1973USDA FOREST SERVICE GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-2

RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIESAND NEEDS IN THETAIGA OF ALASKA

AUSTIN E. HELMERSAND

CHARLES T. CUSHWAPACIFIC NORTHWEST FOREST AND RANGE EXPERIMENT STATIONUS. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOREST SERVICEPORTLAND, OREGON

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ABSTRACT

An appraisal of taiga (the northern forests of interior Alaska)environment research opportunities and needs was made based uponaccomplishments since Alaskan statehood, current involvement ofcitizens in resource issues, information needs incident to the NationalEnvironmental Policy Act of 1969, and needs of new resource manag-ing agencies and changing ownerships brought about by statehood andthe settlement of aboriginal land claims. Based upon this appraisal,it is proposed that the research needs can best be met through amultidisciplinary interagency program. The program suggests closercoordination among several departments of the University of Alaskaand a number of State and Federal agencies currently involved inapplicable research. The urgency of research implementation isrelated to rapid change and diminishing opportunity to insure orderlydevelopment of Alaska's resources.

Taiga environment information needs encompass five majorproblem areas:

Ecology--the fundamental climate-soil-water-air-flora-faunarelationships in natural and perturbed environmental systems.

Fire effects--characteristics of fire, fire ecology, and the effectsof fire upon entire resource systems.

Water--precipitation-soil-plant-runoff relationships are com-plicated by permafrost. Soil erosion and water quality willrespond to fire, fire control methods, land clearing, insectoutbreaks, road construction, and industrial developments.

Culture--people will determine resource management; thus, what"Alaska" means to people the world over will influence theextent to which resource development and use is consistentwith preserving environmental quality and natural beauty.

Economics--goals and objectives in resource developments, anddevelopment of plans and policies.

Keywords: Taiga, Alaska, research, resource management,environment.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this discussion is tofocus attention on research opportunitiesand needs in the taiga of Alaska and sug-gest a means of getting on with the tremen-dous task of obtaining facts upon which toevaluate future resource managementalternatives.

The Alaskan taiga has acquiredinternational significance as people lookto the Arctic and subarctic to meet re-source needs of an expanding populationand economy. In addition to food, fuel,and building material, there is an increas-ing need for a healthful environment,recreational opportunities, andesthetically pleasing landscapes.

Taiga is a circumpolar zone of pre-dominantly coniferous forest, with tall treesin dense stands along the southern edge whichbecome progressively shorter and lessdense toward the northern tree line. TheAlaskan taiga, located primarily in theinterior of the State, is bounded on threesides by the south slopes of the BrooksRange, the north and northwest slopes ofthe Coast Mountains, and the Canadianborder. The western boundary includesthe lower Yukon and Kuskokwim Rivervalleys, Norton Sound, base of the SewardPeninsula, and the. lower Kobuk and NoatakRiver valleys (fig. 1). Approximately56 percent of the 152 million hectares(375 million acres) in the State is in thegeneral zone of taiga. About half of theAlaska taiga zone consists of forests andbogs (fig. 2), the other half of alpinetundra, bare rock, permanent ice, andsnow.

Knowledge about the Alaskan taigabegan accumulating to a small extent asthe Russians occupied "Russian-America"and increased when the United Statesexplored the new land it bought from

Russia in 1867. By the 1920's , researchon various renewable resources receivedattention with the growing awareness oftheir potential usefulness and of the needfor management. A big impetus in re-search, concerned mostly with engineer-ing problems, came in the- 1940's withexpanded military activity.

A steady growth of research relatedto natural resources in the past twodecades has contributed to an understand-ing of the complexities of taiga environ-ments, how exceedingly sensitive theyare to change, and to a realization of howmuch research is needed. Nevertheless,only limited funds have been expended onresearch to determine the impact of man'sactivities on the Alaskan environment.

In contemporary Alaska, man isonly beginning to influence the operationof natural systems on a substantial scale.As human activities increase, the needfor information about resource manage-ment and about social and economic fac-tors also increases. Problems that willconfront all resource managers in Alaskaare beginning to be recognized. Thereare many opportunities for studyingnatural ecological systems and for develop-ing basic information about them whichwill be necessary for decisions in abroad spectrum of resource problems.

The National Environmental PolicyAct of 1969 requires Federal agencies tounderstand and to explain to the publicthe impact of agency activities on theenvironment. A lack of understandingof the basic ecological processes in thetaiga is affecting development and use ofAlaska's resources. The delay inapproval to construct the 1, 290-kilometer(800-mile) pipeline across Alaska isan example of how this void in basicinformation affects use of Alaska'sresources.

Figure 1.--Map of Alaska showing major mountain ranges and general zone of taiga.

Figure 2.--Alaskan taiga, showing a varietyof vegetation types, ponds, and bogs, anda wildfire. Swanson River, 1969.

A new appraisal of research needsand opportunities and a reevaluation ofexisting research programs are timely.

There has been more than a decadeof research accomplishment in interiorAlaska since statehood. This was aformative period in which socioeconomicprogress and resource use graduallyacquired more purposeful direction.Policies about environmental quality be-came clearer and firmer. The averagecitizen became more deeply involvedin resource issues.

These factors, combined withsettlement of the aboriginal land claimsand State and Federal land selection,have created new resource managingorganizations, changing ownerships,and changing management aims whichhave immediate needs for guidelines.

SETTING

Interior Alaska landscapes are aproduct of :

1. Recent geomorphological historywhich includes glaciation in the three

major mountain ranges, associated proc-esses in the intermontane valleys, andsensitively balanced ecosystems in earlystages of development.

2. Mean annual temperatures rang-ing from -10° C. (13° to 15° F.) in theBrooks Range to about 2° C. (35° F.) onthe base of the Aleutian Chain. Annualprecipitation ranges from 178 to 760 milli-meters (7 to 30 inches) over these samezones; frost-free days range from 50 to130 annually. Daylight varies from 20to 24 hours in June to 0 to 4 hours inDecember.

3. Continuous or discontinuouspermafrost (permanently frozen ground)underlying most of the area. This factoris characteristic of the interior of Alaskaand many other lands at high latitudes.

4. Lightning-caused wildfires.These have occurred in the interior sinceprehistoric times--the taiga is a fireenvironment with its flora and faunaadapted to, or dependent on, frequentdisturbance by fire.

5. Frontier environment. Thevast "unspoiled" open space is the popularconception of Alaska.

RENEWABLE RESOURCES

Interior Alaska includes wood, water,wildlife, recreational, and cultural re-sources.

WOOD

The 43 million hectares (106 millionacres) of taiga classed as forest land inthe interior constitute about 15 percent ofthe tree-covered land in the United States.About 9. 1 million hectares (22.5 millionacres) of the taiga are classed as commer-cial forest land and support a net growingstock volume of 404 million cubic meters

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(14-1/4 billion cubic feet)(Hutchison 1967).These forests are capable of a sustainedharvest of 10 million cubic meters (358million cubic feet) of wood annually. How-ever, production and use of the woodresource are limited by the northernenvironment.

The relationships of environmentalfactors to tree or forest growth are notwell understood. The mosaic of taigavegetation is attributed to fire (Lutz 1956).In some instances fire has indirectly butsignificantly changed soil temperaturesand vegetation. River-bottom whitespruce sites may deteriorate due tolowering soil temperatures and risingpermafrost levels as shade increasesfrom the developing stand (Viereck 1970).Increased timber harvesting heightensproblems of spruce regeneration, whichis inadequate under current loggingpractices (Zasada 1972) and creates anundetermined impact on the environment.

WATER

The annual water crop from interiorAlaska watersheds is estimated at 617billion cubic meters (500 million acre-feet).This is about one-fourth of the UnitedStates freshwater runoff and of corre-spondingly great power potential. Therivers are of major importance in trans-portation, fish spawning, and recreation,domestic, and industrial uses.

The abundance of water does notpreclude water problems. Major riverscarry heavy sediment loads, related tonumerous tributaries that arise fromglaciers and icefields, and to the naturalmeandering of these large watercoursesin broad alluvial valleys. Watershedswithout glaciers and permanent snowusually produce water of good qualityand of major importance to fish andhuman use, but the soils of such

watersheds are highly erodible. In thecold-dominated climate, some streamsand rivers are believed to freeze to thebottom during the long winter, and inmany cases overflows and groundwaterseepages freeze into large deposits of"stream icings" ("aufeis"), which maypersist well into summer.

Related to precipitation and tem-perature distribution, streamflow patternsvary greatly with high flows during thespring breakup, moderate but variableflows (with storm flows sometimes ex-ceeding spring flows) during the summer,and low or no flows during the winter.

Water supply, despite its annualquantity, is a potentially serious problemand will require conservation and manage-ment in connection with man's uses.Floods occur and cause significant de-struction along main streams. TheFairbanks flood of 1967 was the largestin recent times, causing damages inexcess of $170 million.

WILDLIFE

The history of Alaska is closelytied to fur, fish, and game. Until Alaskawas purchased by the United States, furtrading was the main industry. Commer-cial fishing, which began in 1868, thenbecame the main industry and still ranksas one of the most important. Mining,especially in its early years, would nothave been feasible without game and fishas sources of food.

Dependence on fish and game as asource of food, combined with the impor-tance to the State's economy, plus theneed to satisfy demands for sport huntingand fishing place consumptive uses ofwildlife high on the list of valuable re-sources of the State. Nonconsumptiveuses, such as nature study, photography,

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and seeing birds, animals, and fishes intheir natural habitats, are also importantconsiderations.

Alaska must also consider her rolein insuring the continued protection andenhancement of breeding habitats formany migrating species, as well as herinternational responsibility in preserva-tion of endemic species in danger ofextinction elsewhere. Consequently,management of Alaska's wildlife resourceswill continue to be one of the most com-plex issues facing resource managers.

RECREATION

Where but in Alaska can one walkfrom an icefield to the ocean in half aday, or drive for hours with a view of thehighest mountain in North America, orvisit primitive cultures and experiencea step back in time where man is stillliving close to nature?

The importance of recreation doesnot mean that finding its place in theresource management balance will besimple. For example, Rogers (1962,p. 53) pointed out that "Alaska's vastempty spaces... have tangible or intan-gible values as 'amenity resources' ina society which is becoming increasinglycongested, as recreation resources,and as elbow room for the perfectionand maintenance of a modern militarymachine [referring to national defensewithdrawals in Alaska]. Unfortunately,these uses are not entirely compatibleand, as in the case of the more tradi-tionally defined natural resources,choices must be made. "

Outdoor recreation in Alaska isforecast to continue rapidly increasing,based upon doubling of the State's popula-tion and a sevenfold increase in the num-ber of tourists during the next 30 years

(State of Alaska 1970). The role ofinterior Alaska recreation will be impor-tant not only in relation to the needs ofthe United States and North America,but also to the needs of the rest of theworld. The word "Alaska" has a specialmeaning to people the world over--ameaning that is usually related to wilder-ness, wildlife, and spectacular sceneryin an uncongested environment.

CULTURE

Alaska's cultural dimensions varyfrom the metropolitan penthouse dwellerto the wilderness trapper. Within thisrange the following groups are identified:

Resident

a. Indigenous or aboriginal peoples--Athapascan, Eskimo, and Aleut.

b. Nonindigenous peoples--fromlocations throughout the world.1. Permanent resident--Alaska

is home.2. Temporary resident--people

in Alaska for short periodsof time, such as militarypersonnel, some universitystudents, or individualswith large companies whomove frequently.

Nonresident

a. Visitor or tourist--in Alaska tosee,, use, or enjoy its resourcesbut not to become resident.

b. Nonvisitor--hears about Alaska,sees it on television, or readsabout it and is concerned, butdoes not come to Alaska to useits resources.

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The 302, 760 residentsi/ are scatteredacross the 152 million hectares (375million acres) of Alaska in a variety ofsettings--ranging from native villages,towns, and metropolitan areas to theindividual homestead or wilderness cabin.These resident groups have a wide arrayof ideas, experiences, education, philoso-phies, values, and concerns about re-source use and environmental quality.

Complexity of the cultural environ-ment is increased when the nonresidentdimension is added. Opinions, concerns,and ideas are frequently based on a briefvisit, reading, or television.

Individuals from all these groupsinfluence the future of Alaska's environ-ment and resources.

DIMENSIONS OFRESEARCH NEEDS

The urgency and scope of researchneeds are determined by the rapid changeand the diminishing opportunity to insureorderly development of Alaska's resources.Alaska, the largest of the 50 States, con-tains more land than the combined Statesof Washington, Oregon, California, Ari-zona, and Nevada.

Current and impending economicand social developments, such as expand-ing recreation and tourism, improvingtransportation systems, oil, gas, coal,and mineral exploration and development,and settling aboriginal land claims, arerequiring long-term resource use andmanagement decisions. Yet the capa-bility of this northern environment tosupport man's interests and activitieshas not been determined. A statementmade in 1966 holds true today: "What

1/— 1970 census.

the state needs now more than anythingelse is more precise and integrated know-ledge about the northern environmentand related problems of land managementand development" (Cooley 1966, p. 93).Development of the needed research capa-bility to provide management alternativesis in its infancy.

The depth and complexity of re-search needs are determined by thecharacteristics of taiga. The taiga isone of the youngest, more primitive andleast understood biomes or plant-animalsystems on earth. The cold-dominatedenvironment.. , manifest in part by largeareas underlain by permafrost, affectslife processes and biological production.Although temperature is a dominant factor,other parameters, such as solar radia-tion, moisture, nutrients, and the geo-logic youth of the land surface, are alsoimportant influences on flora and fauna.The combination of severe environmentand the paleoclimate has led to ecosys-tems in which an individual element ofthe system is extremely sensitive to, ordependent on, the other elements. As aresult, populations or environmentalparameters fluctuate dramatically follow-ing small disturbances; the passage ofa tracked vehicle leaves a scar fordecades; postfire recovery of lichenforage in the alpine tundra takes 40 to100 years; and the disturbance of a gentleslope underlain by permafrost can causelarge-scale soil movements and streamsedimentation within a single season.

The complexity of taiga manage-ment is due in large measure to thecause and effect relationships betweenpermafrost and terrain, climate, flora,and fauna. It is the close interrelation-ship and delicate balance of factors thatis meant by the frequently mentioned"fragile ecology, " with reference tointerior Alaska.

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There is an increasing demand forcoexistence between industrial progressand natural beauty. Hence, in the taiga ofAlaska, resource use for economic gainmust include maintenance of environmentalquality. However, the basic cost of doingbusiness in interior Alaska will continueto be high. Technological advances makepossible continuation of many basicoperations year-round but not withoutincreased cost.

The more critical gaps in know-ledge about five major problem areasinvolve the following informational needs.

ECOLOGY

Research in this area deals withfundamental climate-soil-water-plant-animal relationships in natural and dis-turbed systems. Information is neededto:

a. Determine the environmentalconditions and plant successional trendsleading to major vegetation types, suchas white spruce, paper birch, and aspen,and the vegetation composition and suc-cessional responses to such disturbancesas fire, clearing, logging road construc-tion, and recreational use.

b. Develop a habitat classificationsystem based upon air-soil-water-plant-animal relationships and interactions indisturbed and stable systems.

c. Determine growth patterns forwhite spruce, aspen, paper birch, blackspruce, and balsam poplar and correlatethese patterns with environmental patterns,especially temperature, soil moisture,and soil nutrients.

d. Determine the effects of abioticfactors on the dynamics of forest andrange insect populations.

e. Determine the productivity oftaiga ecosystems for wildlife foodand the degree of use by different wild-life species; develop procedures for

classifying habitat production in termsof wildlife.

f. Identify successional stages ofvegetation that are critical in habitat re-quirements for different wildlife speciesand determine the effects of disturbanceon wildlife habitats.

g. Develop simulation models topredict the consequences of managementmanipulations on productivity and biomass,energy flow, and decomposition and nutrientturnover in cold-dominated ecosystems.

FIRE EFFECTS

The particular susceptibility of thetaiga to fire is due to climate and vegeta-tion types. Fundamental factors in fireecology are fire intensity and behavior,which are functions of fuel, weather, andtopography. Information is needed on:

a. Fire characteristics and theecological effects of fire on interior vege-tation systems. Present knowledge isonly general.

b. The effect of fire on hydrologicfactors and soil stability, known now onlyin principle.

c. The effects of fire upon entireresource systems.

Filling this informational gap willrequire a continuing integration of know-ledge about how fire affects taiga resources,both social and ecological.

WATER

Watershed dynamics is one of theleast understood aspects of the taiga.The precipitation-soil-plant-runoff rela-tionships appear to be extremely complex,probably due in a large measure to perma-frost. Information is needed to:

a. Develop mathematical or concep-tual models of hydrologic processes.

b. Develop methods and obtainaccurate hydrologic data on several

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undisturbed localities preparatory todesigning research in disturbed areas.

c. Quantify soil erosion and changesin water quality accelerated by fire, firecontrol methods, land clearing, large-scale insect defoliation, road construc-tion, and industrial developments suchas the trans-Alaska pipeline.

CULTURE

As land selection proceeds in Alaska,four major groups of landowners willemerge:

State of AlaskaAlaska nativeIndividual or corporateFederal Government.

Several State agencies have a longhistory of resource management in Alaskathrough experience gained in the terri-torial government some years beforestatehood. Since statehood, the Stateagencies have been assuming increasingresponsibility as the State's landholdingsgrow. Concerns of the Department ofNatural Resources parallel those of theFederal Government, with the added bur-den of making larger inputs into the State'snew economy. Therefore, an immediateconcern is how to use resources underthe jurisdiction of the State for economicgains in keeping with local, State, national,and international concern about environ-mental quality.

The Alaska native is the most recentgroup concerned with resource manage-ment. The granting of 16 million hectares(40 million acres) of land to sustain anincreasing quality of life for the nativewill probably place more intensive de-mands on this land than will be placed onthe land under the jurisdiction of theState.

The individual landowner in Alaska

is confronted with similar needs, i.e.,to make a living from the land under hisownership. Consequently, his demandsand impacts will parallel or become moreintensive than those of other groups.

The Federal Government currentlymanages public resources according toa variety of policies, of which the NationalEnvironmental Policy Act of 1969 is oneof the more recent. These policiesattempt to maintain or enhance environ-mental quality while developing and usingresources. Federal resource manage-ment agencies have accumulated consider-able experience in Alaska as well as inother States. The Federal Governmentis therefore able to put proven policiesand methods into use and to assist newmanagement groups in developing initialguidelines.

What has this to do with cultural orsocial problems ? Policies and philosophiesabout resource use and environmentalquality arise from people. We know thatin Alaska there are tremendous variationsin experience, attitudes, values, andphilosophies among cultural groups.Therefore, a reasonable deduction seemsto be that a wide range of attitudes andpolicies concerning use of Alaska's re-sources may emerge from these diversegroups.

Ideas of the indigenous people mayvary considerably from those of the non-indigenous group. Within the nonindige-nous group the permanent residents'ideas may not be compatible with thoseof temporary residents. No doubt theresident and the nonresident will viewthe use and development of Alaska'sresources differently. Each culturalgroup will have ideas, opinions, andphilosophies that will influence policyand ultimately the use and developmentof Alaska's resources.

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Therefore, the desires of the peoplemust be considered if recurring issuessuch as the proposed Rampart power pro-ject, the trans-Alaska pipeline, and nu-clear device testing on Amchitka Islandare to be resolved. Information is neededto determine:

a. What is the "real value" of Alaska?What does the word "Alaska" mean topeople the world over?

b. What is the State government'sresponsibility to its citizens, the citizensof the other States, and the rest of theworld?

c. How do these meanings relate todevelopment of the State's resources?

d. What changes in the meaning of"Alaska" have taken place during the pastfew decades as transportation, communi-cation, and industrialization increased?

e. What changes should we expectduring the next decades?

f. What action should be taken toinsure orderly development and use ofresources consistent with preservationof environmental quality and natural beauty?

Answers must come from Alaskansas well as from residents of the other 49States who share the responsibilities,costs, and benefits of a democratic society,and from interested people in other coun-tries. Only if this information is coupledwith the basic biological facts on landcapability and condition in this northernenvironment will we be able to provide asound basis to resolve conflicts of interestin the future development and managementof the State's resources.

ECONOMICS

The complex economic situation inAlaska has been and is being studied byexperts on the national, State, and locallevels. According to Johnson and

Jorgenson's review (1963, p. 22):

The high cost of living is attributableprincipally to the cost of import of most of thenecessities of life, to the naturally greaterexpense of living in a far-north environment,and the business philosophy that is keyed tohigh interest and a quick return on investment.

In the process [of high prices and highwages interacting to keep the cost of livinggoing up] the competitiveness of Alaska's re-sources and products on outside marketsseriously suffers.

Nathan (1970), in summarizing theeconomy of Alaska from a national view,felt there were many problems of aneconomic nature to be solved, and chal-lenges for the future were the combina-tion of a vigorous rate of economic growth,a wholesome and healthy environment,and the degree to which Alaska has ordevelops her human resources. Hebelieved that:

a. The citizens of Alaska and theirleaders should seek to determine theirgoals and objectives, taking into considera-tion the needs and wants of the people ofAlaska relative to the expanded resourcesthat will be available to them, and

b. Alaska needs to undertake someimaginative planning and must formulatecarefully conceived policies to avoidmuch waste and missed opportunities.

OPPORTUNITIES FORMULTIDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH

Management activity influences thetaiga system; therefore, research capa-bility must also be aimed at determiningthe impact of man's decisions and activitieson the system rather than his impact ona single element or part.

Since most elements of these sys-tems are extremely sensitive to or depen-dent on other elements, few studies can

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be unique to single disciplines. Komarek(1971) summarized such multidisciplinaryneeds in terms of a proposed cooperativeecological experiment station for Alaska.This approach had been discussed inAlaska previously and has been imple-mented elsewhere; the Taiga ResearchStation of the University of Alberta, theSubarctic Research Station of McGillUniversity, and the Finnish Kevo andOulanka Stations are examples.

Research on any-one facet of thetaiga system necessarily involves manyinteracting factors of the environment.The informational gaps identified pre-viously are not mutually exclusive withrespect to environmental factors, re-search studies, or research disciplines.For these reasons, a multidisciplinaryresearch approach, including social,economic, and ecological aspects, shouldbe considered for the taiga in Alaska.

Also, there are probably few largeareas where the opportunities for inter-agency, public and private, cooperationand coordination in research are greaterthan in interior Alaska--and there areprobably few areas where interests insuch cooperation and coordination pro-vide a better climate for it. Cooperationand coordination with agencies, groups,and individuals must be a significantfeature of this approach to fill majorinformational gaps as quickly as possible.Working arrangements among agenciesneed to be coordinated and cooperativeagreements established or strengthened.Examples are the University of Alaskaand several universities in the conter-minous States; the State of Alaska Depart-ments of Natural Resources, Fish andGame, and Environmental Conservation;National Weather Service; U.S. GeologicalSurvey; U.S. Army Corps of EngineersAlaska District and the Cold RegionsResearch and Engineering Laboratory;

Soil Conservation Service; Institute ofNorthern Forestry of the U.S. ForestService; Bureau of Sport Fisheries andWildlife; Bureau of Land Management;Environmental Protection Agency; AlaskaAgricultural Experiment Station; and theInternational Biological Program in theconiferous and tundra biomes.

A steady growth in research sincethe mid-1940's by the University ofAlaska and a number of other universitiesand agencies, mainly through contracts,grants, and the internal programs of someagencies, was recently supplemented withwhat might be termed "ad hoc" researchrelated to environmental issues associatedwith the proposed 1, 300 kilometer trans-Alaskapipeline. Some of this research is fundedor conducted by oil companies, some isconducted by resource management agencies,and some is being done under the Inter-national Biological Program's TundraBiome research.

By Executive decision, the Depart-ment of Agriculture is responsible forFederal forest research, which is in turndelegated to the Forest Service by depart-mental administrative regulations.

Forest Service research, as a con-tinuing activity in interior Alaska, beganin 1957. During 1970, the U.S. ForestService recognized the opportunity for amore active role in developing intensivetaiga research programs. Consequently,a multidisciplinary research unit wasestablished in July 1971 with sevenscientists to develop the' new researchprogram at the Institute of NorthernForestry. The mission of this groupis to understand the ecology of thetaiga and associated environments andto provide a sound basis for orderlydevelopment of resources consistentwith maintenance of environmentalquality.

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The President, in his February 8,1971, message on environment to theCongress, stressed the need for Federalcooperation with the State of Alaska in aland use planning effort for the area northof the Porcupine, Yukon, and KuskokwimRivers. This cooperative agreement wasaccomplished November 22, 1971. TheNorthern Alaska Planning Study Team,consisting of more than 20 Federal andState employees, was assembled with theobjective to collect, analyze, and displaydata in developing a regional land usepolicy for northern Alaska within 2 years.This effort was expanded in. August 1972into the Resource Planning Team, AlaskaLand Use Planning Commission.

All of the present and anticipatedefforts by these groups bears directly onthe taiga environmental research oppor-tunities. Therefore, it is essential thatthis program coordinate and participatein common fields of interest.

SHORT-TERM PROGRAM

It is highly urgent that a multidisci-plinary research program for the Alaskataiga be implemented. Alaska providesa rare opportunity for us to combine allinformation, experience, and technologywith the desire to protect our environ-ment and demonstrate that we can useand develop Alaska's resources withoutdestroying her natural beauty and environ-mental quality. Modern man can live inharmony with nature--we should not passup this excellent opportunity to demon-strate our capability. By this view, theoverall research need is to understandthe environments and the consequencesof technology upon them.

GEOGRAPHIC LIMITS

Limitations in physical facilities

and manpower preclude research on allproblems of the whole of interior Alaska.The immediate program should be limitedon geographical rather than agency, dis-ciplinary, or ecological lines. That is,within a key area the major ecosystemsshould be considered. The key areashould be the middle and lower TananaRiver valley and the adjacent Tanana-Yukonuplands. This area is selected becauseit is representative of the IntermontanePlateau, the landform of largest extentin the interior, and the area of rapidlyexpanding industrial development andresource use, with related problems ofenvironmental protection. This wouldnot preclude attention to other areas asopportunities and the need to formulatefuture program plans arise. The mainprogram effort would be centered aroundFairbanks.

Due to the limited accessibility ofpotential study sites, research should beconcentrated on a few study areas to theextent consistent with study objectives,with major research efforts concentratedon the Caribou-Poker Creeks ResearchWatershed and the Bonanza Creek Experi-mental Forest. Supplemental study areaswill be needed, however; and considera-tion should be given to establishing areasrepresenting the wide range of ecologicalconditions in the taiga of Alaska. Theseareas would be used to test the impact ofman's activities on the environment, whileappropriate portions of each area wouldbe maintained as research natural areasto preserve and study natural processesin taiga systems.

PROGRAM LIMITS

For some time, analyses of researchneeds and the subsequent selection ofindividual studies should be flexible inapproach, scope, and detail in responseto new information, to changing needs of

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resource-oriented programs, to graduallyintensifying management practices, andto the climate for financial support.Based on a reasonably clear view for thenext few years, a 5-year research programtime unit is logical.

The need for information about theAlaskan taiga over the next 5 years willbe possibly greater than for any previousor future 5-year period in Alaska's his-tory. It is this period that will encom-pass the major thrust of the NorthernAlaska Planning Study Team efforts. Itis within this period that the resourcemanagement plans, and perhaps manage-ment precedents, will be initiated on as muchas 16 million hectares (40 million acres) ofland involved in the aboriginal claims settle-ment and on up to some 40 million hectares(100 million acres) selected by the State underthe provisions of the Statehood Act.

A minimum 5-year staffing levelby disciplines including scientists fromall agencies would result in the followinglevel of research effort:

Man-years ofeffort needed

annually

Ecology 4Fire (control and effects) 8Forest diseases 3Forest insects 3Watershed and aquatic

habitats 3Wildlife habitats 3Social, economic, and

recreation 3

Total 27

The cost to implement the proposedprogram is estimated at $80, 000 to$100, 000 per scientist man-year. Asubstantial contribution can be and isbeing made by university-State-Federal

research groups; however, these effortscould be more closely coordinated throughincreased funding using existing researchfacilities to develop an integrated programof research to solve the previously men-tioned problems.

ANTICIPATED ACCOMPLISHMENTS

The foregoing research program isto provide information for major develop-ments including: some 40 million ormore hectares of land coming under newmanagement and ownership--the Statefor the remainder of Statehood Act landselection, and the Eskimo and Indianvillage councils for the land allotmentsin the settlement of their claims; inten-sifying management of Federal lands asmanifested in the activation of the NorthernAlaska Planning Study Team; expandingneeds of agencies responsible for monitor-ing or controlling environmental quality;and the demands for determining theenvironmental impacts of public manage-ment of resources.

The anticipated accomplishments ,to be attained to a level effective forresource management, are:

a. Determination of fundamentalecological relationships in resourcemanagement in order to provide forresource use and benefits with the leastenvironmental damage and to predictthe results of different managementsystems.

b. Effective fire control methodsdeveloped from research on weathermodification, lightning sensing, firedanger rating, fire detection and recon-naissance, fire control planning, andfire attack methods.

c. Determination of the relationshipof wildlife to the economy of interiorAlaska, and the impact of fire, industrial,and recreational developments on wild-life use and management.

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d. Determination of insect impactson vegetation important for wildlife forageand for recreation enjoyment, and develop-ment of control methods for minimizingimpacts and maintaining environmentalquality.

e. Interim guidelines for resourcemanagers--State, Federal, and private--based on available information from alloutside and local sources with the under-

. standing that modification and revisionwill be necessary as research resultsand experience are gained under Alaskanconditions.

f. Determination of the "value" ofAlaska to Alaskans as well as to other

people of the United States. As method-ologies develop, consideration shouldalso be given to expanding this surveyto the world population.

g. An evaluation of the basic capa-bility for fulfilling recreational needs ona sustained basis while maintaining maxi-mum environmental quality.

h. A determination of the productivecapability of the land and environment, asbasic to assessing the economic needs,present and future, of the State. Thesupply of raw materials, feasibility ofusing these resources, and the real needor demand for products purchased arebasic informational gaps.

REFERENCESCooley, Richard A.

1967. Alaska, a challenge in conservation. 170 p. Madison: Univ. Wis. Press.

Gourdeau, E., M. E. Britton, and J. C. Reed[n. d.] The arctic dilemma: man and his environment vs. resource development.

26 p. Washington, D.C., and Montreal, Quebec: Arctic Inst. North Am.

Hardy, Charles E., and James W. Franks1963. Forest fires in Alaska. USDA Forest Serv . Res. Pap. INT-5, 163 p. , illus.

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Hutchison, O. Keith1967. Alaska's forest resource. USDA Forest Serv . Resour . Bull. PNW-19 ,

74 p. , illus. Pac . Northwest Forest & Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg.

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Ronald Press Co.

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* U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1973-797-113 /54 REGION 10

The mission of the PACIFIC NORTHWEST FORESTAND RANGE EXPERIMENT STATION is to provide theknowledge, technology, and alternatives for present andfuture protection, management, and use of forest, range, andrelated environments.

Within this overall mission, the Station conducts andstimulates research to facilitate and to accelerate progresstoward the following goals:

1. Providing safe and efficient technology for inventory,protection, and use of resources.

2. Development and evaluation of alternative methodsand levels of resource management.

3. Achievement of optimum sustained resource produc-tivity consistent with maintaining a high quality forestenvironment.

The area of research encompasses Oregon, Washington,Alaska, and, in some cases, California, Hawaii, the WesternStates, and the Nation. Results of the research will be madeavailable promptly. Project headquarters are at:

Fairbanks, Alaska Portland, OregonJuneau, Alaska Olympia, WashingtonBend, Oregon Seattle, WashingtonCorvallis, Oregon Wenatchee, WashingtonLa Grande, Oregon.

The FOREST SERVICE of the U. S. Department of Agricultureis dedicated to the principle of multiple use management of theNation's forest resources for sustained yields of wood, water,forage, wildlife, and recreation. Through forestry research, co-operation with the States and private forest owners, and man-agement of the National Forests and National Grasslands, itstrives — as directed by Congress -- to provide increasingly greaterservice to a growing Nation.