Machado et al. 2011). When rebranding,
corporations can create a new name, symbol or logo that defines the brand while at the
same time differentiating it from its competitors (Muzellec & Lambkin 2006; Lambkin
& Muzellec 2008).
2.5CustomerMindsetandEvaluationwhenRebranding
When rebranding, implications on the customer mindset can follow (Merrilees & Miller
2008; Lee & Bourne 2017). The customer mindset includes perceptions, attitudes and
intentions that customers develop towards the company or the brand (Petersen, Kumar,
Polo & Sese 2017). Moreover, the attitudes are described as the overall evaluation of the
brand (Keller 2003). When customers experience the brand, they can develop connections
to the company in their mind (Petersen et al 2017; Fiske and Taylor 2017). The mindset
is one of the concepts investigated in the research, in order to discern the potential
differences in customer perception, attitude and intention, between the original and new
brand.
In corporate rebranding the potential change in the mindset of customers should be
considered (Merrilees & Miller 2008). Lee and Bourne (2017) claim that brands can
facilitate differentiation of the company, by setting itself in the mind of the customer.
When rebranding, the mindset towards the company can be changed.
10
After a rebranding, the customers can fear changes in the service, environment and
atmosphere, which they were pleased with before the rebranding (Kapferer 2008). Hence,
a brand name change can have negative implications and influences on the new company
as well as among customers and their attitude towards the brand (Fombrun & Van Riel
2004; Cornelissen, 2011). The rebranding can in turn have negative influence on the
customer evaluation of a company (Aimé-Garnier & Roux 2006; Muzellec & Lambkin
2006; Collange 2014). This leads to following hypothesis;
Hypothesis 1: Rebranding affects the mindset of the customer negatively
2.6CustomerLoyalty
Customer loyalty describes the customer’s attachment and relationship to the products
and services (Jones & Sasser Jr 1995). Some scholars define loyalty as the repurchasing
of a product or service from the company, which is due to a behavioural pattern (Homburg
& Giering 2001; Brody & Cunningham 1968; Zhang, Zhao & Gupta 2017). Merely a
brand memory is not enough for the customers to become loyal to a brand. The customers
also need to develop a positive connection to the brand and the willingness to repurchase
(Büttner, Huber, Regier & Vollhardt 2008). Customer loyalty consists of the behaviour
to repurchase, the customer’s willingness to purchase additional items and their
willingness to recommend the item to others (Anderson 1998; Homburg 2017; Szymanski
& Henard 2001). Another definition of customer loyalty is that it can be understood as
actual customer retention (Gustafsson, Johnson & Roos 2005).
In the following section, the two components of loyalty will be described; the customer
attachment and customer relationship.
2.6.1CustomerAttachmentandRelationship
The customer loyalty can be influenced by the customer attachment (Mende, Bolton &
Bitner 2013). Haig (2003) implies that the loyalty towards the brand is related to the
11
emotional attachment of the customer. Collange (2014) as well as Thomson, MacInnis
and Park (2005) define the customer attachment as the sustained emotional bond and
relationship to a brand (Fedorikhin, Park & Thomson 2008). According to Yi et al. (2018)
as well as to Fedorikhin, Park and Thomson (2008), the emotional commitment is a driver
to the customer loyalty. The statement by the authors is also supported by Hwang and
Kandampully (2012), which refer to the emotional attachment to a brand as the strongest
influencer on the customer loyalty. Other authors (Thomson, MacInnis & Park 2005;
Carroll & Ahuvia 2006; Vlachos et al. 2010; Jang, Kim & Lee 2015) suggest that
individuals that are attached and committed to a brand, stay loyal to the same brand.
Hence, the loyalty towards the original brand can result into less customer attraction and
loyalty to the new or alternative brands (Thomson, MacInnis & Park 2005). Moreover,
Collange (2014) discusses that the great attachment to the original brand can result into
less customer purchases as well as less acceptance of the new brand. Collange (2014)
discusses further that the reason for the negative correlation can be explained because
customers feeling close to the initial brand also feel reluctant to changes of the initial
brand. Hence, the purchase intention and the customer loyalty can be negatively affected
by the new brand if the attachment is great to the original brand (Collange 2014).
Bove and Johnson (2001) imply that there is a positive connection between customer
relationship and loyalty. Liljander and Strandvik (2011) as well as Bove and Johnson
(2001) mean that a long lasting and committed relationship enables customer retention.
A study by Mattila (2001) shows that bonded and long-term relationships with customers
reduce the negative impact on customer loyalty. This description supports the theory
about solid relationship to a brand leading to greater customer loyalty of the same brand,
and in turn implies less loyalty for other brands. Hence, the assumption that the strong
attachment and relationship to the original brand results in a negative influence on the
customer loyalty of the new brand, is taken into consideration. The second hypothesis can
be formulated as follows;
Hypothesis 2: The strong customer attachment and relationship to the original brand
affects the customer loyalty to the new brand negatively
12
2.7BrandEquitywhenRebranding
In order to increase the customer loyalty of the brand, a further understanding of the
customer’s brand preferences is necessary (Peppers & Rogers 2011). Brahmbhatt and
Shah (2017) claim that the today’s customers are more demanding and selective, and the
importance of understanding the customers’ preferences is of high relevance in the
concept of brand management. The intangible assets such as status, personality
identification, image and lifestyle are important factors for the customer (Brahmbhatt &
Shah 2017). Hence, there are aspects beyond the tangible ones to consider for
corporations. The customer value and utility that these intangible assets can result in, is
formulated in term of brand equity (Brahmbhatt & Shah 2017). The highly competitive
environment forces companies to differentiate themselves through the brand, which is
one of the most valuable assets of the company (Brahmbhatt & Shah 2017). The brand
equity is also described as the value provided by a brand name (Kaikati & Kaikati 2003).
Kaikati and Kaikati (2003) propose four major elements of the brand equity; brand name,
brand loyalty, perceived brand quality and brand associations. Aaker (1991) supports
Kaikati and Kaikati’s (2003) suggestion about the elements of brand association and
perceived brand quality as part of the brand equity. However, the author (Aaker 1991)
implies that the brand awareness is another element of the brand equity to consider.
The perceived brand quality is defined as the customer evaluation of the product and
service quality (Aaker 1991; Zeithaml 1988; Pappu, Quester & Cooksey 2006). On the
other hand, the brand name awareness concerns the initial recognition of the brand name
and covers how well the customer remembers the brand name. The brand association is
described as the second step of the brand equity which covers what the customers
associate with the brand (Rockute, Minelgaite, Zailskaite-Jakste & Damasevicius 2018).
When rebranding, the associations to a brand can be strengthened or weakened (Muzellec
2006; Aaker 1991; Muzellec & Lambkin 2006).
The advantage of rebranding is that it can enable positive brand equity by replacing
former negative associations and weak images of the brand (Muzellec & Lambkin 2006).
This happens when the rebranding becomes approved of and understood by customers
(Ibid.). However, the change of a brand name, or rebranding, can have serious and
negative implications on corporate brand equity (Muzellec & Lambkin 2006; Haig 2003).
Due to that the brands are built on years of investments, a change in brand name can
13
weaken the brand value (Muzellec & Lambkin 2006). When modifying the brand name
or symbol, the value of the brand can be negatively affected or even destroyed (Aaker
1991). Corporations should be aware that the rebranding could affect the equity of a brand
negatively and consider the rebranding implementation after that. Roy and Sarkar (2015)
tested their hypothesis about the change in brand equity after a rebranding announcement
and found that the brand equity of a well-known brand weakened after the confirmation
of the rebranding.
The supporting research leads to following hypothesis;
Hypothesis 3: Rebranding influences brand equity negatively
2.8CustomerSatisfactionwhenRebranding
With exception from the implications of rebranding on the brand equity, rebranding can
also affect the customer satisfaction.
Westbrook and Oliver (1991, p. 84) define customer satisfaction as “a post choice
evaluative judgement concerning a specific purchase selection “. Moreover, Klaus (2015)
as well as Mouri, Bindroo and Ganesh (2015) state that the customer experience is
positively linked to the customer satisfaction.
The concept of customer satisfaction is central in marketing and an important determinant
of the customer behaviour (Matzler 1997). It describes the customers’ appraisal and
expectation of the products or services performance (Johnson & Fornell 1991; Fornell et
al. 1996). Customer satisfaction in connection with the performance of the company can
contribute to the company’s success (Hidayat & Hartono 2010).
The quality of the product and service provided by the firm has implications on the
customer satisfaction as well as on the perceived value for customers (Adebanjo, Abbas
& Mann 2010; McGaughey 2002; Chaniago 2016; Bolton & Drew 1991; Oliver 1996;
Bamfo, Dogde & Osei-Wusu 2018). Unless the quality of the product or service does
change, the customer satisfaction should remain unchanged.
In the theses by Huang (2010), a study of customer satisfaction after rebranding at a hotel
was conducted and the results showed that there was no significant increase in hotel guest’
14
satisfaction after the rebranding had taken place. Pilch (2007) claims in her article that
what customers experience will not directly be affected by the rebranding, unless the
rebranding is establishing a further differentiation from the original brand by
communicating a new message that differs from the message of the original brand. This
means that unless the rebranding is establishing a great differentiation from the original
brand, the rebranding should not affect the customer’s experience to a great extent.
Moreover, the research performed by Chaniago (2016) showed that corporate rebranding
had no effect on customer satisfaction at an advertising company investigated. In a recent
study of rebranding effects on customer satisfaction of the banking sector, the study
showed no significant correlation between the rebranding and customer satisfaction
(Bamfo, Dogde & Osei-Wusu 2018).
Despite the lack of relationship between rebranding and customer satisfaction according
to researchers, Plewa, Lu and Veale (2011) state that their findings showed that there
actually is an impact of rebranding on customer satisfaction. Plewa, Lu and Veale (2011)
as well as Stuart and Muzellec (2004) imply that when the communication of the
rebranding to the customers is successfully carried out, the greater is the possibility for
the rebranding to influence the customer satisfaction positively. Hence, the following
hypothesis is suggested:
Hypothesis 4: Rebranding affects customer satisfaction positively
15
2.9TheRelationshipbetweentheConcepts
Beside the effect of rebranding on the customer mindset, brand equity and customer
satisfaction, the relationship between the customer satisfaction, customer loyalty and
brand equity will be further investigated. Customer loyalty is an important influencer of
satisfaction and on the brand equity. Therefore, the relationship between the three
concepts will be examined.
2.9.1CustomerSatisfactionandLoyalty
The completely satisfied customer is described as a complete believer in the company’s
excellence in understanding and meeting their preferences, needs and problems well (Suh
& Yi 2006).
The influence of the customer satisfaction on customer loyalty is proven to occur
(Johnson & Fornell 1991; Fornell et al. 1996; Heskett et al. 1994; Liljander and Strandvik
2011; Bove and Johnson 2001). Oliver (1999) investigates the implications of customer
satisfaction on the loyalty aspect and concludes that the customer loyalty is partly formed
by the customer satisfaction. According to Faullant (2007) and Boslau (2009), the
customer satisfaction contributes to repurchasing, which means that customers tend to
buy the product or service once again after having positive experience from it.
Researchers show that customer satisfaction tends to lead to greater customer loyalty and
greater possibility for customer recommendations to others (Barnett, Jermier & Lafferty
2006; Osman 1993; Bloemer & de Ruyter 1998; Anderson & Mittal 2000; Anderson
1996; Fornell 1992; Gruca & Rego 2005). Customer satisfaction can therefore lead to a
higher degree of customer loyalty (Suh & Yi 2006; Burmann, Riley, Halaszovich &
Schade 2017) as well as to a stronger customer relationship to the brand (Burmann et al.
2017).
A way to measure the customer satisfaction is through the ACSI; the American Customer
Satisfaction Index (Fornell et al. 1996). The index describes that an increased level of
customer satisfaction should reduce the number of customer complaints, which in turn
increases the customer loyalty (Fornell et al. 1996).
On the other hand, the transformation from customer loyalty to positive satisfaction is
16
more difficult to state (Oliver 1999). Repeated unsatisfying purchases can transform the
customer satisfaction to customer dissatisfaction and disloyalty (Oliva, Oliver &
McMillan 1992). Other studies have also shown that customer satisfaction has a
significant, yet, not direct effect on brand loyalty in the service industry (Back & Parks
2003; Chiou & Droge 2006).
Meanwhile, Bloemer, de Ruyter and Peeters (1998) investigated the connection between
customer satisfaction and loyalty of a bank and concluded a direct relationship between
satisfaction and loyalty.
Due to the suggested influence of customer satisfaction on customer loyalty, a following
hypothesis is chosen to be tested:
Hypothesis 5: Customer satisfaction influences customer loyalty positively
2.9.2CustomerLoyaltyandBrandEquity
Just as the customer satisfaction can influence customer loyalty, the customer loyalty can
in turn be an element of the brand equity (Aaker 1991; Aaker & Jacobsen 1994).
It is described that the brand equity is one of the drivers of loyalty intentions (Trust,
Zeithaml & Lemon 2000; Ou, Verhoef & Wiesel 2017). Strong brands usually represent
credibility which minimizes perceived risk related to the product or service, hence
evoking loyalty intentions of the customers (Ou, Verhoef & Wiesel 2017).
Moreover, Torres, Augusto and Lisboa’s (2015) study shows that the brand loyalty
strongly influences on the brand equity (Torres, Augusto & Lisboa 2015). Aaker (1991)
strengthens other researchers’ (Torres, Augusto & Lisboa’s 2015; Pappu, Quester &
Cooksey 2006; Pappu & Quester 2016) statement by implying that the brand equity is
formed and created by the brand awareness, brand loyalty, perceived brand quality and
other brand factors such as patents. A study on the relation between brand equity and
brand loyalty, conducted by Bobâlcâ et al. (2014), shows that brand loyalty affects the
brand equity. The positive effect of customer loyalty on brand equity is further supported
by Asif et al. (2015). The study was conducted through a questionnaire to distinguish the
impact factors on brand equity. Asif et al.’s research resulted into a positive and
significant impact of customer loyalty on the brand equity. Hence, the hypothesis can be
formulated as follows;
17
Hypothesis 6: Customer loyalty affects brand equity positively
According to the presented literature, rebranding can have positive and negative effects
on the concepts of customer mindset, customer satisfaction and brand equity. The
connection between the concepts can be modelled out as following figure.
Figure 1. Hypotheses model. Own construct.
OriginalBrand
NewBrandBrandEquitySatisfaction Loyalty
Rebranding
Mindset
H1(-)
H3 (-)
H2 (-)
H4(+)
H5(+) H6 (+)
Satisfaction Loyalty BrandEquity
H5(+) H6 (+)
18
19
3. ScientificApproach
The chapter consist of the scientific approach, which introduces the implementation and
configuration of the research. The implementation will describe the research process,
whereas the configuration involves the research strategy, perspective and design. The
following data generation will be presented and discussed. Finally, the robustness as well
as the ethical aspects of the research will be highlighted in the end of the chapter.
3.1TheImplementationoftheResearch
The purpose of the research is to investigate the implications of rebranding on the concept
of customer mindset, customer satisfaction and brand equity. Furthermore, the
relationship between customer satisfaction, customer loyalty and brand equity will be
investigated. In order to accomplish the research, an investigation of two brands is
performed. The relationship between the theoretically based hypotheses will be processed
through the data program and analysis. The data collection will be accomplished through
arranged structured interviews with customers of the brands. The data will, in turn, be
processed quantitatively and transmitted into a statistical software program. The data
results received from the statistical program will be presented, followed by an analysis.
A discussion about the data results will be presented. As a last stage of figure 2,
conclusions will be drawn from the data analysis.
Figure 2. The research process. Own construct.
20
3.2Configuration
3.2.1ResearchStrategy
The purpose of the research is to investigate the implications of rebranding on customer
mindset, customer satisfaction and brand equity. Additionally, the connection between
these concepts and the customer loyalty will be examined. The empirical evidence will
be based on quantitative data collected through structured interviews.
The quantitative research strategy is characterized by measurements, statistical
performance and data analysis (Patel & Davidson 2011; Björklund & Paulsson 2012).
The strategy regards measurement of variables (Neuman 2011). The quantitative research
consists of several steps with formulation of theories as the initial step, followed by a
report and measurement of empirical data (Bryman & Bell 2011; Neuman 2011). In order
to measure and present the empirical data, a quantitative research is the most adequate to
apply in the study (Jacobsen 2002).
The quantitative approach is distinguished from the qualitative approach by the excluded
focus on social and cultural aspects, as well as interactions between people (Neuman
2011). An alternative is to apply a qualitative research approach, where an interpretation
of words and the social reality is amplified (Bryman & Bell 2011). However, the
interpretation of the social reality will not be focused upon in the research. Moreover, the
theories will be a starting point, followed by measurements of data, which further points
out the need for conducting a quantitative research strategy (Jacobsen 2002).
The opportunity to find connections between defined variables is of interest for the
quantitative approach (Bryman & Bell 2011; Jacobsen 2002). The connections between
customer satisfaction, customer loyalty and brand equity will be of interest in the
research. Furthermore, quantitative studies tend to be more structured than the qualitative
ones, in order to delimit the research and focus on the research questions at hand (Bryman
& Bell 2011). An advantage of the quantitative approach is that the underlying
objectivism amplifies the opportunity for replication or reproduction of the same study
(Bryman & Bell 2011). The replication is necessary for the reliability of the research.
Replication shows the extent of reaching same results in different studies (Jacobsen
21
2002).
However, the advantage of qualitative research is the contribution of richer data and a
greater understanding of the context in matter. Through the engagement to the social
environment and the receiving of different perspectives (Bryman & Bell 2011),
qualitative research is more open for new information (Jacobsen 2002).
Nevertheless, the social context as well as extensive information will not be considered
in the research. Hence, a quantitative research is arguably the most appropriate
alternative.
The research is founded on a positivistic standpoint where the researchers seek for
objectivism and science free from subjective judgments (Bryman & Bell 2011; Neuman
2011; Jacobsen 2002). The positivist social science often utilises quantitative data in order
to reach the objectivity in studies (Neuman 2011). In order to stay objective, the
quantitative strategy with positivist perspective is combined. The testing of theory-based
hypotheses, through analysing the measurements, is a part of the positivistic perspective
(Neuman 2011; Björklund & Paulsson 2012; Patel & Davidson 2011).
One alternative to the interpretation perspective of positivism, is the interpretivism. The
interpretivism regards, on the other hand, the subjective aspect of reality (Neuman 2011;
Bryman & Bell 2011). Due to the researchers’ orientation towards the objective aspect of
reality, the interpretivism is thus not considered.
Moreover, the ontological view of the research can be described as realistic. The view
lies in the belief that the world exists beyond the own perception of and experience from
it, where an objectivity is dominating (Patel & Davidson 2011). The research will be
founded on the realistic ontological view through the striving of reaching objectivity.
The research will be carried out as an explanatory study, where the researchers investigate
an issue and, further on, seek for a connection between variables as well as a deeper
understanding of the relationships (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016; Björklund &
Paulsson 2012). As the data collection is being transmitted into a statistical program,
connections between the variables are tested (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016).
Moreover, in the explanatory research, existing theories are tested and the subject in
22
matter is already known (Neuman 2011).
One alternative to the explanatory research, is the exploratory study. The exploratory
study is exploring issues or phenomenon that are not extensively explored yet, due to
inconsistency in theories (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016; Ghauri & Gronhaug 2005;
Jacobsen 2002).
However, as a result of the already and overall explored subjects as well as the attempt
for researchers to test the relationships between concepts (Neuman 2011), the explanatory
research is a preferred alternative.
3.2.2ResearchPerspective
The research approach will have a basis in the deductive research perspective. A
deductive research method will depart from theories and hypotheses formulated from
these. The deductive perspective will test the hypotheses through empirical findings and
data analysis (Bryman & Bell 2011; Neuman 2011; Jacobsen 2002; Ghauri & Gronhaug
2005). When tested, the hypotheses will either be confirmed or rejected (Bryman & Bell
2011). The deductive approach concerns development of expectations about reality and
aims to eventually relate it to the empirical evidence (Jacobsen 2002).
The motivation for the deductive research perspective is founded on the idea that the
approach partly explains the effect of rebranding, and the relationship between concepts,
with a basis on existing theories. Additionally, the hypotheses are developed from
existing theories, whereas an expansion or development of new theories (Bryman & Bell
2011) are not considered in the research.
Simultaneously, the deductive research approach can be criticised for the risk of
overseeing relevant information that is not directly responding to the researchers’
expectations produced from the theories (Jacobsen 2002; Bryman & Bell 2011). This risk
will be minimized through a broadening of the theoretical framework by the usage of
several theories and findings related to the concepts.
An alternative to the deductive approach is to apply an inductive research perspective.
The inductive perspective, on the contrary, generates theories from empirical observation
23
and results based on empirical and social reality (Neuman 2011; Bryman & Bell 2011;
Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016; Jacobsen 2002; Ghauri & Gronhaug 2006). The main
alignment of the quantitative research is commonly the deductive approach. Conversely,
in the qualitative study it is rather consisting of the inductive perspective (Bryman & Bell
2011). Due to the already investigated subject of rebranding and the relationship between
the concepts, as well as an empirical testing, a deductive research approach is more
suitable for the research at hand.
3.2.3ResearchDesign
The research design of the study consists of the application of a single rebranded
organisation, hence a single-case study is the chosen design. The research will investigate
the process of rebranding in a single organisation, from Statoil to Circle K.
The case study is mostly applied when researchers desire to investigate an aspect of the
organisation (Ghauri & Gronhaug 2005). Case-study research consists of a deeper
examination of particular cases for a specific or for multiple periods of time, focusing on
specific elements in each case (Neuman 2011). Cases can be represented by individuals,
organisations, groups, places or events (Neuman 2011; Bryman & Bell 2011; Jacobsen
2002).
One of the strengths with case studies is when investigating a specific case, the
involvement with the case can lead to clarification of relationships between variables
(Neuman 2011; Jacobsen 2002). The case study can help the researchers to involve
multiple aspects of the situation in order to receive a clear picture (Neuman 2011;
Jacobsen 2002). Moreover, the case-study can help the researchers to depict differences
and similarities between the cases regarded (Jacobsen 2002).
The investigation of the impacts of rebranding on relevant variables and relationships
between the variables will be examined on one rebranded organisation. Hence, the chosen
research design is perceived as most appropriate to adopt.
An alternative to the case study design of the research is the longitudinal design. The
design would be appropriate for investigating a phenomenon during two or several time
periods, in order to discern differences in time for the variables (Bryman & Bell 2011).
24
The longitudinal design would be of interest if the research purpose was to compare the
causality and changes in two periods of time, that is before and after rebranding. Due to
the preferable time period taking place after the rebranding, as well as the aim for a clear
structure and less data management, the choice of longitudinal design will not be as
appropriate as a case study.
3.2.4TheCase
Since 2010, the Norwegian multinational energy company Statoil ASA had a separate
legal entity named Statoil Fuel & Retail AS. Statoil Fuel & Retails AS is a Norwegian
fuel retailer for road transport which offers fuel and convenience, as well as automated
fuel stations. Since 2012, Statoil Fuel & Retail is the subsidiary company of Alimentation
Couche- Tard Inc., a leading Canadian convenience store operator (Circle K 2015a; Circle
K 2018a: MarketLine 2015; Couche- Tard 2014). As a result of the Canadian operators’
acquisition, the brand name Statoil became a temporary asset due to the ownership of the
name at Statoil ASA. Before 2021, the brand name has to be changed (Misc. Editors
2015). The result was that the brand name Circle K was implemented, a name originated
from a corporation that joined Alimentation Couche- Tard Inc., in 2003 (Circle K 2018b;
Andersson 2015).
Although the brand name had to be changed due to the acquisition, the company captured
the chance to develop a new customer target group. The new brand name of Circle K
would represent more than an oil company, and would eventually and hopefully attract a
younger customer segment as well as female customers (Olsson 2015).
In the beginning of 2016, the rebranding of Statoil to Circle K was a fact in Scandinavia,
Baltics, Poland and Russia. In Sweden, the brand change was publicly communicated
through campaigns, media and other platforms (Resumé 2016). According to the
newspaper Automotorsport, the rebranding of Statoil tore up diverse emotions and
reactions from customers on social media (Söderholm 2015).
In May the same year, the fuel stations of former Statoil changed 1750 signboards and
2000 flags all around Sweden’s 490 fuel stations (Circle K 2017; Circle K 2018a;
Andersson 2015). The process with the brand change is expected to be fully completed
in 2018 or 2019 (Circle K 2015b). According to Circle K themselves, since the brand
25
change the company has developed an extensive range of customer offerings with a
consideration for the global customer needs as well as for the local one. Furthermore, the
company has introduced new products, projects and stores around the country (Circle K
2018a). Morgan Wiktorsson, the CEO of Circle K in Sweden, states that the customer
experience in and outside the stations as well as the products and service has been further
introduced and improved (Circle K 2018a; Circle K 2017).
3.3DataGeneration
3.3.1SecondaryData
Secondary data is raw data created by other researchers that provides material for
researchers (Blaikie 2003; Hox & Boeije 2005; Jacobsen 2002). The data can be collected
for the purpose of presenting general information, or for a specific research (Blaikie 2003;
Ghauri & Gronhaug 2006; Hox & Boeije 2005).
The secondary data may be used for a replication of studies (Hox & Boeije 2005). Another
advantage with secondary data is that is provides researchers with time and cost savings,
by utilizing the already available data (Baikie 2003; Ghauri & Gronhaug 2005).
The researchers will however exclusively apply own empirical findings in the research,
and therefore the secondary data will not be utilised.
3.3.2PrimaryData
Another variant of the data generated is the primary data (Blaikie 2003). Primary data is
data created for the study at hand, which it is particularly relevant for (Ghauri & Gronhaug
2005; Jacobsen 2002; Lancaster 2005; Blaikie 2003; Vartanian 2011). The primary data
can be collected through questionnaires, experiments or observations (Ghauri &
Gronhaug 2005; Jacobsen 2002; Vartanian 2011).
The primary data will be collected from respondents through the structured interviews in
the research. The responses will be used for the statistical performance. The statistical
performance will in turn generate a statistical model, which will represent a tool in order
to produce data analysis and provide an answer to the research questions. Primary data
will provide data that is well matched and consistent with the research at hand.
26
When conducting a survey methodology, or design, a definition of the research’s
population needs to be clarified (Bryman & Bell 2011; Easterby-Smith, Thorpe &
Jackson 2015). This is due to the necessity to understand how to distribute the structured
interviews of the research (Bryman & Bell 2011).
The population is described as a collection of entities available for the sample (Bryman
& Bell 2011; Neuman 2011; Wahlin 2015). The entities can for instance include
individuals, countries or organisations (Bryman & Bell 2011; Wahlin 2015). The
population of the research will include all customers of Circle K and Statoil respectively,
in Sweden. This is due to the formulation of the research purpose and questions. The
target population, on the other hand, is a sequence of the population representing the focus
or target group of the research (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016). For the research, the
representative target population comprises the customers of Circle K and Statoil in
Gothenburg and Linköping.
From the target population, a sample can be retrieved (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016;
Wahlin 2015). The sample of the population is relevant for the quantitative study, due to
limitations of researches and in order to draw conclusions about the population (Bryman
& Bell 2011; Neuman 2011; Wahlin 2015). In order for the researchers to generalise the
sample to the population, the sample must therefore be representative (Bryman & Bell
2011; Neuman 2011). In other case, the sample will be biased and not representative for
the population (Bryman & Bell 2011).
In order to reach the sample, the sampling frame needs to be selected. The sampling frame
consists of a register of the entities in the target population (Bryman & Bell 2011; Ghauri
& Gronhaug 2005; Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016). In the research, the sampling
frame will be difficult to retrieve due to the unavailable information about the customers
of Circle K and Statoil of the two chosen stations in Gothenburg and Linköping.
However, the sample size from the population will consist of one hundred respondents.
The number of respondents is based on own estimation and subjective judgment of what
is considered to be adequate and convenient for the researchers. Moreover, the statistical
program conducted in the research allows up to one hundred observations (Garson 2016).
Due to the unavailable information about the individuals of the target population, further
and more accurate estimation of the sample size cannot be calculated as according to the
literature (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016).
The sampling techniques available are either probability sampling or non-probability
sampling (Bryman & Bell 2011; Neuman 2011; Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016). Due
27
to the unavailable sampling frame on the customers of Circle K and Statoil of two stations
in Gothenburg and Linköping, the researchers are utilizing a non-probability sampling
method.
One of the non-probability samplings is the convenience sampling, occurring when
selecting a sample that is considerably convenient and easy to access (Saunders, Lewis &
Thornhill 2016). The choice of convenience sampling bottoms in the researchers’
convenient access to the one gas stations in respective city. Moreover, the difficulty in
reaching customers of Circle K and former Statoil through a sample frame, motivates the
choice for the convenient sampling method. The convenience sampling will be applied
for both the pre-test as well as for the structured interview. A pre-test is carried out in
order to discern potential misunderstandings of the statements. The pre-test will be carried
out with five conveniently chosen individuals.
An alternative to the convenience sampling is the cluster sampling method. The cluster
sampling would be the sampling method applied in the research if the sampling frame of
the target population was available for the researchers, hence if the probability sample
method was applied. The clusters are therefore groups of the target population and are
included in the sampling frame within the population (Bryman & Bell 2011; Saunders,
Lewis & Thornhill 2016). For the research, the clusters would comprise the two Circle K
stations in Gothenburg and Linköping. From the two clusters located in the cities, 50
respondents in each city would be randomly chosen.
The advantage of the cluster sampling method is the possibility to generalise the sample
to the complete population (Bryman & Bell 2011; Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016).
However, the sampling frame is not accessible in the case and therefore the cluster
sampling method cannot be applied.
3.3.3StructuredInterviews
A method to collect quantitative data is through the survey methodology, or design, which
is described as a process of collecting data through surveys or structured interviews.
Interviews can be divided into structured and unstructured interviews (Ghauri &
Gronhaug 2005). Structured interviews are applied in the research and consists of given
28
and closed response categories (Bryman & Bell 2011; Ghauri & Gronhaug 2005).
Unstructured interview differs from the structured interview through its requirement for
personal and social involvement with the respondents (Ghauri & Gronhaug 2005).
Unstructured interviews are seen as favourable for enriching the data material through
the possibility for developing and adding questions (Ghauri & Gronhaug 2005). However,
the personal and social engagement with the respondents will not be relevant for the
research at hand. Neither will a richer data material be needed for the research due to the
purpose and limitation of the study. Hence, the alternative of unstructured interviews will
not be regarded.
An alternative to structured interviews in the research is to collect data through surveys.
Surveys are cheaper, faster, more convenient for the respondent as well as more consistent
in their content, compared to structured interviews (Bryman & Bell 2011).
While surveys require the respondent to write the answers down (Bryman & Bell 2011),
interviews require interaction between the interviewer and the respondent, and that the
questions are asked by the interviewer (Ghauri & Gronhaug 2005; Bryman & Bell 2011;
Björklund & Paulsson 2012). Due to that the interview in the research will require a
personal meeting with the respondent, the respondent will not be given the opportunity
to answer by hand.
Additionally, due to the perceived need to assist the respondents to interpret and
understand a few statements correctly (Bryman & Bell 2011), the choice of structured
interviews is perceived as more appropriate for the research. Moreover, the twenty-six
statements of the structured interviews can be seen as overly extensive for a survey
(Bryman & Bell 2011). This could eventually result in non-responses or drop-outs, if a
survey was applied. The issue with statistical losses with surveys is proven to be greater
compared with interviews. This disadvantage can, however, be overcome by asking fewer
questions (Bryman & Bell 2011). In the research, several statements will be included in
order to completely cover the content of the concepts. Therefore, a shorter questionnaire
will not be suitable. The higher costs as a result of conducting interviews are also seen as
negligible in the research, which further motivates the choice for the structured
interviews.
The structured interviews will be based on closed statements, which provide given
response categories beforehand (Bryman & Bell 2011; Homburg 2017). Closed
29
statements enable the processing of the responses easily, enable a complete registration
of the answers and increase the comparison between the answers (Bryman & Bell 2011;
Homburg 2017). Compared to open questions or statements, closed statements offer less
extended variation in the coding of answers (Bryman & Bell 2011). Hence, closed
questions or statements are considered to be managed more easily in quantitative studies
(Bryman & Bell 2011).
The alternative to the closed statements is to construct open statements in structured
interviews. However, due to the research purpose and the time limitation, a larger number
of statements as well as a higher number of respondents are perceived to be of greater
relevance for the research. Moreover, closed statements will require less effort from the
researchers (Bryman & Bell 2011) due to that the analysis and coding of the responses
will most likely require less time when applying closed statements (Bryman & Bell 2011).
The structured interviews can be conducted with computer support (Bryman & Bell
2011). The research will be carried out through an immediate registration of the responses
on computer, referred to as computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI) (Bryman &
Bell 2011). The choice of the computer usage is due to its supportive, convenient, fast
and easy functionality when registering responses during the interviews. The interview
statements are formulated in Microsoft Excel and the register of the responses will be
typed down with received numbers for each articulated statement during the interview.
The computer usage will facilitate the standardisation of the response registration on
Excel (Bryman & Bell 2011). The following step consist of transferring the data to the
statistical program SmartPLS, which will create a statistical model representing the
empirical findings.
A common scale to measure the response categories is through the Likert-Scale (Wakita
& Ueshima & Noguchi 2012). The advantage of the Likert scale is that it offers the
respondents several graded answers (Homburg 2017; Easterby-Smith, Thorpe & Jackson
2015). The structured interviews are based on the Likert scale due to its popular
measurement and its grading opportunities for the respondents (Wu & Leung 2017;
Wakita, Ueshima & Noguchi 2012). The Likert scale can consist of four to seven
possibilities to answer (Wu & Leung 2017; Wakita, Ueshima & Noguchi 2012). The
research of Lissitz and Green (1975) shows that a five-point scale is reliable, whereas
30
Preston and Colman (2000) rather argue for the reliability of the seven-point scale.
In the research, the opportunity for the respondents to have a neutral opinion to the
statements will be offered through an uneven number on the scale (Easterby-Smith,
Thorpe & Jackson 2015). Hence, the alternative of applying a five or seven graded Likert
scale was left to choose from. The choice of a five-point Likert scale is due to its common
usage and familiarity to the respondents (Allen & Seaman 2007; Easterby-Smith, Thorpe
& Jackson 2015), and to the fact that the respondents may perceive it as less complex
than the seven-point Likert scale.
The statements in the research will be rated from one to five on the Likert scale, one
indicating the lowest level of agreement with the statement, or representing complete
disagreement. Simultaneously, five is the highest level of agreement, stating a complete
agreement with the statement (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe & Jackson 2015; Wu & Leung
2017).
In order to interpret the data received, a coding process of the structured interviews will
be realised. The coding process involves the transmission of the numbers received by the
respondents in the response categories to a statistical program (Bryman & Bell 2011).
Through the development of the interview beforehand, the coding of the statements in the
research is already made (Bryman & Bell 2011).
In order to increase the credibility of the research, the researchers will introduce the
research and its purpose (Bryman & Bell 2011). A short presentation and introduction of
the structured interview for each respondent will be carried out.
It is important for the researchers to understand the structure of statements clearly
(Bryman & Bell 2011). Additionally, the importance of following the structure of
statements and not deviating from it by articulating the statements with another
formulation, should be considered (Bryman & Bell 2011). Considering that the statements
will be formulated in Microsoft Excel, the risk of deviating from the formulations will not
prevail. The respondents will be instructed about the graded responses in order to
understand how to reply to the statements formulated and articulated. Moreover, the
aspect of the order of statements is considered. The order of these will be formulated
according to the structure and will strictly be the same for each respondent (Bryman &
Bell 2011).
31
The data was collected at two gas stations chosen for convenience in Linköping and
Gothenburg. The structured interviews were performed at three different time schedules
during day time, and the performance was held until one hundred responses were
collected.
3.3.4Critiques
Collecting primary data can require time, effort and cost (Ghauri & Gronhaug 2005;
Lancaster 2005). The difficulty in achieving the complete access to the target group is
also a concern when collecting primary data (Ghauri & Gronhaug 2005).
The drawback with the structured interview technique used in the research is the need for
the statements to be formulated in a precise and clear way, and to not take a lot of the
respondent’s time (Bryman & Bell 2011; Patel & Davidson 2011; Björklund & Paulsson
2012). If this criterion is not achieved, the respondents can perceive the interview as
difficult to understand and statistical losses may follow. Moreover, the lack of
understanding can lead to decreased validity of the structured interviews (Bryman & Bell
2011). The potential issue can be restricted through conducting a pre-test. An eventual
correction of the formulations, through the pre-test, will be made before the structured
interviews are executed.
The statements should be as short as possible for the respondent to perceive them easily
(Bryman & Bell 2011). The statements will be brief and an attempt to formulate them
clearly in the research, will be made. In general, interviews with closed statements can be
perceived as impersonal (Bryman & Bell 2011). However, the impersonal aspect will be
reduced through a personal meeting with the respondent and by a short presentation about
the research.
The sampling method applied in the research will represent the convenience sampling, a
non-probability sampling approach. However, the disadvantage with the chosen sampling
method is the bias and lack of credibility as well as reliability of the material obtained
(Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016). This is a result of the difficulty in possessing
representativeness of the sample (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016; Neuman 2011).
Hence, the non-representative sample does not provide representative data of the
32
population at hand (Neuman 2011).
The empirical findings retrieved through the structured interviews will not be
considerably representative to the population. Nevertheless, the research can be further
investigated by other researchers in order to generate a better representation (Bryman &
Bell 2011).
3.4DataInterpretationandAnalysis
3.4.1SmartPLS
In the research, the statistical performance will be accomplished through the Partial Least
Squares. The Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) is a
common modelling approach within marketing and management research, analysing the
relationship between variables and constructs that are based on empirical data and the
theoretical framework (Hair, Ringle & Sarstedt 2011; Henseler, Ringle & Sinkovics
2009).
The motivation for the usage of Partial Least Squares lies in its appropriateness when
providing a relative small sample size (Birkinshaw, Morrison & Hulland 1995) and to
investigate and explain the relationship among variables (Calantone, Graham & Mintu-
Wimsatt 1998; Festge & Schwaiger 2007).
One of the applications to the software PLS-SEM is SmartPLS, which performs path
model estimations (Wong 2013). For the research, SmartPLS will be the applied software
which will present the empirical data retrieved.
Alternative to SmartPLS and to its hypotheses testing, would be the usage of other
statistical programs such as Minitab and SPSS. However, and due to the researchers’
previous experience and knowledge about software SmartPLS as well as the relative small
sample size retrieved, the choice for the PLS-SEM was perceived as most adequate to
utilise.
Through SmartPLS, the path model is created that will show a complex model of the two
locations chosen, as well as of the brand Circle K and former Statoil.
The SmartPLS path model can be divided into two elements; the inner and outer model.
The inner model shows the paths or relationships between the variables of the model,
33
while the outer model represents the measurement model. The measurement model shows
the relationship between the variables and their related statements and indicators (Wong
2013; Hair, Ringle & Sarstedt 2011).
The variables of the path model are the rebranding, customer satisfaction, customer
loyalty, brand equity and customer mindset. Each statement of the structured interview
represents one indicator that is connected to a variable. A variable can consist of one or
several indicators. Due to the concepts of the former and new brand investigated, eight
variables will be created in the path model; the “Satisfaction Statoil”, “Satisfaction Circle
K”, “Loyalty Statoil”, “Loyalty Circle K”, “Equity Statoil”, “Equity Circle K”,
“Rebranding” and “Mindset”. The path model is based on the theoretically formulated
hypotheses and has been composed according to these. The variables are the result of a
combination of the related indicators which means that the variables are indirectly
measured (Wong 2013; Garson 2016). As an example, the variable “Loyalty” is indirectly
measured and observed through the indicators that are connected to the variable.
In the path model created, the arrows will lead to the measured indicators from the
variables which indicate that the PLS path model is reflective (Garson 2016). The
reflective model implies that changes in the variable are seen in changes of the indicators
and the arrows are therefore pointing from the variable to the indicators (Hair, Ringle &
Sarstedt 2011).
3.4.2ReverseCoding
Negative alluded statements of the structured interview will require a reverse coding. The
reverse coding refers to that the graded responses need to be reversed in order for the data
results to be interpreted and analysed in same manner. This implies that a grading of 1 on
the Likert scale is reversed to 5, and conversely, for the negative alluded statement.
However, there is no influence of the reverse coding on the respondents and their answers,
which will not distract the respondents. If the negative alluded statements are not reversed
coded, the statements cannot be compared or analysed in the research.
34
3.4.3PathCoefficientsandOuterLoadings
The connections between the rebranding, customer satisfaction, customer loyalty, brand
equity and mindset are modelled out in order to discern the level of path coefficients and
relationship between the variables. The path coefficients are observed as the numbers in
the arrows between the variables (Garson 2016). The path coefficient shows the level of
standard deviation of the dependent variable that depends on variation of the determining
or related independent one (Li 1956). The path coefficient can therefore help to explain
the relationship and the level of effect between the dependent variable and the
independent one (Wong 2013; Mohsin, Khan & Naqvi 2009).
The path coefficient can lie between 0 and plus 1, or between 0 and minus 1 where 1
describes the strongest path (Garson 2016). A path coefficient of 0.50 or above is
therefore considered to be strong. The path model of the research does not consist of
negative path coefficients, which is why the number closest to 0 represent the weakest
path (Garson 2016).
However, the outer loadings are the numbers in the arrows between the variables and
their related indicators. The outer loadings represent the path contribution from the
indicator to the variable (Garson 2016). The indicator’s outer loadings should preferably
stay above 0,7, although the threshold of 0,4 is seen as acceptable (Garson 2016; Hair,
Ringle & Sarstedt 2011; Wong 2013; Hulland 1999). It is also appropriate to remove an
indicator of the reflective model if the impact of this loss on the variable is negligible
(Garson 2016). If the outer loading of an indicator is below 0.4 in the research, the
statement will be excluded from the reflective model if the removal is negligible.
3.4.4P-valuesandHypothesisTesting
Significance testing is accomplished through the function of bootstrapping in SmartPLS
(Garson 2016). The consistent PLS Algorithm is unable to test the significance, due to
that the function does not use a normal distribution (Hair, Ringle, Sarstedt & Hult 2014).
In order to accomplish the significance testing of the path coefficients, the p-values need
to be presented in the model (Hair, Ringle & Sarstedt 2011). The bootstrapping shows
the significance of the path coefficients (Garson 2016).
The P-value is received through the bootstrapping and provides a measurement for the
35
hypotheses testing (Westfall & Young 1993). The p-values received will be compared
with the confidence level of 95%, in order to confirm or reject the formulated hypotheses
at the alpha level of 1-95%= 0.05. If the p-value lies below the regarding alpha level, the
hypothesis is by rule confirmed. If the p-value is above the alpha level, the hypothesis is
rejected (Wahlin 2015). However, depending on the hypotheses formulation, each of
them have either a positive or negative allusion. Due to the positive path coefficients, the
paths are signifying positive relationships between the variables. Therefore, when
performing the hypothesis testing, the formulation of the hypothesis needs to be
considered. This means that if the p-value is below the alpha level of 0.05, the positive
relationship between the variables is supported. However, if the positive relationship is
confirmed, the negative alluded hypothesis cannot be confirmed. Hence, the negative
hypothesis is rejected. Contrarily, if the p-value is above the alpha level of 0.05, the
positive relationship cannot be confirmed and will be rejected. However, the negative
alluded hypothesis will then be confirmed.
3.4.5T-test
In order to investigate the second research question, a t-test needs to be performed to
compare the customer satisfaction and customer loyalty of the original and new brand.
When performing a t-test the mean is used in order to determine whether there are
differences between groups (Djurfeldt, Larsson & Stjärnhagen 2010). If the t-test states
statistical significance at the chosen alpha level 0.05, which means that the t-test shows a
value below the alpha level, a difference between the groups can be proven. On the
contrary, if statistical insignificance is prevailing at the chosen alpha level, meaning that
the t-test shows a value above the alpha level, a difference between groups cannot be
supported (Djurfeldt, Larsson & Stjärnhagen 2010).
3.5Validity,Reliability,GeneralisabilityandTransferability
In order to argue for the robustness of the research, validity, reliability, generalisability
and transferability will be discussed. The transparency of the research will be
demonstrated through a developed presentation of the data selection, interpretation and
36
analysis. The transparency will set a foundation for the replicability, which is an
important element of the quantitative research (Bryman & Bell 2011). Moreover, the
ethical aspects of the research will be considered through the transparently formulated
research process (Bryman & Bell 2011).
The following paragraphs will consider the measurement for validity and reliability of
the research. The measurements will be performed through the PLS Algorithm, due to the
design of the software. The PLS Algorithm will be regarded for the measurements.
3.5.1Validity
Validity describes if the researchers are measuring what ought to be measured (Jacobsen
2002; Björklund & Paulsson 2012). In order to establish construct validity for the path
model, two validity methods will be applied; the convergent and discriminant validity
(Campbell & Fiske 1959; Castilla-Earls & Fulcher-Rood 2018).
The convergent and the discriminant validity will be concerned in order to discuss the
validity of the data retrieved from the statistical performance.
The convergent validity concerns how correlated the indicators are within the inner model
construct (Castilla-Earls & Fulcher- Rood 2018; Carlson & Herdman 2012; Wong 2013;
Hamid, Sami & Sidek 2017). The testing of the convergent validity can be performed in
SmartPLS (Garson 2016) and can be measured through the Average Variance Extracted
(AVE) (Hair et al 2012; Wong 2013). AVE is defining the level of variance of the variable
that is explained by the variance of the respectively related indicators (Garson 2016).
AVE should arguably stay above 0.5 (Garson 2016; Bagozzi & Yi 1988; Chin 1998). The
critical level of 0.5 implies that the variable should explain 50 percent of the variance of
respective indicator (Garson 2016).
The discriminant validity involves the question if the indicators of a variable are not rather
correlated with other variables (Castilla-Earls & Fulcher- Rood 2018; Carlson &
Herdman 2012). The discriminant validity is prevailing when the connection between the
indicator loadings related to the own variable is greater than the connection that the
indicator loadings have with other variables (Hair et al 2014).
When assessing the discriminant validity, the Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) is
37
argued to be a solid approach (Garson 2016; Henseler, Ringle & Sarstedt 2015).
The HTMT shows the ratio of the correlations of indicators across constructs, and the
correlation with indicators of the same construct (Henseler, Ringle & Sarstedt 2015). The
HTMT ratio received should stay below 1.0 (Garson 2016). The precise threshold for the
HTMT is debated (Garson 2016), although a value below 0.9 can imply that a
discriminant validity is occurring (Henseler, Ringle & Sarstedt 2015). Hence, the
threshold for the research will stay at the value of 0.90.
3.5.2Reliability
Reliability describes how well a method of measurement proves the same result, at
another time (Patel & Davidson 2011; Björklund & Paulsson 2012; Jacobsen 2002).
Hence, it measures the replication, consistency and transparency of the research
(Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016; Bryman & Bell 2011; Greener 2008; Hair et al.
2014).
In the statistical software, SmartPLS, the reliability can be tested through the
measurement of composite reliability.
In order to test the reliability, one can examine the internal consistency reliability of the
model. The internal consistency reliability measures the reliability of each outer model
construct (Hair et al. 2012). The composite reliability and Cronbach’s alpha are common
measurements for testing the internal consistency reliability of the reflective model
(Wong 2013; Bagozzi & Yi 1988). In PLS-based research, the composite reliability is
preferable, compared to Cronbach’s alpha, due to its higher and more accurate estimation
of reliability (Garson 2016; Wong 2013; Hair et al 2012; Hair et al. 2014). Hence, the
research will regard the composite reliability.
The values of the internal consistency reliability should stay at 0.70 or above (Wong
2013). The composite reliability can hold a number between 0 and 1, where 1 represents
a perfectly estimated reliability (Garson 2016). When conducting a confirmatory
research, involving test of hypotheses and relationships between variables, the composite
reliabilities are argued to be equal to or greater than approximately 0.70 (Bagozzi & Yi
2012). However, the minimum of 0.6 is occasionally accepted (Bagozzi & Yi 1988). If
the composite reliability is equal to or greater than 0.80, it is considerably good for the
38
research (Daskalakis & Mantas 2008).
3.5.3Generalisability
Generalisability can include the possibility to use the own findings in order to
demonstrate their significance and to test the existing theories (Saunders, Lewis &
Thornhill 2016).
Due to the chosen sampling method of convenience, the possibility for generalisation to
the population is limited. Conversely, the sample from the structured interviews is not
representative for the target population (Bryman & Bell 2011; Neuman 2011). This
implies that the data result and interpretation will provide restricted generalisability.
However, generalisability can be achieved if the alternative of cluster sampling method
is applied. Due to the restriction of the research, the alternative will not be realised and
therefore the sample will not generalise to the target population.
3.5.4Transferability
Transferability includes how well the description of the research process is provided to
the reader (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016). The transferability of the research will
be reached through a careful description of the research design, context and data findings,
which will be demonstrated throughout the study.
3.6Ethics
The ethics refer to the standardised behaviour towards the involved individuals,
throughout the research conducted. When designing and conducting the research, it is
necessary to adhere to the ethical principles and standards in order to avoid ethical conflict
(Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016; Bryman & Bell 2011). Ethics of the structured
interviews should be considered, where the statements articulated can raise several ethical
issues (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016).
When concerning the structured interviews, a few ethical principles entail privacy of
39
respondents, voluntary participation and the right to withdraw (Saunders, Lewis &
Thornhill 2016; Bryman & Bell 2011; Jacobsen 2002).
Privacy of the respondents involves respect for respondents, consent and maintaining
anonymity. The respondents of the research will not need to share personal information
with the researchers, due to the focus of the study.
The privacy, consent and anonymity of the employees and respondents will be respected
throughout the research. The employees of the companies will be informed about the
research and asked for permission for conducting the structured interviews. Hence, the
ethical criteria for informed consent will be achieved (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016;
Bryman & Bell 2011). The respect for the respondents’ anonymity will further enhance
the reliability of the data retrieved (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016).
The participation of the interviews is of free will, whereas the respondents will not be
persuaded or pressured into participation (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016).
Moreover, the respondents are provided with objectivity in the closed statements of the
structured interview. The five-point Likert scale offers the respondent to assume an
objective and neutral standpoint with the grade of three, to the statement at hand. The
provision of the objective standpoint will further increase the quality of the research,
through the avoidance of partiality to the statements and misrepresentation of the results
(Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016).
Voluntary participation offers the respondents the right to discontinue with the interview
when desired (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016). The researchers will not attempt to
extend the scope of participation if the respondent decides to withdraw from the
interview. Hence, this ethical principle will be unchallenged.
When conducting interviews which require a personal meeting with the respondents, the
time of day needs to be considered (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill 2016). The time of day
chosen for the interview should be convenient for the respondents. In the research, the
interviews will be performed at the company at a reasonable time of day.
The rights of the involved individuals and the ethical guidelines will be integrated in the
research. Simultaneously, the researcher’s will enhance the ethical standards for the
40
reputation of the study.
41
4. EmpiricalEvidence
The empirical evidence will present the relevant data results of the research. The chapter
introduces the results of the path coefficients and outer loadings, in order to determine
the path and relevance of the variables and indicators measured. This is followed by a
presentation of the excluded indicators. Moreover, the p-values will be presented for the
testing of paths as well as the T-test for the variables of customer satisfaction and
customer loyalty. In the end of the chapter, the results of the robustness measurements of
the research will be presented.
4.1PathCoefficients
The path model with the function of bootstrapping in SmartPLS will be considered and
is displayed in figure 3. The yellow rectangles of the path model represent the related
indicators while the blue circles stand for variables (Garson 2016). The figure is applied
due to the assumption that the bootstrapped model is valid to a greater extent, compared
to a model without the function applied (Westfall & Young 1993).
The path coefficients are displayed between the variables of the bootstrapping path model
(Garson 2016). Depicted in figure 3 in the bootstrapping model, the strongest path is
represented between the variables “Loyalty Statoil” and “Loyalty Circle K” with a path
of 0.750. Other strong paths are shown between “Satisfaction Statoil” and “Satisfaction
Circle K” as well as the “Rebranding” and “Mindset”.
On the contrary, the weakest path is detected between variables of “Satisfaction Circle
K” and “Loyalty Circle K”, with a path of 0.232. Other weak paths are displayed between
“Satisfaction Statoil” and Loyalty Statoil”, “Rebranding” and “Satisfaction Circle K” as
well as “Rebranding” and “Equity Circle K”.
The paths between “Loyalty Statoil” and “Equity Statoil” as well as “Loyalty Circle K”
and “Equity Circle K”, lie marginally below the threshold of 0.50. However, the paths
are nevertheless considered as moderate due to the minor difference.
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Figure 3: Bootstrapping Path model. Retrieved at SmartPLS.
4.2OuterLoadings
The outer loadings are also displayed in the path model in figure 3. The outer loadings of
the path model should preferably stay above 0.70, although at the threshold of 0.4 the
loadings are still considerably accepted (Garson 2016; Hair, Ringle and Sarstedt 2011;
Wong 2013; Hulland 1999). The outer loadings are displayed between the variable and
the related indicator (Garson 2016), in the bootstrapping model.
For the variable “Loyalty Statoil”, all the indicators have a value above 0.7, expect for
the statement 3c; My relationship to Statoil increased my loyalty to Statoil. The indicator
3c is nevertheless above 0.4. For the variable “Loyalty Circle K”, all the indicators have
satisfying values which lie above 0.7. For the variable “Rebranding”, indicators are
strongly correlated to the variable, with exception for indicator and statement 5b; I
perceive that my customer satisfaction level is unchanged after the rebranding. The
indicator lies marginally below 0.7, nevertheless above the critical value 0.4. The
“Mindset” displays pleasing values as well, which all lie above 0.7.
The variable “Equity Statoil” consists of two indicators, 4b and 4d. Statement 4b lies
above the value of 0.70, whereas statement 4d; I was aware of the brand Statoil lies
marginally below the threshold of 0.40.
For the “Equity Circle K”, statements 4c and 4e lie above the critical value 0.40.
43
However, statement 4e; I am aware of the brand Circle K lies below the value 0.70.
The variables with a single indicator possess a complete outer loading of 1 due to the
single statement representing the contribution to the related variable (Garson 2016). The
variables with a single indicator are “Satisfaction Statoil” and “Satisfaction Circle K”.
4.3ExcludedIndicators
Three out of twenty-six statements were removed from the path model, after conducting
the structured interviews. 4a; I do not favour the new brand name Circle K, 4f; I have
unfavourable associations to the brand Statoil, 4g; I have unfavourable associations to
the brand Circle K were the removed indicators.
Statement 4a was an excluded indicator due to its outer loading below the threshold of
0.40 and due to that the indicator does not have a supportive and matching statement with
similar meaning. As an example, statement 4g was excluded due to that the supportive
and matching statement 4f showed a negative outer loading. The statement 4g; I have
unfavourable associations to the brand Circle K, was removed due to its connection to
4f; I have unfavourable associations to the brand Statoil. The statements 4f and 4g are
built on the same formulation, with the difference in brand regarded. Due to the necessary
exclusion of statement 4f from the model, 4g needs to be removed as well in order for the
interview to have statements that concern both brands.
4.4P-valuesandHypothesisTesting
The p-values are received from the bootstrapping and are illustrated in table 1. The p-
values are compared to alpha level 0.05. If the p-values lie above the alpha level 0.05, the
relationship between two variables is insignificant (Wahlin 2015).
Table 1 shows that the p-values are low for all connections. The results show that all
connections are statistically significant at the alpha level 0.05.
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Table 1: P-values of paths. Retrieved model at SmartPLS.
Connection p-values
LoyaltyCircleK→EquityCircleK 0.000
LoyaltyStatoil→EquityStatoil 0.000
LoyaltyStatoil→LoyaltyCircleK 0.000
Rebranding→EquityCircleK 0.000
Rebranding→Mindset 0.000
Rebranding→SatisfactionCircleK 0.001
SatisfactionCircleK→LoyaltyCircleK 0.003
SatisfactionStatoil→LoyaltyStatoil 0.000
SatisfactionStatoil→SatisfactionCircleK 0.000
The result of the p-values will be utilised in the analysis, in order to confirm or reject the
hypotheses. A positive relationship between variables is confirmed if the p-value lies
below alpha level 0.05 and thereby shows significance.
4.5T-Test
The T-test for the variables “Satisfaction Statoil” and “Satisfaction Circle K”, as well as
“Loyalty Statoil” and “Loyalty Circle K” was performed. The results of the T-test are the
p-value which shows that difference in satisfaction of the brands is statistically significant
at alpha level 0.05. The mean of “Satisfaction Statoil” shows a higher value than of
“Satisfaction Circle K”.
Meanwhile, the p-value for loyalty of the brands show statistical insignificance at alpha
level 0.05. The mean for “Loyalty Statoil” is lower compared to “Loyalty Circle K”.
Table 2: T-test. Own construct.
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4.6Validity
4.6.1ConvergentValidity
For the convergent validity, the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) should stay above
0.50 (Garson 2016). Two variables “Satisfaction Circle K” and “Satisfaction Statoil”,
have an AVE value which lies at the highest achievable value of 1. The value is followed
by “Loyalty Circle K” and “Loyalty Statoil”, which both have an AVE at 0.70 and above.
Another high AVE value is displayed for the “Mindset”. The variables of brand equity
for both brands show AVE values above the threshold of 0.50. However, the variable
“Rebranding” displays a critical value marginally below the threshold of 0.50.
Table 3: AVE. Retrieved at SmartPLS.
Variable AverageVarianceExtracted(AVE)
EquityCircleK 0.587
EquityStatoil 0.553
LoyaltyCircleK 0.725
LoyaltyStatoil 0.700
Mindset 0.639
Rebranding 0.481
SatisfactionCircleK 1000
SatisfactionStatoil 1000
4.6.2DiscriminantValidity
For the discriminant validity, the Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) should lie below
0.9 (Garson 2016).
The results of each combination of variables is regarded. The results from the HTMT are
displayed in table 4. The first variable of the column is the “Equity Circle K”, which holds
acceptable HTMT values for each variable combined, in the rows, with exception for its
relationship with variable “Equity Statoil”. The relationship between “Equity Circle K”
and “Equity Statoil” shows the highest HTMT value with a value of 1.657.
The variable “Equity Statoil” has acceptable HTMT values in combination with the
variables in the rows.
“Loyalty Circle K” has acceptable HTMT values with other variables and has the highest
46
HTMT value in connection to “Loyalty Statoil, a value of 0.865. “Loyalty Statoil” possess
acceptable HTMT values with the remaining variables in the row and column.
The “Mindset” has acceptable HTMT values and the strongest relationship with the
variable “Rebranding” with a value of 0.815.
“Rebranding” has acceptable HTMT values with the remaining and connected variables.
Moreover, “Satisfaction Circle K” has acceptable HTMT values and the highest value in
connection to “Satisfaction Statoil” with a value of 0.686. “Satisfaction Statoil” has
acceptable HTMT values in combination to the remaining variables.
Table 4: HTMT. Retrieved at SmartPLS.
Variable EquityCircleK EquityStatoil LoyaltyCircleK LoyaltyStatoil Mindset Rebranding SatisfactionCircleK SatisfactionStatoil
EquityCircleK
EquityStatoil 1.657
LoyaltyCircleK 0.479 0.491
LoyaltyStatoil 0.360 0.585 0.865
Mindset 0.246 0.188 0.115 0.326
Rebranding 0.388 0.276 0.213 0.357 0.815
SatisfactionCircleK 0.602 0.516 0.334 0.114 0.371 0.461
SatisfactionStatoil 0.316 0.728 0.254 0.340 0.167 0.282 0.686
4.7Reliability
4.7.1InternalConsistencyReliability
For the internal consistency reliability, the composite reliability is displayed in table 5.
The value of 1 represents a perfectly estimated reliability and the value should
approximately lie between 0.7 and 1 (Garson 2016; Bagozzi & Yi 2012). The results in
table 5 show a perfectly estimated composite reliability for the two variables “Satisfaction
Circle K” and “Satisfaction Statoil”. The value of the variables is closely followed by
“Loyalty Circle K” and “Loyalty Statoil”, which possess values of 0.913 and 0.920
respectively. The values of “Mindset” and “Rebranding” are followed by the loyalty for
both brands. The “Mindset” holds a composite reliability value of 0.841, whereas the
“Rebranding” holds a value of 0.816. The lowest value of the composite reliability is held
by “Equity Circle K” and “Equity Statoil”, where “Equity Circle K” holds an acceptable
value of 0.712. However, “Equity Statoil” displays a value marginally below the
47
threshold of 0.70.
Table 5: Composite reliability. Retrieved at SmartPLS.
Variable CompositeReliability
EquityCircleK 0.712
EquityStatoil 0.669
LoyaltyCircleK 0.913
LoyaltyStatoil 0.920
Mindset 0.841
Rebranding 0.816
SatisfactionCircleK 1000
SatisfactionStatoil 1000
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49
5. Analysis
The chapter will cover the analysis of the data results received from the empirical
evidence, with the support from the theoretical framework. The data results will be further
investigated and explained. The chapter will introduce the reverse coding of the
statements and regard the results of the path coefficients, outer loadings, excluded
indicators, p-values and hypothesis testing as well as the T-test which will be analysed.
The measurements of validity and reliability will be regarded in the end of the chapter.
5.1ReverseCoding
All negative alluded statements of the structured interview were reverse coded in order
for the statements to be comparable. The coding for the statements 1a, 1b and 1c
concerning the customer mindset are reversed due to their negative allusion.
Statement 1b is negative alluded due to that Kapferer (2008) describes that the customers
can fear changes when rebranding. Rebranding can therefore result in negative
implications on the customer attitude towards the brand (Fombrun & Van Riel 2004;
Cornelissen 2011).
Statements 2b and 2c regarding loyalty are also negative alluded, which necessitates a
reverse coding. Furthermore, statements 4a, 4f and 4g are negative alluded due to their
formulations.
Statement 5a related to customer satisfaction and rebranding is reverse coded as well due
to the theory by Pilch (2007) who describes that a great differentiation, as a result of
rebranding, can result in changed customer satisfaction or experience. Differentiation can
in turn change the customer experience in an unfavourable manner for the company,
which points out the necessary execution of reverse coding.
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5.2PathCoefficients
The path coefficient between the variables ”Satisfaction Statoil” and ”Loyalty Statoil”
represent a value of 0.326 which indicates a low path due to that it lies below the threshold
of 0.5. A reason for the low path can be that “Satisfaction Statoil” only consists of a single
statement, 5d. A single indicator can be an insufficient measurement to explain a variable.
Therefore, the single indicator 5d is not explaining the variable “Satisfaction Statoil” well
enough. Due to the lack of sufficient measurement of “Satisfaction Statoil”, the path
between “Satisfaction Statoil” and “Loyalty Statoil” is weak.
The path between “Loyalty Statoil” and “Equity Statoil” shows a weak path of 0.451,
which lies marginally below the threshold of 0.50. The reason for the weak path can be
explained by that three indicators for brand equity were excluded from the path model.
The results of the two remaining indicators for each variable of the brand equity indicate
that the indicators are not sufficiently measuring the brand equity variables for the two
brands. Due to the necessary exclusion of indicators, all of the defined elements of brand
equity are not regarded in the path model. However, the path lies close to the threshold
of 0.50 and is therefore perceived as an acceptably strong path.
The path between “Satisfaction Circle K” and “Loyalty Circle K” shows an impact of
0.232, and the path is therefore weak. The result of the weak path coefficient between
satisfaction and loyalty of the new brand Circle K is perceived as unexpected due to the
theoretically supported research (Barnett, Jermier & Lafferty 2006; Osman 1993;
Bloemer & de Ruyter 1998; Anderson & Mittal 2000; Anderson 1996; Fornell 1992;
Gruca & Rego 2005) about the proven effect of satisfaction on loyalty. A reason for the
result can depend on that there is only one statement representing satisfaction of the brand
Circle K and therefore the satisfaction cannot measure the loyalty to a sufficient extent.
The path between “Satisfaction Circle K” and “Loyalty Circle K” is lower than the path
between “Satisfaction Statoil” and “Loyalty Statoil” due to that the level of satisfaction
decreased from the original brand to the new brand.
The path between “Loyalty Statoil” and “Loyalty Circle K” holds a value of 0.750, which
further indicates a strong and positive relationship. This can be explained by the several
51
indicators related to each variable, which makes the measurement sufficient. The strong
path between loyalty of the two brands indicate that the suggestions made by Thomson,
MacInnis and Park (2005) as well as Collange (2014), cannot be supported due to the
positive and even strong path between the loyalty of the original brand and loyalty of the
new brand. MacInnis and Park (2005) as well as Collange (2014) state that the attached
and committed customer to a brand, stay loyal to the same brand.
The path between the “Loyalty Circle K” and “Equity Circle K” holds a value of 0.457
and is perceived as weak. Nevertheless, the path between “Loyalty Circle K” and “Equity
Circle K” lies close to the threshold of 0.50 and is perceived as acceptably strong.
The acceptably strong path between “Loyalty Circle K” and “Equity Circle K” can be
supported by researchers’ suggestions (Aaker 1991; Aaker & Jacobsen 1994; Trust,
Zeithaml & Lemon 2000; Ou, Verhoef & Wiesel 2017; Torres, Augusto & Lisboa 2015;
Pappu, Quester & Cooksey 2006; Pappu & Quester 2016; Bolbâcâ et al. 2014; Asif et al.
2015) due to that the path is positive.
The impact of the variable “Satisfaction Statoil” on “Satisfaction Circle K” shows a great
path coefficient of 0.628, which is regarded as a strong path. Although the variables
consist of a single indicator, they are similar in their content. This can explain the strong
path between the variables. Hence, the level of standard deviation is well explained.
The influence of “Rebranding” on “Satisfaction Circle K” shows a weak path of 0.291,
which can also be explained by that “Satisfaction Circle K” only consists of one indicator.
Furthermore, the path still implies that the rebranding of Statoil has been positively
influencing on the satisfaction of Circle K, yet not to a great extent. The weak path
between “Rebranding” and “Satisfaction Circle K” could support Huang (2010), Pilch
(2007), Chaniago (2010), Bamfo, Dodge and Osei-Wusu’s (2018) about the lack of
impact of rebranding on satisfaction. Simultaneously, the suggestions by Plewa, Lu and
Veale (2011) as well as Stuart & Muzellec (2004) are also supported due to that the path
between “Rebranding” and “Satisfaction Circle K” is yet positive.
There is a difference in the path between “Rebranding” and “Satisfaction Circle K”, and
the path between “Satisfaction Statoil” and “Satisfaction Circle K”. The path between
“Satisfaction Statoil” and “Satisfaction Circle K” covers the customer satisfaction which
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regards customer expectations of the company performance (Johnson & Fornell 1991;
Fornell et al. 1996). However, the path between “Rebranding” and “Satisfaction Circle
K” concerns how the process of brand change influences on the customer expectations of
the performance.
The connection between “Rebranding” and “Equity Circle K” holds a path of 0.323,
which is perceived as weak. This can be explained by that “Equity Circle K” does not
cover all the elements of brand equity and that the variable “Rebranding” therefore cannot
explain the variable “Equity Circle K” well enough. The variable “Rebranding” is overall
well explained by its indicators, although the relationship between the variables would be
stronger if “Equity Circle K” possessed additional elements of brand equity. Moreover,
the suggestions by Muzellec & Lambkin (2006), Aaker (1991) as well as Roy and Sarker
(2015) about the negative path between “Rebranding” and “Equity Circle K” cannot be
supported, due to the positive yet weak connection between the variables.
The connection between “Rebranding” and the “Mindset” implies a strong path
coefficient, of 0.672. Hence, an explanation is that there are several indicators connected
to each variable and are therefore measuring the variables well. The strong path between
the variables implies that there is a positive relationship between them, which does not
support the researchers’ suggestions about the negative influence (Kapferer 2008;
Fombrun & Van Riel 2004; Cornelissen 2011; Aimé-Garnier & Roux 2006; Muzellec
and Lambkin 2006; Collange 2014).
5.3OuterLoadings
The outer loadings for “Satisfaction Statoil” and “Satisfaction Circle K” represent the
value of 1 due to that each of the variables only consist of one indicator.
The variable “Loyalty Statoil” consists partly of statements 2a; I was attached to Statoil,
2d; I was loyal to Statoil, 3a; I had a strong relationship to Statoil and 3e; I was a long-
term customer at Statoil, which all possess pleasing outer loadings. However, the related
statement of 3c; My relationship to Statoil increased my loyalty to Statoil, lies marginally
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below the preferable value 0.7. Yet, it is still seen as above the critical level of 0.4.
All outer loadings connected to the variable “Loyalty Circle K” show desirable values
above 0.70. The variable consists of the statements 2e; I am loyal to Circle K, 3b; I have
a strong relationship to Circle K, 3d; My relationship to Circle K increases my loyalty to
Circle K and 3f; I am a long-term customer at Circle K. This means that the correlation
between the indicators and the variable is strong and acceptable, and that the related
statements are explaining the loyalty of Circle K.
The variable “Equity Statoil” consist of two indicators, 4b; I favoured the quality of
Statoil and 4d; I was aware of the brand Statoil. Statement 4d lies marginally below the
critical and acceptable value of 0.4. The reason for the low value of 4d is due to that the
statement does not contribute enough to the variable “Equity Statoil”. The low value of
the statement indicates that the element brand awareness could be an insufficient
measurement of brand equity. However, the statement 4d lies close to the threshold of 0.4
and can therefore measure it to a certain extent. Statement 4d was not excluded from the
path model due to that the loss of the indicator is not perceived as negligible (Garson
2016).
On the other hand, statement 4b measures the brand equity sufficiently due to its value
above the preferable 0.7.
The variable “Equity Circle K” also consists of two indicators, 4c; I favour the quality of
Circle K and 4e; I am aware of the brand Circle K. Both statements lie above the threshold
of 0.4. Although statement 4c lies above the preferable value of 0.7, statement 4e lies
above the critical value. Statement 4c indicates that brand quality is measuring the brand
equity well. Furthermore, statement 4e indicates a sufficient measurement due to its value
above the threshold and contributes therefore to the variable “Equity Circle K”.
For the variable “Rebranding”, most indicators illustrate high outer loadings. However,
the outer loading of statement 5b lies marginally above the critical value of 0.4. This
indicates that 5b; I perceive that my customer satisfaction level is unchanged after the
rebranding, is not explaining the path between itself and the variable well enough. A
reason for the low outer loading of statement 5b is due to its similarity to statement 5c; I
perceive that the service and product quality is unchanged after the rebranding.
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Nevertheless, the difference lies in that statement 5b regards the customer satisfaction
while 5c regards service and product quality. The customer satisfaction is broader in its
definition and is influenced by the service and product quality (Adebanjo, Abbas & Mann
2010; McGaughey 2002; Chaniago 2016; Bolton & Drew 1991; Oliver 1996; Bamfo,
Dogde & Osei-Wusu 2018). The respondents could have perceived statement 5b as
extensive, while statement 5c is perceived as more accurate and well defined.
Considering the last variable, the “Mindset”, with its several indicators holds outer
loading values above the preferable value of 0.7. The variable “Mindset” consists of
statements 1a; I expected overall deterioration in service and product quality,
environment and atmosphere, 1b; My mindset about the company has changed, in
connection to rebranding, and 1c; I evaluate the company unfavourably after the
rebranding. The indicator’s outer loadings imply that the statements related to the
“Mindset” have a strong relationship to the variable. Furthermore, the results imply that
the variable has been measured by the connected indicators, which are helping to explain
the variable.
5.3.1ExcludedIndicators
Indicators 4a; I do not favour the new brand name Circle K, 4f; I have unfavourable
associations to the brand Statoil and 4g; I have unfavourable associations to the brand
Circle K were excluded from the path model. Statement 4a was an excluded indicator due
to its outer loading which lies substantially below the threshold of 0.40 and due to that
the indicator does not have a supportive and matching statement with a similar meaning.
A reason for the low outer loading of statement 4a is due to that the respondents show a
lack of strong perception about the new brand name.
Furthermore, statement 4g was excluded due to that the supportive and matching
statement 4f showed a negative outer loading.
The definition of brand equity by Kaikati and Kaikati (2003) propose that the brand name,
brand loyalty, perceived brand quality and brand associations are important elements of
the brand equity. The negative outer loading for statement 4f shows that brand
associations, defined by Kaikati and Kaikati (2003) as well as Aaker (1991), is potentially
not a sufficient measurement of brand equity for Statoil.
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The statement 4g; I have unfavourable associations to the brand Circle K, was removed
due to its connection to 4f; I have unfavourable associations to the brand Statoil. The
statements 4f and 4g are built on the same formulation, with the difference in brand
regarded. Due to the necessary exclusion of statement 4f from the model, 4g needs to be
removed as well in order for the interview to have statements that concern both brands.
5.4P-valuesandHypothesisTesting
The results in table 1 show that the p-values for each connection between the variables
measured are low. In turn, the results imply that the positive relationships between the
variables measured are statistically significant, hence confirmed.
However, the negative alluded formulation of hypotheses 1, 2 and 3 in the theoretical
framework implies the need to consider the formulation in order to confirm or reject the
hypotheses.
The hypothesis 1; Rebranding affects the mindset of the customer negatively, is negative
alluded. Table 1 shows that the positive relationship between “Rebranding” and
“Mindset” is statistically significant at alpha level 0.05, due to the low p-value. Due to
the negative alluded hypothesis 1, the negative relationship between rebranding and
mindset is statistically insignificant and therefore the hypothesis 1 cannot be confirmed.
The lack of statistical support for hypothesis 1 results into a rejection of the hypothesis.
Hypothesis 1 is therefore rejected.
The rejection of hypothesis 1 implies that Kapferer’s (2008) suggestion regarding
customer fear of changes, as well as Fombrun and Van Riel’s (2004) and Cornelissen’s
(2011) stated negative influence of rebranding, cannot be confirmed to prevail in the case.
Furthermore, the suggestion made by Aimé-Garnier and Roux (2006), Muzellec and
Lambkin (2006) as well as Collange (2014) regarding that rebranding can negatively
influence on the customer evaluation of the company, cannot be confirmed either.
The path between the variables “Loyalty Statoil” and “Loyalty Circle K” has a p-value of
0.000, which lies below the alpha level 0.05. This implies that the positive relationship
between the variables is statistically significant. Hypothesis 2; The strong customer
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attachment and relationship to the original brand affects the customer loyalty to the new
brand negatively, is negative alluded and therefore the relationship cannot be confirmed.
Hence, hypothesis 2 is rejected. The rejection of hypothesis 2 does not support Collange’s
(2014) as well as Thomson, MacInnis and Park’s (2005) suggestions about the negative
effect of attachment and relationship to the original brand, on the loyalty to the new brand.
Hence, there is no support for the negative connection between the attachment and
relationship to the original brand, on the loyalty to the new brand.
Variables “Rebranding” and “Equity Circle K” are positively related in table 1, and the
relationship is statistically significant at the alpha level 0.05.
However, hypothesis 3; Rebranding influences brand equity negatively, is negative
alluded. Due to that the positive path between rebranding and brand equity is statistically
significant at alpha level 0.05, the negative alluded hypothesis could not be confirmed.
The hypothesis 3 is therefore rejected.
The rejection of hypothesis 3 can support Muzellec and Lambkin’s (2006) theory that
rebranding can replace negative associations and images of the brand with positive
images. As the brand awareness is the initial recognition of the brand name, the brand
associations is the second step of recognition (Rockute, Minelgaite, Zailskaite-Jakste &
Damasevicius 2018). The rejection supports therefore that the rebranding has not resulted
in negative influence on brand equity and that the rebranding has been approved of, by
the customers (Muzellec & Lambkin 2006). Furthermore, the rejection of hypothesis 3
does not support Aaker’s (1991) theory that rebranding can affect the brand value
negatively.
Hypothesis 4; Rebranding can affect customer satisfaction positively, consists of a
positive alluded formulation. The positive connection between “Rebranding” and
“Satisfaction Circle K” is statistically significant due to the low p-value. The connection
is therefore confirmed and hypothesis 4 is correspondingly confirmed. The confirmation
of the hypothesis supports Plewa, Lu and Veale’s (2011) suggestion about the positive
connection. The confirmed hypothesis can indicate that the communication of the
rebranding was successfully carried out, as according to Stuart and Muzellec (2004).
The relationship between customer satisfaction and loyalty of both brands is statistically
significant, due to the low p-value retrieved. Therefore, the positive relationship between
the variables is confirmed. The positive alluded formulation of hypothesis 5; Customer
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satisfaction influences customer loyalty positively, implies that there is statistical
significance for the connection. Hence, hypothesis 5 is confirmed.
The confirmation stands in agreement to Faullant (2007) and Boslau’s (2009) suggestion
that the satisfied customer will be loyal to the brand. Moreover, the confirmation supports
other researchers’ proposals (Barnett, Jermier & Lafferty 2006; Osman 1993; Bloemer &
de Ruyter 1998; Anderson & Mittal 2000; Anderson 1996; Fornell 1992; Gruca & Rego
2005), which also imply that customer satisfaction results into great customer loyalty.
The positive relationship between loyalty and equity, for both brands, shows statistical
significance at the alpha level 0.05. Hence, the relationship is confirmed and the positive
alluded hypothesis 6; Customer loyalty affects brand equity positively, is confirmed. The
confirmation of hypothesis 6 supports therefore Torres, Augusto and Lisboa’s (2015)
proposal, as well as researchers Bobâlcâ et al. (2014) and Asif et al.’s (2015) suggestions
about loyalty strongly influencing on brand equity.
5.5T-Test
The T-test shows that the difference between “Satisfaction Statoil” and “Satisfaction
Circle K” is statistically significant at alpha level 0.05, which in turn indicates that there
is a difference in the results between the original and the new brand. Furthermore, the
mean confirms that the satisfaction for Circle K decreased compared to the satisfaction
towards Statoil. An explanation for the decreased level of customer satisfaction from the
original to the new brand is that customer satisfaction can be perceived as a changeable
and short-term fulfilment. Potentially, the expectations for the new brand were raised and
not responded to, which in turn resulted in a decreased customer satisfaction of Circle K.
Another reason for the decreased customer satisfaction of the new brand can be explained
by the recent implementation of the rebranding. The customers might not have managed
to develop their customer satisfaction to the new brand, to the same extent. Eventually,
customers need time to develop their perception about their customer satisfaction a few
additional years after the rebranding.
The T-test for loyalty of the brands illustrates that the difference between the original and
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new brand is statistically insignificant at alpha level 0.05, which in turn indicates that the
difference in the results between the brands cannot be proven. Although the means in
table 2 show that loyalty marginally increased to Circle K, the increase cannot be proven
due to the statistical insignificance at alpha level 0.05. Hence, the results show that there
is no difference in loyalty between the original and the new brand. An explanation to the
results is that the customer loyalty can be perceived as a long-term relationship to the
brand. If the customer expectations are not responded to in one aspect of the customer
experience, the customer can still remain loyal to the brand of reasons such as feeling a
strong relationship to the brand.
5.6Validity
5.6.1ConvergentValidity
The results received from the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) show overall
acceptable values for each variable. However, the “Rebranding” is marginally below the
critical value of 0.5. The result implies that the variable is not explained to a great extent
by the variance in its related indicators. An explanation to the low AVE value of
“Rebranding” is that the indicators are also related to loyalty and satisfaction.
Nevertheless, the variable “Rebranding” is yet explained by its indicators due to that the
value lies close to the threshold.
5.6.2DiscriminantValidity
The Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) results show an acceptable discriminant
validity, with the exception for the combination of “Equity Statoil” with “Equity Circle
K”. The connection lies above the threshold of 0.9 and is therefore not acceptable. The
discriminant validity is not prevailing to a great extent for the connection.
The lack of discriminant validity is explained by that the indicators of the variables are
rather related to other variables than to its own variable. The indicators of the variable
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“Equity Statoil” are rather related to “Equity Circle K” than to its own variable, and
conversely. The results show that the two variables of brand equity possess indicators that
are similar in their formulations, which explains the high HTMT value. Furthermore, this
confirms that “Equity Statoil” and “Equity Circle K” measure the two elements of brand
equity in the same manner.
5.7Reliability
5.7.1InternalConsistencyReliability
The composite reliability of each variable is acceptable and above the preferable value of
0.7, with exception for “Equity Statoil” which lies marginally below the value of 0.7.
Nevertheless, the internal consistency reliability for “Equity Statoil” is above the critical
value of 0.6 (Bagozzi & Yi 1988). An explanation for the marginally lower internal
consistency reliability for the two variables related to brand equity is due to that brand
equity consists of several elements defined in the theoretical framework, although merely
two elements of brand equity can be investigated in the research. Simultaneously, the
internal consistency reliability of “Equity Statoil” and “Equity Circle K” are yet above
the critical value 0.6.
The internal consistency reliability is prevailing for all the outer model constructs of the
study. The results imply that the indicators for all variables, are reliable.
For the customer satisfaction of both brands, the internal consistency reliability shows a
value of 1. The explanation for the value of 1 depends on the single indicators connected
to the variables of the brands. Therefore, the results of each outer model constructs for
the two variables show perfect internal consistency reliability.
The variables “Loyalty Statoil” and “Loyalty Circle K” show high composite reliability
due to the several indicators related to each variable. The indicators have in turn high
outer loadings. The variable “Loyalty Statoil” has a greater composite reliability than
“Loyalty Circle K”, despite that one indicator has an outer loading value below the
preferable value 0.7. However, an explanation for the higher composite reliability of
“Loyalty Statoil” can be the additional indicator explaining the variable, and in turn the
reliability of the outer model construct better.
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Furthermore, the variables “Mindset” and “Rebranding” show preferable internal
consistency reliability. Although “Rebranding” shows low convergent validity, the
internal consistency reliability implies that the outer model construct can show the same
results when replicating the study.
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6. Discussion
The chapter consists of a further discussion of the data analyses in the research. The path
coefficients, p-values and hypothesis testing as well as the T-test will be discussed in the
chapter. Furthermore, the literature will be discussed in the sections.
6.1PathCoefficients
The analysis shows that merely three out of nine path coefficients are strong.
The three paths between “Satisfaction Statoil” and “Satisfaction Circle K”, “Loyalty
Statoil” and “Loyalty Circle K” as well as “Rebranding” and “Mindset”, indicate strong
connections. The explanation for the strong paths can be that the indicators of the
variables are similar and strongly related to each other, with the difference in brand. As
an example, statement 5d; I was satisfied with Statoil, of variable “Satisfaction Statoil”,
shows strong similarity to the statement 5e; I am satisfied with Circle K, of the
“Satisfaction Circle K”, where the difference lies in the brand. Therefore, the variables
correlate well and therefore show strong paths.
The remaining paths are weak due to that the variable connected to another variable
possesses one or two indicators, which is not sufficiently measuring the path. One or two
indicators cannot explain the inner and outer model construct well enough.
6.2P-valuesandHypothesisTesting
For the hypothesis testing, three out of six theoretically based hypotheses are confirmed.
This leaves three out of six hypotheses which are rejected.
Hypothesis 1 concerning the mindset in relation to the rebranding was rejected due to that
there was no negative effect of rebranding on the customer mindset and therefore the
evaluation of the company. According to Kapferer (2008), Fombrun and Van Riel (2004)
as well as Cornelissen (2011), the negative influence of rebranding on the mindset can
follow from fear of changes.
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However, the results show that the suggestions by the authors cannot be confirmed in the
research. This indicates that the customers of Circle K did not perceive any fear of brand
changes. The evaluation of the company has not been negatively influenced from the
rebranding either, which does not support the research by Aimé-Garnier and Roux (2006),
Muzellec and Lambkin (2006) as well as Collange (2014). Hypotheses 1 implies that the
rebranding was implemented in a favourable way, which can indicate that the
communication of the brand was successfully carried out.
Moreover, the rejected hypothesis 2 proves that, in the case of Circle K, there is no
negative connection between attachment and relationship of the original brand and the
customer loyalty of the new brand. The suggestions by Collange (2014) as well as
Thomson, MacInnis and Park (2005) cannot be confirmed. The rejection of hypothesis 2
proves that the attachment and relationship to the original brand does not indicate a
negative effect on customer loyalty of the new brand. Hence, the negative influence from
the original brand on the new brand is not proven to occur.
Hypothesis 3 was rejected due to that the hypothesis was negative alluded and that the
negative relationship could not be confirmed. Nevertheless, the variables of brand equity
did not include all the definitions and indicators for brand equity. If other definitions and
thereby indicators of brand equity were regarded for the variables “Equity Statoil” and
“Equity Circle K”, the results could have differed.
The rejection of hypothesis 3 results into the lack of support for Aaker (1991), Muzellec
and Lambkin (2006) as well as Roy and Sarkar’s (2015) suggestions about the negative
effect of rebranding on the brand equity.
Furthermore, the path between “Equity Statoil” and “Equity Circle K” should be further
investigated in order to compare the brand equity of the original and new brand.
On the other hand, hypothesis 4 confirms the positive relationship between rebranding
and customer satisfaction. Moreover, the respondents felt overall satisfied with both
brands. The positive connection is supporting Plewa, Lu and Veale’s (2011) suggestion
and also indicates that the rebranding of Circle K was successfully implemented (Stuart
& Muzellec 2004), which in turn implies that the brand communication was successfully
carried out to the customers.
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In turn, hypothesis 5 confirms the positive connection between customer satisfaction and
customer loyalty. This implies that the more satisfied the customer is, the greater is the
customer loyalty. Furthermore, this confirms the researchers’ suggestions about the
positive connection between the customer satisfaction and loyalty (Faullant 2007; Boslau
2009; Barnett, Jermier & Lafferty 2006; Osman 1993; Bloemer & de Ruyter 1998;
Anderson & Mittal 2000; Anderson 1996; Fornell 1992; Gruca & Rego 2005). The
connection between satisfaction and loyalty is well defined and the results shows a
supportive link that has been explored well by researchers.
Hypothesis 6 is also confirmed, where the customer loyalty is proven to affect the brand
equity positively. This means that if the customers are loyal, they will value the quality
of the brand and become more aware of the brand. The result supports Torres, Augusto
and Lisboa’s (2015) suggestion about the loyalty influencing the brand equity. Moreover,
Aaker (1991), Pappu, Quester and Cooksey (2006), Pappu and Quester (2016), Kaikati
and Kaikati (2003) imply that the brand equity is formed by the brand awareness, brand
associations, brand loyalty, perceived quality and brand name. However, due to the
exclusion of the statements concerning the brand associations and value of brand name,
the perceived quality as well as the brand awareness are the two measurements of the
brand equity in the research.
6.3T-test
The results from the t-test show that the difference in customer satisfaction of the original
and new brand is statistically significant at alpha level 0.05. The means in table 2 show
that customer satisfaction of Circle K decreased compared to customer satisfaction of
Statoil. A difference between the customer satisfaction of the original and new brand can
therefore be concluded to prevail. Furthermore, the t-test can support hypothesis 4, which
confirms a positive relationship between rebranding and customer satisfaction.
The positive relationship between rebranding and customer satisfaction of Circle K is
supported by the t-test through the positive path between satisfaction of Statoil and
satisfaction of Circle K. Although the customer satisfaction decreased for Circle K
compared to customer satisfaction for Statoil, the means in table 2 illustrate that the
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customer satisfaction lies on a high level, above 4 out of 5, on the Likert scale.
The t-test shows that the difference in loyalty for both brands is statistically insignificant
at alpha level 0.05, which means that there is no proven difference between the original
and the new brand. This can be supported by hypothesis 2 which was rejected. The lack
of proven difference between the original and the new brand according to the t-test
supports the rejection of hypothesis 2. Therefore, the results from the t-test supports the
findings from the hypothesis testing on hypothesis 2 that there cannot be a negative effect
from the attachment and relationship to the original brand on the loyalty to the new brand.
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7. Conclusion
The chapter will present the main objective of the research as well as the conclusions
drawn from the data results, analysis and discussion. A contribution to the study will also
be presented. In the end of the chapter, proposals for further research are suggested.
7.1ResearchQuestions
The investigation of customer satisfaction, customer mindset and brand equity from the
aspect of rebranding, following acquisition, is the main objective of the research. The
challenges related to rebranding are occasionally inevitable (Muzellec & Lambkin 2006)
and a developed understanding of the challenges and risks are therefore required.
Moreover, the relationship between customer satisfaction, customer loyalty and brand
equity is examined.
The rebranding is the process of selecting and establishing a new brand (Merrilees &
Miller 2008), which was one of the concepts investigated in the research. Furthermore,
customer satisfaction and customer loyalty of each established brand are investigated in
the study.
7.1.1TheEffectsofRebranding
Concerning the concept of customer mindset, which consists of customer attitude and
company evaluation, is that customer mindset has not been negatively affected from the
rebranding. Consequently, the customers did not develop a negative attitude towards the
new brand and did not fear the changes that would follow from the rebranding (Kapferer
2008). Although, the announcement of the rebranding of Statoil raised reactions on social
media (Söderholm 2015), the research proves that the customers did not develop a
negative mindset towards the rebranding after all.
The lack of the negative proven effect of rebranding on the customer mindset indicates
therefore that the brand communication of Circle K was successful. To interpret it further,
the successful communication of the new brand proves that the customers were
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accustomed to the changes and were therefore not surprised by the rebranding. The
process of rebranding was initially implemented in 2016 and will be completed in 2018
or 2019 (Circle K 2015b), which gives the customers time to adjust to the changes.
According to Circle K, the new brand developed a range of products and services (Circle
K 2018a) in order to improve the customer attitude towards the brand. The findings
indicate that Circle K did maintain or even improve their product and service quality,
atmosphere and environment of the stores. The findings of the connection between
rebranding and customer mindset prove a different outcome compared to the literature,
which can indicate that a further investigation of the relationship is needed in order to
support the theories.
The relationship between rebranding and customer satisfaction is proven to be positive.
The process of rebranding shows a positive path related to customer satisfaction which
further indicates that the communication to the customers was successfully carried out.
The literature supports the positive relationship between rebranding and customer
satisfaction. The findings concerning the relationship between rebranding and customer
satisfaction prove that the product and service quality of the new brand is maintained or
even improved at the company (Circle K 2018a; Circle K 2017). A reason for the positive
relationship is that the customers are satisfied with the new brand due to that the company
managed to offer the same or improved product and service quality. The findings indicate
that the company did invest in the product and service offerings in order to meet the
customer expectations. Furthermore, the findings can support Pilch’s (2007) claim that
customer experience should remain unchanged unless the rebranding establishes a
considerable differentiation. Eventually, the rebranding of Statoil resulted into a
considerable differentiation where the product and services were improved as according
to the company. This could have resulted in the positive connection between rebranding
and customer satisfaction. On the other hand, Pilch’s (2007) claim can also be supported
by the findings about customer experience and satisfaction remaining unchanged, due to
the lack of the company’s establishment of a great differentiation. This would indicate
that the product and service quality remained the same. Further on, this could also have
resulted in the positive connection between rebranding and customer satisfaction.
The findings prove that there is no negative effect of rebranding on brand equity.
Furthermore, the findings indicate that the customers approved of the rebranding and did
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not change their perception of the brand quality in an unfavourable manner. The customer
approval further implies that the company maintained or even improved their product and
service quality. The brand awareness was neither negatively affected by rebranding,
which indicates that a successfully communication to the customers and of the rebranding
was accomplished. Moreover, the customers became aware of the brand change through
the brand communication. The brand communication was successfully accomplished
through the great investments on the brand as well as through the communication on
social media, in order to reach the customers and establish brand awareness. The brand
awareness was further established through the investments on changing the flags and
signboards all over the country (Circle K 2017; Circle K 2018a; Andersson 2015). The
combination of strategically communicating through social media as well as
implementing brand changes could have increased the customers’ brand awareness.
Furthermore, the positive relationship between customer satisfaction and customer
loyalty is proven to prevail. The findings imply that the more satisfied the customer is,
the greater is the customer loyalty to the brand. Therefore, repeated satisfying customer
experience will evolve in repurchasing and thereby increased customer loyalty (Faullant
2007; Boslau 2009). The satisfied customer feels that the expectations towards the brand
and the company offerings are met and therefore shows greater loyalty, which motivates
a long-term commitment to the brand. Moreover, the relationship between customer
satisfaction and customer loyalty is common in the literature and is greatly supported by
other researchers (Johnson & Fornell 1991; Fornell et al. 1996; Heskett et al. 1994;
Liljander and Strandvik 2011; Bove and Johnson 2001; Oliver 1999).
Finally, the supported and positive relationship between customer loyalty and brand
equity is prevailing as well. If the customer is loyal and feels a long-term commitment to
the brand, the customer will become aware of the brand as well as value the brand quality
to a greater extent. Other elements of the brand equity, such as value of the brand name
and brand associations, were not applied in the research due to the necessary exclusion
of the corresponding indicators. The exclusion indicates that other elements are suggested
to be considered and developed in order to test the relationship between customer loyalty
and brand equity further.
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Conclusively, the rebranding does not affect customer mindset and brand equity in a
negative manner. The customer attitude and company evaluation as well at the brand
awareness and brand quality do not correlate negatively to the rebranding itself.
Furthermore, customer satisfaction is positively influenced by rebranding. The findings
support that the satisfied customer feels that the customer expectations are met, in
connection to rebranding. Overall and according to the findings, the rebranding of Statoil
did not have negative effects on the concepts in the research. However, the effects of
rebranding should not be neglected due to its influence on the brand identity and
reputation (Muzellec & Lambkin 2006).
7.1.2DoCustomerSatisfactionandLoyaltyChangebetweenTheOldand
TheNewBrand?
The findings show that the customer satisfaction of the new brand decreased compared
to the original brand, which indicates that the customer of Circle K is satisfied to a less
extent compared to Statoil. Although, the customers are still satisfied with both brands.
The decrease of the customer satisfaction of the new brand can be explained by the short
term and changeable fulfilment of customer satisfaction. Furthermore, the decrease of
customer satisfaction of the new brand can be explained by the recent implementation of
rebranding and that the customers did not manage to develop their customer satisfaction
to a satisfying extent.
Meanwhile, the difference in customer loyalty between the original and new brand is not
supported. An explanation is that customer loyalty can be described as a long-term
commitment to a brand (Liljander & Strandvik 2011; Bove & Johnson 2001; Mattila
2001; Collange 2014; Thomson, MacInnis & Park 2005; Yi et al. 2018; Fredorikhin, Park
& Thomson 2008; Hwang & Kamndampully 2012). While customer satisfaction can be
a rather short term fulfilment of the customer needs, the customer loyalty is a sustainable,
long-lasting and long term devotion to the brand. Customer satisfaction can be seen as a
temporarily solution in matter of meeting the customer needs (Westbrook & Oliver 1991).
On the other hand, customer loyalty can occasionally need great investment and require
time to build. Conversely, the unsatisfied customer of a product or service can still remain
loyal to the brand through the commitment that the customer feels to the brand. However,
repeated unsatisfying purchases can lead to customer dissatisfaction and disloyalty
69
(Oliva, Oliver & McMillan 1992).
The findings show that customer loyalty to the company remains unchanged due to the
commitment that the customers feel to the company. The unchanged customer loyalty
indicates that Statoil invested in establishing a long-term relationship and attachment to
the customers, which now the new brand Circle K can benefit from. Furthermore, the
unaffected customer loyalty of the company proves that the brand communication was
successfully carried out to the customers. Through the successful brand communication,
the company managed to reflect their brand image and values well (Smith & Zook 2016).
Conclusively, the comparison between customer satisfaction of the original and the new
brand shows that customer satisfaction of Circle K decreased due to the potential changes
in the products and services offered, which reflect a short-term fulfilment. However, there
were no differences in customer loyalty between the brands. The reason for the unaffected
customer loyalty is due to that the customers were loyal to Statoil and transmitted the
loyalty to the new brand.
7.2ContributionoftheStudy
The objective of the study is to investigate the relationship between rebranding, customer
mindset, customer satisfaction, customer loyalty and brand equity. The path model in the
research can be used in order to evaluate the effects of rebranding by estimating the
strength of the paths.
The contribution of the study is to present the distinguished definition of rebranding
compared to each established brand.
The customer mindset, in connection to rebranding, has not been explored to a great
extent. The customer mindset is therefore investigated closely in the research. Existing
research indicates a negative correlation between rebranding and the customer mindset.
On the contrary, the research shows a strong relationship between rebranding and
customer mindset. The positive relationship indicates that companies should focus on the
customer perception, attitude and evaluation when rebranding. If the customers evaluate
the company favourably, the customers will contribute to profitability and thereby to
70
company success.
The not extensively explored concept of customer mindset, in connection to rebranding,
is presented in order to investigate the customer perception of rebranding. The customer
perception of rebranding, in acquisition context, is essential for companies to distinguish
how well the firm is communicating the rebranding to the customers. According to the
findings, the customers did not perceive the rebranding negatively in the research.
Moreover, the positive relationship between rebranding and customer mindset in the
research indicates that the brand communication to the customers was successfully
carried out. Hence, the opportunity to realise new strategic positions and accomplish
differentiation as well as improvements (Smith & Zook 2016; Kapferer 1995; Keller
2002; Muzellec & Lambkin 2006, 2008; Koch 2014), is a possibility through rebranding.
Rebranding could in long term be a beneficial solution in acquisition context.
Another contribution of the study is for Circle K to utilise the study to determine their
success with rebranding, retrospectively. In the research, customer mindset, customer
satisfaction and brand equity were not negatively affected by the rebranding.
Further on, the company should focus on increasing the customer satisfaction due to its
decrease of the new brand. Although the customer loyalty was maintained, there is a
possibility to improve the loyalty further.
7.3ProposalforFutureResearch
Future studies are suggested to further broaden and investigate the concept of the mindset
in the context of rebranding, in order to extend the current literature. This can be
accomplished by developing the definition of the concept in the context of rebranding as
well as conducting further research about the relationship between rebranding and
customer mindset.
The connection between brand equity of the original and the new brand should
additionally be investigated. This connection was not investigated in the research due to
the time limitation and the several elements of brand equity which needed to be
considered. However, other studies are suggested to examine the relationship.
Moreover, other researchers are suggested to replicate the study and apply the mentioned
71
proposals, a few years after the implementation of the rebranding. This should be
accomplished in order for customer mindset, customer satisfaction, customer loyalty and
brand quality of the new brand, to develop even further.
Future studies are also recommended to eventually collect a register of the customers that
are members of the company, in order to be able to conduct a probability sampling
method. The method will enable generalisation of the results to the population, through
the sample.
72
73
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9. Appendix
9.1StructuredInterview
StructuredInterviewStatements
Mindset
1a.Iexpectedoveralldeteriorationinserviceandproductquality,
environmentandatmosphere,inconnectiontotherebranding
1b.Mymindsetaboutthecompanyhaschanged,inconnectiontotherebranding
1c.Ievaluatethecompanyunfavourablyaftertherebranding
AttachmentandLoyalty
2a.IwasattachedtoStatoil
2b.MyattachmenttoStatoildecreasedmypurchaseintentionatCircleK
2c.IfeltreluctanttotherebrandingofStatoil
2d.IwasloyaltoStatoil
2e.IamloyaltoCircleK
RelationshipsandLoyalty
3a.IhadastrongrelationshiptoStatoil
3b.IhaveastrongrelationshiptoCircleK
3c.MyrelationshiptoStatoilincreasedmyloyaltytoStatoil
3d.MyrelationshiptoCircleKincreasesmyloyaltytoCircleK
3e.Iwasalong-termcustomeratStatoil
3f.Iamalong-termcustomeratCircleK
BrandEquity
4a.Idonotfavourthenewbrandname,CircleK
4b.IfavouredthequalityofStatoil
4c.IfavourthequalityofCircleK
4d.IwasawareofthebrandStatoil
4e.IamawareofthebrandCircleK
4f.IhaveunfavourableassociationstothebrandStatoil
4g.IhaveunfavourableassociationstothebrandCircleK
Satisfaction
5a.Iperceiveoveralldifferencesinproductsandservicesfromtherebranding
5b.Iperceivethatmycustomersatisfactionlevelisunchangedaftertherebranding
5c.Iperceivethattheserviceandproductqualityisunchangedaftertherebranding
5d.IwassatisfiedwithStatoil
5e.IamsatisfiedwithCircle