REGIONAL CHALLENGES OF SOFT SECURITY – THEORY AND PRACTICE

J. MartinLecture materials

The EEB is a federation of more than 140 environmental citizens’ organisations based in all EU Member States and most Accession Countries, as well as in a few neighbouring countries. These organisations range from

local and national, to European and international. The aim of the EEB is to protect and improve the environment of Europe and to enable the citizens of Europe to play their part in achieving that goal.

REGIONAL CHALLENGES OF SOFT SECURITY – THEORY AND PRACTICE

J. MartinLecture materials

The EEB is a federation of more than 140 environmental citizens’ organisations based in all EU Member States and most Accession Countries, as well as in a few neighbouring countries. These organisations range from

local and national, to European and international. The aim of the EEB is to protect and improve the environment of Europe and to enable the citizens of Europe to play their part in achieving that goal.

AGRICULTURE

• Through the formation of the Agriculture Working Group, the EEB has created a unique place where environmentalists from across the continent can discuss agriculture and forestry issues from their different perspectives. Representatives of organisations from 11 EU Member States, as well as a number of international organisations, such as Birdlife International and WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature) come together within the group to co-ordinate national pressure to green the EU’s agricultural policy.

AGRICULTUREThe EEB is continuing to be heavily involved in

preparing for the mid-term review of the Common Agriculture Policy (CAP) reform, which will take place in 2003. Since its implementation, the CAP of the EU has been partly responsible for tremendous environmental problems, and has contributed to the depletion of biodiversity. Policies to promote production further are still strongly in evidence, and continue to put pressure on the environment. Incentives to encourage more sound environmental management of agricultural land do exist and work, but funds for such measures are very small compared to those for production and markets. In addition, some green incentives are optional for member states. During the mid-term review, the EEB will push for a shift in support from intensive production to environmentally friendly farming, embedded in a sustainable rural development policy.

AGRICULTURE

• There is a growing interest to stop or suspend the use of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) in agriculture. The EEB is being expected to provide co-ordination and leadership in this field, and aims to prevent any risk of GMOs negatively affecting biodiversity and food quality both inside Europe and in other parts of the world.

AGRICULTURE• Set the stage for a further reform of the CAP agenda in

the mid-term review of Agenda 2000. A new CAP should include environmental, as well as social, regional, and international interests, and focus on food safety, security, and diversity. In particular the mid-term review should lead to: – a widespread sense of urgency in the EU for a

fundamental reform of the CAP; – compulsory environmental conditions to all CAP-

payments according to a set of general guidelines for good agricultural practice to be developed by the Commission;

– a marked shift in EU-funding from production to landscape and nature protection, resulting in earmarking of 10% of the CAP budget for agri-environmental measures by 2004 (current share is 3%, not formally earmarked).

AIR POLLUTION

• Burning fuel releases many toxins which are harmful to the environment and human health. It is estimated that, globally, some 800,000 deaths per year are due to air pollution, with 80% of these deaths occurring in developing countries.

AIR POLLUTION

• In recent decades, much has been done to reduce air pollution in the industrialised parts of the world, particularly through use of improved technological standards. In Europe, for example, emissions of sulphur dioxide have been significantly reduced, and emissions of nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds and ammonia are also beginning to decline. Abatement efforts must continue, however, in order to counter factors such as greater industrial production, weak or un-enforced regulation, and increases in the number and annual mileage of cars on the road.

AIR POLLUTION

• The World Health Organisation estimates that illnesses tied to particulate air pollution rank among the top ten causes of death in developed countries. Thus, the costs to society of air pollution are extremely high. This was highlighted by a recent study by the WHO that estimated that in France, Switzerland, and Austria, air pollution was responsible for 6% of total mortality, resulting in more than 40,000 attributable cases of death per year - half of which were directly linked to emissions from motorised vehicles. Traffic was also estimated to account each year for more than 25,000 new cases of chronic bronchitis in adults, 290,000 episodes of bronchitis in children, 0.5 million asthma attacks and 16 million personal days of restricted activities. The health costs of air pollution for these three countries were estimated to amount to approximately 1.7% of the gross domestic product.

AIR POLLUTION

• Clean air is one of the ongoing and future priority areas of EU environmental policy. The EEB has been involved in the development of EU air pollution legislation for many years and continues to follow the development of EU legislation relating to air pollution through the EU institutions.

Air pollution and overlaps withclimate change

• Burning fuel releases many toxins which are harmful to the environment and human health. It is estimated that, globally, some 800,000 deaths per year are due to air pollution, with 80% of these deaths occurring in developing countries. A working group convened by the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the World Resources Institute (WRI) estimates that by 2020, about 700,000 of these premature deaths (largely due to particulate exposure) would be prevented annually if moderate greenhouse gas emission reduction policies were implemented.

Air pollution and overlaps withclimate change

• Air pollution not only claims lives but is also culpable of widespread illness and suffering to. The health effects of polluted air include chronic bronchitis, lung cancer, cardiovascular disease, pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma. Thus burning less fuel can reduce the impact of climate change and health-damaging air pollution, and often yields large cost savings too. Some of the dangerous air pollutants released as a result of fuel combustion are also greenhouse gases and so contribute to anthropogenic climate change.

BIODIVERSITY

• Biodiversity in the EU, and increasingly in the New Member Countries as well, is continually coming under serious threat.

BIODIVERSITY

• Developing infrastructures, the rise in mobility, urban sprawl, agricultural practices and tourism are all reducing and fragmenting the space for ecosystems and species. There continues to be a steady decline in the quality of biodiversity, despite the adoption of a number of potentially powerful Directives, such as the Birds Directive, the Habitats Directive with its provision to establish the "Natura 2000" network, and the 1998 Commission Communication on a Community Biodiversity Strategy.

EU Chemicals Policy

• Tens of thousands of industrial chemicals are currently on the market and also used in products without having been checked for potential effects on human health and the environment!

EU Chemicals Policy

• Existing European chemicals legislation does not deliver. It does not provide sufficient knowledge of, or public information about, the chemicals in use, and it is ineffective in controlling dangerous substances. Following pressure from Governments, the EU Commission and many environmental organisations, the EU is now entering into a major debate on the reform of a flawed system. Now it is up to the policy makers to address the insufficient - and irresponsible – level of attention which has been given to chemicals. We cannot continue to conduct an "in vivo experiment with human health and nature", while observing that chemicals-related diseases are increasing.

EU Chemicals Policy

• Hazardous chemicals continuously accumulate in our bodies, contaminate human breast milk and pollute even remote regions of the world!

EU Chemicals Policy

• The European Commission produced an evaluation report on the three main Directives and one Regulation of the chemicals legislation (November 1998), which confirmed the failure of the present system. It concluded that work should begin on the development of an integrated and coherent approach to a new EU Chemicals Policy; one which adequately reflects the precautionary principle and the principle of sustainability. In June 1999, the Environment Council acknowledged that a fundamental review of EU Chemicals Policy was needed and gave a clear mandate to the Commission to take the appropriate measures. The Council acknowledged the importance of the Helsinki and OSPAR conventions and the fact that the Community should make major contributions to ensure that these international obligations are met.

EU Chemicals Policy

• As a result, the Commission, in February 2001, adopted a White Paper on the strategy for a future Chemicals Policy. It introduced the REACH (Registration Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals) designed to ensure a "high level of protection of human health and the environment" following the Precautionary Principle.

EU Chemicals Policy• The EEB, together with the European Consumers Organisation

(BEUC), Friends of the Earth, WWF and many other environment and consumer NGOs, support five key demands which they would like to see reflected in the new EU Chemicals Policy. These are the following:

• 1. A full right to know, including which chemicals are present in products.2. A deadline by which all chemicals on the market must have their safety assessed by independent experts. All uses of a chemical should be approved and should be demonstrated to be safe beyond reasonable doubt.3. A phase-out of persistent or bio-accumulative chemicals.4. A requirement to substitute less safe chemicals with safer alternatives.5. A commitment to stop all releases to the environment of hazardous substances by 2020.

EU Chemicals Policy• Pesticides substances are also chemicals, but they are addressed

in a separate Directive (91/414/EEC) the Pesticides Authorisation Directive. This authorisation scheme is subject to various critiques. It lacks transparency, an evaluation of toxicity, an assessment of the combined effects of various chemicals, and a promotion of reduced pesticides use. After 10 years, according to the Directive, products are re-evaluated for further market availability, but due to procedural weaknesses, the deadlines for such re-evaluation are presently unreachable (60 substances out of 600 planned for 2003) and risks are not minimised. Facing these problems, a revision of this Directive is in process. The EEB and the Pesticides Action Network are asking for a paradigm shift in the Pesticides Authorisation process. This requires putting the burden of proof upon pesticides producers, implementing the precautionary principle by banning hazardous pesticides ingredients and guaranteeing an open and transparent pesticides assessment procedure.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND ENERGY

• The EEB considers the fight against climate change to be one of the most important challenges facing today’s world, and believes the EU must be willing to take the lead in helping to combat this global crisis.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND ENERGY

• In order to deal with this problem, our societies must begin to re-examine their global responsibilities, and take drastic steps toward reducing energy use. Climate change is not an issue that can be dealt with through technological "fixes" alone (although eco-efficiency should remain a top priority). It also needs to lead to changes in production and consumption patterns in the areas of transport, energy, agriculture and industry.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND ENERGY

• The Kyoto Protocol has presented the EU with the challenging task of reducing the level of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by 8% over the next decade. It represents a strong incentive for a shift in energy policies: from supply security to demand side management, from fossil fuels use to renewable and safe energy systems. While this alone is not nearly enough to stabilise climate change, it will be quite an achievement in political terms. The EU has agreed to realise a substantial part of this task within its own geographical area, but it is looking for ways to pay rather than reduce as well, through the so-called flexible mechanisms, which would allow Europe to buy carbon dioxide emissions "credits" from other countries to help meet its reduction goal.

CLIMATE CHANGE AND ENERGY

AIMS:• To encourage the EU to fulfill its Kyoto commitments with domestic

policies and measures, whilst minimising the use of flexible mechanisms, and preparing for larger reductions of greenhouse gases at a later stage.

* To promote energy conservation and the increased use of renewable sources through a mix of instruments, including ecological tax reform, strict norms for energy users, and shift of subsidies towards sound energy-producing and -using systems.

• * To contribute to the climate change campaign by highlighting links between climate and lifestyles, waste, agriculture, air pollution, and integrated pollution prevention and control.

ENLARGEMENT

• In 2004, ten more countries are expected to joined the EU (with Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey joining later). This will have a major impact on the new Member States as well as on the current EU.

ENLARGEMENT

• This enlargement certainly has positive potential. It can help the new member countries to accelerate their environmental policies and practice. It can also expand the impact of positive EU-wide policies across larger parts of Europe.

ENLARGEMENT

• However, it is clear that enlargement also brings potential threats to both future and existing members. The consumption patterns predominant in Western Europe are attractive for the Accession Countries, but they increase pressures on the environment. Western concepts of deregulation, privatisation and commercialisation may endanger existing practices of biodiversity protection, public transport schemes, and agricultural practices. Vast investments in infrastructure may also bring serious and long-lasting environmental impoverishment.

ENLARGEMENT

• Another threat not to be underestimated is the slowing-down of EU environmental and sustainable development policies, as these new countries are entering the EU with weaker environmental policies than the current average.

• The enlargement process is of great importance for environmentalists for several reasons: firstly, it is important for the environment and for biodiversity in the Accession Countries. Secondly, it may affect the chances of sustainable development policies for the European Union as it stands at present, as the Accession Countries need to be brought up to the level of the EU’s current environmental standards.

ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PROGRAMMES

• The European Commission produces Environmental Action Programmes (EAPs) as an outline for the EU’s environmental policies over the next decade.

ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION PROGRAMMES

• The latest EAP produced by the Commission is the 6th Environmental Action Programme. This programme is particularly important, as it will function as the EU’s guide on environmental policy during the era of enlargement.

ENVIRONMENTAL LIABILITY

• Environmental liability - the policy of holding polluters responsible for the damage that they do to the environment - is now in the spotlight.

                      

ENVIRONMENTAL LIABILITY

• Following the disasters at Baia Mare (the Romanian cyanide spillover) and Donana, Spain, and in light of the emerging controversy over GMOs, there is now a greater need than ever for a strict policy on environmental liability – one which incorporates the "Polluter Pays Principle" into EU law and turns precaution into a business objective.

ENVIRONMENTAL LIABILITY

• It is a stated goal of the EU to "introduce effective rules to prevent environmental damage, to ensure that damage is restored and to make those responsible for any significant damage pay." It is clear that companies must be held liable for the damage which they cause, and must not be allowed to transfer responsibility to public authorities and force society at large (the taxpayers and third parties) to bear the cost of environmental damage.

ENVIRONMENTAL LIABILITY

• The adoption of a strict policy on environmental liability would be an important tool in helping to prevent companies from engaging in the kind of irresponsible behaviour that leads to future tragedies. Environmental risks should be reflected in production costs so that the market can play a role in minimising risk. Strict liability is an important element of making the market work on behalf of the environment, and a key part of "getting the prices right" - a stated goal of the Commission’s Sustainable Development Strategy.

INTEGRATION

• The Treaty of Amsterdam(1997), in Article 6, requires all EU policies to integrate environmental interests. In 1998, the European Council meeting in Cardiff requested that all Council formations develop integration strategies. These were begun for energy, transport, and agriculture. At a later stage, industry, internal market, development, fisheries, economic and fiscal affairs, and General Affairs were also invited to deliver such integration strategies. Based on the 1998 summit, this is now known as the ‘Cardiff Process’.

INTEGRATION

• Despite entering its fifth year, the Cardiff Process is still very much in its infancy, both in terms of content and with respect to the institutional embedding and implementation. The content of the sectoral strategies delivered so far is of varying quality, and generally lacks such essential elements as clear objectives, targets, instruments, and timetables.

NOISE

• Noise pollution, which can be defined as unwanted sounds caused by traffic (road, rail, and aircraft), industrial, and leisure activities, is currently an issue of great concern for Europeans, and is the only environmental impact for which complaints have increased since 1992.

NOISE

• Many citizens live in areas where noise levels are disturbingly high, affecting both health and overall quality of life in a number of places. Though the specific effects of noise on individual human health are difficult to establish, due to the fact that each individual’s sensitivity to noise is highly variable, recent studies show that noise is a major source of stress. Noise also increases the stress already present from difficult social, familial or professional relationships and can intensify the development of mental disorders, among other numerous negative effects.

NOISE

• Controlling this form of pollution has begun to become a priority in recent years, as science makes progress in establishing how much harm noise actually causes. In response to this issue; the European Commission adopted a directive on Environmental in July 2001 (COM (2000) 468). While the Commission’s proposal on noise was a good initiative, it was felt to be lacking in areas such as:

• Limits for specific noise sources, • Neighborhood and workplace noise • Noise mapping and planning for sensitive areas other

than highly populated agglomerations and • Addressing particularly chronic sources of noise such as

small but noisy airports or seasonal sources in road and rail

PRODUCT POLICY

• In December 1998, the European Commission initiated a broad discussion on Integrated Product Policy (IPP) and this can be considered as the starting point for discussions on product oriented policies. Later on, in 1999, the Informal Council in Weimar endorsed the idea of such a policy and decided on some positive guidelines. Integrated Product Policy is the policy where the environmental impacts that a product may have throughout its whole life cycle are being considered from the design phase, from cradle to grave.

REVISION OF THE EU TREATY

• The European Council meeting in Laeken, in December 2001, set up a Convention to prepare proposals for a substantial revision of the EU Treaties. The main objective is the forthcoming enlargement, but other issues are involved, such as the growing complexity of EU decision-making caused by successive Treaty changes.

REVISION OF THE EU TREATY

• The Convention can have a major impact on the areas that the EU will deal with in the future. The issues include: which policies are to be decentralised (subsidiarity), the principles that will be followed in decision-making, the basic citizens’ rights that need to be respected and protected, and what the format for public involvement should be. So this is potentially extremely important for the environmental movement.

STANDARTIZATION

• The Greenbook of the Commission on Integrated Product Policy (IPP) and the Resolution of the Environmental Council from June 2000, envisage a role for standardisation in implementing IPP. This requires the participation of all stakeholders, including environmental NGOs.

STANDARTISATION

• The New Approach of the EU to implement European legislation by delegating dealings with technical issues to standards bodies entails the need for stakeholder participation. The EEB has traditionally been active in several important product policy issues, especially within the Ecolabel Regulation and Standardisation. Until April 2000, it participated in the Strategic Advisory Board for the Environment (SABE) of CEN (European Standardisation Committee) on the integration of environmental concerns into product standards.