800 B.C.-100 A.D.

Characterized by the Seven Hills and The Tiber River.

Situated on the eastern banks of river Tiber.

Rome lies to the west of the Apennine Mountains that forms the

backbone of peninsular Italy.

Experiences a Mediterranean climate.

Popularly called 'the city of seven hills'.

seven hills were separated by marshy land

and the River Tiber.

Rome climate very broadly is of the

'Mediterranean' variety. The summer

months are warm to mild, and the winters

are cold. The rainfall occurs during the

winter months between October to January.

ROME - GEOGRAPHY

ROME 800 BC TO 100

AD

THE SEVEN KINGS The early history of Rome has always been an interesting mixture of heroic legend and fact. According to legend, Rome was founded in 753 BC. Romulus was Rome's first king and after him there were 6 more kings. The period traditionally lasted for 244 years (753-509 BC) and is known about through the historian Livy who compiled his Great History of Rome in a single narrative during the rule of Augustus, which indicates that he ascertained his information through various myths and legends. Numa Pompilius Second legendary Sabine king of Rome (715-673 BC). According to legend he was king of Rome, successor to Romulus. Most of the religious rites of ancient and modern Rome were developed by him. He was supposedly responsible for the pontifices, flamens (sacred priests), vestal virgins, the building of the temple of Janes, and the reorganization of the calendar into days. His reign was a peaceful one compared with that of Tullius Hostilius who succeeded him.

Tullus Hostilius Legendary third king of ancient Rome. 672-641BC. Tullius Hostilius was famous for his warlike exploits. He conquered much surrounding territory and added it to the growing area of land ruled by Rome. During his reign a long, drawn - out war was fought between Rome and Alba Longa. Rome eventually won and vanquished her rival city. The reign of Tullius Hostilius symbolizes the ambitious and warlike nature of the Roman people. According to legend he levelled Rome to the ground in 665 BC.

Ancus Martius Legendary fourth king of ancient Rome (640-616 BC). This king is supposed to have enlarged the area of Rome.

Tarquinius Priscus (Lucius Tarquinius Priscus). The legendary fifth king of Rome (616-578 BC).

Tarquinius Superbus (Lucius Tarquinius Superbus) "Tarquin the Proud" was the legendary seventh king of ancient Rome. (534-510 BC). He was the last of the Tarquins to rule Rome. He murdered Tullus and seized the throne. Under his rule the Etruscans were at the height of their power, and the authority of the monarchy was absolute. He was despised by the people for his tyranny, and cast out by the senate in 510 BC and the Republic was established in 509 B C.

Servius Tullus The legendary sixth king of ancient Rome 578 - 534 BC who built the city walls and whose accession to the throne was prophesied by Tanaquil, the widow of Priscus. He was assassinated by his daughter Tullia and her husband Tarquin.

The Family The family was the most important part of Roman society. The main person in charge legally of the family was the pater or father. He even had the power of life or death within the family. If the matron, the woman of the house, was of a dignified social status, the power of the father was somewhat restrained. Originally called by the Latin title of pater familias, the father evolved into the patron of Roman Republican and early Imperial society.

Class Divisions

In Rome there were various class divisions that

were very stringent. Under the Etruscans, a new

wealthy aristocratic class had come into Rome

known as the patricians.

The Patricians

The patricians were great land-owners and of a

noble Latin birth. Once the Etruscans were driven

out the patricians declared Rome a republic (a

community by which people elect their leaders).

They served in the Senate and were very privileged.

They controlled the offices within the army, and they

governed the important events that happened

within society such as the public religious

ceremonies.

The Plebeians There were also the Plebeians who made up the majority of Rome's inhabitants. Plebeians

were a class of citizens who were usually non aristocratic farmers, artisans and

shopkeepers, and some were wealthy. They did have rights, such as the right to serve in

the Assembly and the right to vote, trade, hold property, and administer judicial self

defense. They were not as privileged as the patricians and could never marry one. They

could not hold a public office and could never receive entry into the Senate and there was

no recorded bill of rights.

The Clients and the Slaves The Clients were peasant farmers who rented land. They

would follow a certain patron and perform political duties,

including assassinations, and lying in court, if it would help

further his patron's political career. In return, the client

often received money, a job, or an invitation to dinner at the

patron's house. A dinner invitation may not seem like much

to us today, but in Roman times it could mean a great place

in society if he appeared at the right dinner parties. His

prestige in society would be much more enhanced if he

were seen by the rich and famous at only one dinner party

hosted by a powerful patron.

This patron-client relationship led to many interesting

situations in ancient Rome. Sometimes candidates for

various government magistracies would travel around

Rome with several hundred or even a few thousand of their

clients.

Lastly were the Slaves, who had no freedom or rights

whatsoever unless it was bestowed upon them by their

master.

753 The city Rome is founded. 753-716 BC: Romulus rules over the city of Rome that becomes an asylum for refugees, criminals and runaway slaves . The unequal men: women ratio makes Romulus and his men to forcibly take the virgin women of neighbouring Sabine town of Cures as wives.

EIGHTH CENTURY B.C.

750 BC: Many Greek cities are founded on Italy. 715-674 BC: Death of Romulus and Numa Pompilius, a religious, cultural figure was crowned the emperor of Rome.

Etruscan influence reaches Rome (c. 625 B.C.)

673-642 BC: After 43 years of peaceful

rule, Numa Pompillus is dead. He is

succeeded by Tullus Hostilius. Emperor

Hostilius was a man of the sword, who

went to war with Alba Longa and later on

Fidenates. He also went to war with the

Sabine neighbors, until a plague on

himself and his city forced him to make

peace.

642-617 BC: Tullus Hostilius was struck by lighting and killed. The fourth emperor to

rule the Roman throne was Ancus Marcius. He was Numa Pompilius's grandson.

The neighboring cities thought him to be a push over, who would be eager for peace

at any price. But Ancus Marcius proved himself to be a great warrior, administrator,

priest and a diplomat. He build the first bridge over the river Tiber, Sublician Bridge.

Ancus Marcius was a good king who was respected by his people.

SEVENTH CENTURY B.C.

SIXTH CENTURY B.C.

616-579 BC: Lucius Tarquinius Priscus became the fifth ruler of Rome. Also known as Tarquin the Elder, he rose to have a significant influence on Rome. He was a favorite of Ancus Marcius and he was made the guardian of his two sons. After the death of Ancus Marcius, he cunningly sent the sons for hunting while he made the funeral arrangements. On their return they were surprised to find Tarquin on the throne. He had used their absence to win over the Roman votes and become the ruler of Rome. He became a great ruler building a strong army that won over Sabines, Latins and Etruscans. He was killed by assassins hired by the scorned sons of Ancus. His clever wife did not disclose his death immediately and announced that the injured Tarquin wanted his son-in-law Servius Tullius to take over till he recovers. 509 BC Rome becomes a republic. Rome becomes the most important city of his surroundings, Latium.

616-579 BC: Lucius Tarquinius Priscus became the fifth ruler of Rome. Also known as Tarquin the Elder, he rose to have a significant influence on Rome. He was a favorite of Ancus Marcius and he was made the guardian of his two sons. After the death of Ancus Marcius, he cunningly sent the sons for hunting while he made the funeral arrangements. On their return they were surprised to find Tarquin on the throne. He had used their absence to win over the Roman votes and become the ruler of Rome. He became a great ruler building a strong army that won over Sabines, Latins and Etruscans. He was killed by assassins hired by the scorned sons of Ancus. His clever wife did not disclose his death immediately and announced that the injured Tarquin wanted his son-in-law Servius Tullius to take over till he recovers.

FIFTH CENTURY B.C 500 B.C.Laws of the Twelve Tables codified in Rome (451 B.C.)

Rome had believed in early times that she was destined to rule the world even though there were many hostile peoples around her. She fought hard and survived. By the sixth century Rome had thrown out her last king and the Republic was founded around 510 BC.

From City-State to Nation-State For the next two and a half centuries the small city-state of Rome expanded its boundaries gradually until it ruled the entire Italian peninsula. This protected them from many of their hostile neighbours.

The Law of the Twelve Tables ) was the ancient legislation that stood at the foundation of Roman law. The Law of the Twelve Tables formed the centrepiece of the constitution of the Roman Republic and the core of the mos maiorum (custom of the ancestors). The Twelve Tables must be distinguished from the unrelated — and much older — "twelve shields" of King Numa Pompilius.

The Latin League The power of the Etruscans was diminishing yet they had an extremely large army of Italian tribes prepared for war along with two other powerful neighboring armies, the great mountain tribe armies of the Aequi, and the Volsci. Rome was in great danger because of them. Rome was also in danger because the Latin cities had formed a league to threaten the newly formed republic in Rome and she had to defend herself against this alliance for many years.

Rome, who had been mainly an army of farmers defending their land, decided to regroup and organize and they finally won a tremendous victory at Lake Regillus in 486 BC and they became the dominant partner in the league. They all became allies so that they could defend themselves against the armies of the Etruscans, the Aequi, and the Volsci. Meanwhile the northern Sabellians were invading the lands of the Aequi, and the Volsci which drove them down into Italy to attack Rome. Two great Roman leaders defeated them one named Coriolanus defeated the Aequi and another named Cincinnatus defeated the Volsci. After this Rome made more attacks on the Etruscans and doubled her territory which eventually brought them to a place as leader of the Latin League.

The fourth century started out as a terrible time for the Romans and yet by the end of the century they had defeated the combined armies of the Latin League and Rome became the capital of all of Latium and her armies defended its borders.

FOURTH CENTURY B.C

The Gauls Around 387 BC a barbarous tribe in the north part of Europe known as the Gauls defeated the Romans at the River Allia and invaded Italy and sacked Rome. According to the historian Livy, most of the people had fled Rome in terror. Only a handful of soldiers and some Roman senators had remained and the Gauls provoked the senators to defend themselves and when they did the Gauls brutally slaughtered them.

.

Etruscan city of Veii falls to Rome Etruscan civilization in decline (396 B.C.) Rome begins conquest of Italy (396 B.C.) Gauls sack Rome (390 B.C.)

Rome signs treaty with Carthage (348 B.C.) First Samnite War between Rome and the Samnites (343 B.C.-341 B.C.) first Roman coins (338 B.C.) Second Samnite War between Rome and the Samnites (327 B.C.-304 B.C.

THIRD CENTURY BC By the turn of the third century Rome had a powerful army, a new navy, and a great military highway, with strong garrisons of soldiers at strategic borders. Rome was well organized in her efforts to maintain a unity within her territory. The statesmen would discourage internal strife by providing generous land grants to the army, as well as the spoils of war and democratic rights. They also forced their victims to join their armies.

300 B.C. Third Samnite War between Rome and the Samnites (298 B.C.-290 B.C.) Pyrrhus of Epirus invades Italy, but is forced to withdrawal (275 B.C.)

When Carthage moved into Messina in northern Sicily the local Greek cities under Rome's protection cried out to Rome for help. Rome sent an army to Sicily and the wars began. Carthage was larger and wealthier than Rome yet Rome was superior in its manpower and its loyal citizenry. The biggest threat to Rome was not in the land battles but in the Sea battles because of Carthage's huge navy and her naval skills.

First Punic War between Rome and Carthage(264 B.C.-241 B.C.)

Colossus of Rhodes completed (c. 275 B.C.) first public gladiator combat in Rome (264 B.C.)

After winning many victories the Romans lost 200 of their ships and 100,000 men to very violent storms off Camarina in 255 BC. They soon regrouped and defeated Carthage in 241 BC with a third fleet of warships. It took approximately 20 years for the Romans to drive the Carthaginians out of Sicily. This would mark Rome's first overseas territory.

Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage (218 B.C.-202 B.C.) Hannibal's Plan Carthage was not going to give up easily. A determined leader of Carthage, Hamilcar Barca directed his attention to Spain where they could get control over the mineral resources there and create an army from the people there that would match the Roman legions. His son Hannibal was committed to ruin Rome and created a military base in Spain.

Hannibal devised an ingenious plan. His intention was to make a surprise attack upon Italy herself. He led his new army consisting of 60,000 men, 6,000 horses and 37 war elephants over the River Rhone (with his elephants on rafts), then across the Pyrenees mountains, then through southern Gaul and they finally arrived at the Alps after 5 months.

Only 1/2 of his army had survived. The Greek historian Polybius described the scene. Hannibal finally arrived in Italy and went a severe rampage against the Romans. The Roman historian Livy describes Hannibal's leadership

Hannibal is Defeated Rome could not defeat Hannibal in Italy so she retaliated by conquering Spain and then attacking Carthage. Under the leadership of Cornelius Scipio Africanus a Roman army sailed to Africa and attacked Carthage. Hannibal was recalled to Africa in 203 BC to defend his homeland and he was defeated by Scipio in 202 BC at Zama Regia, 80 miles southwest of Carthage. This was Hannibal's first defeat. He escaped to Greece but for Carthage the war was lost.

Scipio Africanus Carthage surrendered and gave up her fleet and all her overseas territory, including the Spanish colonies, and paid another large indemnity. Now Rome was clearly the master of the Mediterranean Sea

Rome and Macedonia sign a non-aggression pact (205 B.C.) ALL THE last Etruscan cities fall to Roman expansion ( 200 B.C.)

Rome attacks Macedonia (200 B.C.) last Etruscan cities fall to Roman expansion (c. 200 B.C.) Rome defeats Macedonian army under Philip V at Cynoscephalae (197 B.C.) first known paved streets appear in Rome (170 B.C.) Rome defeats Macedonia at Pydna (168 B.C.) Macedonia forced to pay tribute to Rome (168 B.C.) first water clock in Rome (c. 159 B.C.) Macedonian revolt led by Andriscus defeats a Roman legion (150 B.C.)

Water clock

Water clock A water clock or clepsydra is a device for measuring time by letting

water regularly flow out of a container usually by a tiny aperture. Since

the rate of flow of water is very difficult to control precisely, water

clocks could never achieve high accuracy.

Water clocks were among the earliest chronometers that did not

depend on the observation of celestial bodies.

clepsydras ("water thieves") by the Greeks, who began using them

about 325 BC, these were stone vessels with sloping sides that

allowed water to drip at a nearly constant rate from a small hole near

the bottom. Other clepsydras were cylindrical or bowl-shaped

containers designed to slowly fill with water entering at a constant

rate.

Markings on the inside surfaces measured the passage of "hours" as

the water level reached them. These clocks were used to determine

hours at night, but may have been used in daylight as well. Another

version consisted of a metal bowl with a hole in the bottom; when

placed in a container of water the bowl would fill and sink in a certain

time. These were still in use in northern Africa in the 20th century.

More elaborate and

impressive mechanized

water clocks were

developed between 100 BC

and 500 A.D. by Greek and

Roman horologists and

astronomers.

The added complexity was

aimed at making the flow

more constant by

regulating the pressure and

at providing fancier

displays of the passage of

time.

Third Punic War between Rome and Carthage (149 B.C.-146 B.C.)

By the end of the Second Punic War

(the war where Hannibal and his

elephants crossed the Alps), Rome so

hated Carthage that she wanted to

destroy the north African urban center.

The story is told that when Rome finally

got to take revenge, after the Romans

won the Third Punic War, they salted

the fields so the Carthaginians could no

longer live there.

By 201 B.C., the end of the Second Punic War, Carthage no longer had her

empire, but she was still a shrewd trading nation. By the middle of the second

century, Carthage was thriving and it was hurting the trade of those Romans

who had investments in North Africa.

Rome puts down a Macedonian revolt (148 B.C.) Macedonia annexed by Rome (148 B.C.) Greece falls under Roman control (147 B.C.) Phrygia becomes a Roman province (133 B.C.) Lydia absorbed into the Roman Empire (133 B.C.)

Meanwhile, African tribes neighboring Carthage knew that according to the

peace treaty between Carthage and Rome that had concluded the Second

Punic War, if Carthage overstepped the line drawn in the sand, it would be

interpreted as an act of aggression against Rome.

These neighbors took advantage of this reason to feel secure and made hasty

raids into Carthaginian territory, knowing their victims couldn't pursue them.

Eventually, Carthage could stand these incursions no longer. In 149 B.C.,

Carthage got back into armor and went after the Numidians.

Rome declared war because Carthage had broken the treaty.

Although Carthage didn't stand a chance, the war was drawn out for three

years. Eventually a descendant of Scipio Africanus, Scipio Aemilianus,

defeated the starved citizens of the besieged city of Carthage. After killing or

selling all the inhabitants into slavery, the Romans razed (possibly salting the

land) and burned the city. No one was allowed to live there. Cato's chant had

been carried out.

100 B.C.birth of Gaius Julius Caesar (100 B.C.) civil war in Rome ( 90 B.C. ) revolt of slaves and gladiators led by Spartacus (71 B.C.) birth of Virgil (70 B.C.) birth of Gaius Octavius (Augustus) future Roman Emperor (63 B.C.) Pompey of Rome captures Jerusalem and places Judah under Roman rule (63 B.C.) Triumvirate formed between C. Licinius Crassus, Gaius Julius Caesar, and Pompeius Magnus (59 B.C.) Gaius Julius Caesar begins conquest of Gaul (58 B.C.) Caesar defeats Pompey at Pharsalus in Greece (48 B.C.)

FIRST CENTURY BC

JULIUS CAESAR

Herod the Great rules Israel as a Roman vassal (34-4 B.C.) Gaius Julius Octavianus (Augustus) defeats Mark Antony and Cleopatra at Actium (31 B.C.) Egypt becomes a Roman province (31 B.C.) construction of the Pantheon begins (30 B.C.) Augustus becomes the first Emperor of the Roman Empire (27 B.C.) Kush assists the Nubians in a revolt against Rome (24 B.C.) Roman army razes Kushite city of Napata (23 B.C.)

Caesar murdered (44 B.C.)

Emperor AUGUSTUS

Rome invades the British Isles (30 A.D.) Titus suppresses a revolt in Jerusalem (70 A.D.) Silk Road from China to Rome opened (74 A.D.)

ZERO CENTURY

Conflagration in Rome. (64 AD) The Vesuvius erupts; Pompeii and other cities are burried under a thick lay of ash. (74 AD)

SILK ROUTE FROM ROME TO CHINA

100 A.D.Marcus Aurelius becomes emperor of Rome (161 A.D.) great plague in the Roman Empire (164 A.D.)

FIRST CENTURY AD

Antonian Emperors rule rome. (117-193 AD)

ROMAN EMPEROR MARCUS AURELIUS

Roman art Sculptures Paintings Motifs Mosaic works Pottery

The Romans developed or improved their art by copying the art from the

Greeks for the statues.

ROMAN STATUES

Statues were made from clay or marble. Metal was sometimes added to the

statues so that they had added strenght. Statues were well made, were nude and

they were made of gods or important leaders which were recognised . The fact that

the statues had important people meant that they had to be done as well as possible

since it was honouring their gods.

Paintings and mosaics were important too as they were used to advertise or to show

everyday life scenes. These were made in local colours which were found in the stone,

plants and any other source of colour. one example of this is in the Roman town of

Pompeii. These paintings usualy showed scenes of everyday life in the countryside.

Mosaics are said to have come from the city of Babylon and that since the Romans

found great beauty decided to copy it, adding it to buildings etc.

ROMAN PAINTINGS

ROMAN PAINTINGS

ROMAN SCULPTURES

There is also opus tessellatum which are like dice. Square in shape and

are all of the same shape so these were used mostly on floors.

There is a more complex styles which is called Opus vermiculatum where

the square stones are of varying sizes. Mosaics are usually made up of tiny

stones which are painted. When they are placed in a certain way they

make scenes from everyday life like paintings or photos do now.

The Romans also engraved gems and used them as seals, to mark official documents to prove that they were by certain people so that no one could falsify the document. They engraved the background so that the character stood out of the ring.

There are different styles of mosaics and there is a name for each style.

These names are opus sectile which is a name given to mosaics made

with geometric shapes of stone put in a certain way to make a shape of

the desired look.

ROMAN MOTIFS , MOSAIC AND GEM WORK

ROMAN GEM AND MOSAIC ART WORK

Roman Pottery Roman pottery was inspired by Estruscan pottery, but rapidly evolved it's own unique style. During the Roman Republic, most pottery was made locally. In the era of Augustus, 63 BC – 14 AD, to meet the demands of an expanding empire, pottery was mass-produced in large factories. Arezzo in Italy, was famed for it potteries. There were other potteries situated in southern France. This pottery, called Samian ware, was a distinctive red colour. It was very popular and exported throughout the Roman world. The decorative elements were made by plaster moulds. The styles and shapes were influenced by the West Asian potters.

Popularity of Samian Ware By c.70AD, the Italian and French Samian pottery was being extensivly copied. These imitations have different names according to where they were produced.Hispania Baetica copies were called Terra Sigillata Hispanica The North African copies, were known as African Red Slip Ware, or terra Sigillata, were highly popular Amphoras and lamps were also manufactured on a large scale. African Red Slip ware was exported all over the western part of the Roman empire, eventually bankrupting the Italian and French potteries. The standard of craftsmanship slowly declined once the market had been flooded. African Red Slip continued to be made until the 7th century. Islamic invaders introduced their vibrant lusters to the future al-Andalus Arts and Crafts.

Origins of Roman Architecture

As with sculpture, the Romans borrowed heavily from two cultures that they conquered – the Etruscans and the Greeks.

Elements of Roman architecture show very significant Greek influence. However, Roman functional needs sometimes differed, resulting in interesting innovations. The Romans were less attached to “ideal” forms and extended Greek ideas to make them more functional.

Romans needed interior space for worship, whereas the Greeks worshipped outside. Their solution was to extend the walls outward, creating engaged columns, while maintaining the same basic shape.

Roman Innovation

To the original Greek orders, the Romans added two:

The Tuscan order. The Compostite order.

Tuscan Order:

Like the Doric, except this one has a base.

The Composite order combined

elements of both the Ionic and Corinthian. It appears to be Corinthian acanthus leaves, supplemented with volutes.

The Romans were the great engineers of the ancient world. Their structures, particularly of public works, were often massive in scale

The Roman ability to build massively was largely determined by their discovery of slow-drying concrete, made with pozzolana sand. This allowed not only bases, but also walls to be constructed of mainly concrete or concrete and rubble. Facings could be made of more expensive stone or inexpensive brick. The result was strong structures that could be formed in any desirable shape.

Roman Architecture used arches on a scale which had hitherto been unknown. The Romans perfected the mixing of a heavy duty, waterproof, fire-resistant concrete: cement, sand and small-sized rocks binded in a limestone mixture with volcanic ashes and pulverized pumice. This concrete facilitated the construction of large arches and domes that could carry a great deal of weight. The arches of Ancient Rome made a vast impact on architecture. This technique thereafter was copied and adapted throughout the world.

Roman cities and towns were drawn up in a rectangular overall plans.

Two main streets divided the metropolis into sections:

The Cardo (north-south street) and the Decumanus (east-west street).

The Transcendance of Roman Town Planning

Smaller streets subdivided each section. Roman cities were protected by a wall and gate.

Fresh running water and Public baths were an essential feature as were sewerage drains, keeping health and hygiene as a integral part of civilization. Roman Art and Architecture Baelo Claudia Model

Roman Architecture was imperial, monumental and impressive Centuries later...Spanish royalty chose to build two Roman-styled palaces: The Palace of Carlos V at the Alhambra Granada Spain and during the Spanish Siglo de Oro: Felipe 11's El Escorial Palace in San Lorenzo de El Escorial - whose architect Juan Bautista de Toledo had spent most of his life in Rome.

Roman influence survived the centuries, clearly visible, in Roman art and architecture.

The typical Roman city of the later Republic and empire had a rectangular plan and resembled a Roman military camp with two main streets—the cardo (north-south) and the decumanus (east-west)—a grid of smaller streets dividing the town into blocks, and a wall circuit with gates. Older cities, such as Rome itself, founded before the adoption of regularized city planning, could, however, consist of a maze of crooked streets. The focal point of the city was its forum, usually situated at the center of the city at the intersection of the cardo and the decumanus

The first primitive cottages on the Palatine.

ARCHITECTURE 800 – 700 BC

Roman houses were so well built, if you were rich, that many examples of Roman houses exist throughout the Roman Empire. If you were poor in Rome, you lived in simple flats or apartments - the inside of these places was symbolic of your lack of wealth. These flats were known as insulae and only contained two rooms at the most. People tended to use them only for sleeping as they had to work, visit the baths (as their flats had no running water) and they usually ate in local inns as cooking in these flats was not safe. Rich family homes were very different. The rich lived in single-storey houses which were built around a central hall known as an atrium. Atrium had rooms opening up off of them and they were also open to the weather as they had no roofs. Many atriums had a trough built into their design so that water could be collected when it rained.

Roman insulae

Later stages of roman housing

Beyond an atrium was a second open courtyard known as a peristylum. This area included a garden and it also had rooms opening up off of it. In the homes of the wealthy, the gardens served as a meeting point so they were designed to be shady and comfortable so that people could meet in them regardless of whether the sun was fierce. The main rooms were decorated with coloured plaster walls and, if they could be afforded, mosaics. These decorated floors were a statement of your wealth and importance. The grander mosaics had to be done by experts and they were expensive. A master mosaic craftsman would map out the picture while those who worked for him did the actual work in making a mosaic. Probably the most famous Roman mosaic in Britain is at Fishbourne Palace in West Sussex. Plan of rich roman houses

Though mosaics could be spectacular, furniture, even in the homes of the rich, tended to be basic. Stools were common as opposed to chairs and reclining couches were used. Beds were simple affairs with 'springs' being provided by leather straps that criss-crossed a bed frame. Houses also had water piped straight to them - unlike flats and apartments. Lead pipes brought water to a house. However, these pipes were taxed according to size - the larger the pipes, the more the tax. Archaeologists can usually tell the wealth of an owner of a Roman house by simply looking at the size of the lead pipes that brought water to that house. Houses were also centrally heated by what was known as a hypocaust. This was under-floor heating. Slaves were charged with keeping the hypocaust both clean and alight during the day. This system of heating was also used to keep some Roman baths hot if they had no access to naturally heated water.

A roman atrium

Some Roman villas in Britain have survived in such good condition that we have a very clear idea about how the rich lived and what their homes were like. When the Romans left Britain, it appears that some villas were covered with dirt to 'trap' into them the spirits of the Romans - thus, they could not 'escape'. In 1960, a workman found substantial ancient building rubble at Fishbourne, West Sussex, while digging a trench. In 1961 a trial excavation took place and what was essentially a complete Roman villa was found. A huge variety of Roman homes can also be found at Pompeii, of course.

3-d veiw of a roman villa

Roman insulae

A view of the Roman Forum

Schematic plan

Forums The forum, an open area bordered by colonnades with shops, functioned as the chief meeting place of the town. It was also the site of the city's primary religious and civic buildings, among them the Senate house, records office, and basilica.

When archaeologists began excavating the city of Pompeii, which had been covered with ash and mud by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in ad 79, they found the remains of people, ancient buildings, and other artifacts preserved amid the volcanic debris. Among the structures uncovered was The Forum of Pompeii, pictured, a group of temples, courts, and palaces that served as the city’s legislative center.

Roman Temples The chief temple of a Roman city, the capitolium, was generally located at one end of the forum. The standard Roman temple was a blend of Etruscan and Greek elements; rectangular in plan, it had a gabled roof, a deep porch with freestanding columns, and a frontal staircase giving access to its high plinth, or platform.

By the 1st century b.c, the extensive conquests of the Romans led them to regard the Mediterranean as mare nostrum (our sea). Roman influence went far beyond politics. Roman art, architecture, and language were among the cultural traits that slowly took hold in many of Rome's conquered territories. Ruins of ancient temples in Baalbek, Lebanon, include the Temple of Jupiter, built by the Romans after they took control of the territory that included what is now Lebanon in 64 b.c.

The Regia was a structure in Ancient Rome, located in the Roman Forum. It was originally the residence of the kings of Rome or at least their main headquarters, and later the office of the Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of Roman religion. It occupied a triangular patch of terrain between the Temple of Vesta, the Temple of Divus Julius and Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. Only the foundations of Republican/Imperial Regia remain. Like the Curia it was destroyed and rebuilt several times, as far back as the Roman monarchy. Studies have found multiple layers of similar buildings with more regular features, prompting the theory that this "Republican Regia" was to have a different use.

ROMAN INNOVATION – MASSIVE BUILDING - THE TEMPLE OF FORTUNA PRIMIGENIA

The Temple of Fortuna Primigenia was a massive structure, made possible by concrete construction.

Servian Wall The Servian Wall was a defensive barrier constructed around the city of Rome in the early 4th century BC. The wall was up to 10 metres (32.8 ft) in height in places, 3.6 metres (12 ft) wide at its base, 11 km (7 mi) long, and is believed to had 16 main gates, though many of these are mentioned only from writings, with no other known remains.

History It is presumed that the wall is named after the sixth Roman King, Servius Tullius. Although its outline may go back to the 6th century BC, the currently extant wall was, it is estimated, built during the later Roman Republic, possibly as a way to prevent a repeat of the sack of Rome during Battle of the Allia by the Gauls of Brennus. Due to the ease with which the Gauls entered the city, it is conjectured that at some time previous to this, Rome had been forced by its Etruscan rulers to dismantle any significant prior defenses.

Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus

The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, also known as the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was the most important temple in Ancient Rome, located on the Capitoline Hill.

Much of what is known of the first Temple of Jupiter is from later Roman tradition. Lucius Tarquinius Priscus vowed this temple while battling with the Sabines , and according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus began the terracing necessary to support the foundations of the temple. Modern coring on the Capitoline has confirmed the extensive work needed just to create a level building site. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Livy, the foundations and most of the superstructure of the temple were completed by Lucius Tarquinius Superbus.

First building

Second building

Plan of the temple.

Sulla hoped to live until the temple was rebuilt,

but Quintus Lutatius Catulus had the honor of

dedicating the new structure in 69 BC. The new

temple was built to the same plan on the same

foundations, but with more expensive materials

for the superstructure. Literary sources indicate

that the temple was not entirely completed until

the late 60s BC. Brutus and the other assassins

locked themselves inside it after

murdering Caesar. The new temple of Quintus

Lutatius Catulus was renovated and repaired

by Augustus.

The second building burnt down during the

course of fighting on the hill on December 19

in 69 AD, when Vespasian battled to enter the city

as Emperor in the Year of the Four

Emperors. Domitian narrowly escaped with his

life.

Third building The new emperor, Vespasian, rapidly rebuilt the temple on the same foundations but with a lavish superstructure. The third temple of Jupiter was dedicated in AD 75. The third temple burned during the reign of Titus in the great fire of AD 80.

Fourth building Relief sculpture of Marcus Aurelius sacrificing at the fourth

temple.

Domitian immediately began rebuilding the temple, again on

the same foundations, but with the most lavish superstructure

yet. According to ancient sources, Domitian used at least

twelve thousands talents of gold for the gilding of the bronze

roof tiles alone. Elaborate sculpture adorned the pediment.

A Renaissance drawing of a damaged relief in the Louvre

Museum shows a four-horse chariot) beside a two-horse

chariot to the right of the latter at the highest point of the

pediment, the two statues serving as the central acroterion,

and statues of the god Mars and goddess Venus surmounting

the corners of the cornice, serving as acroteria.

In the center of the pediment the god Jupiter was flanked by

Juno and Minerva, seated on thrones. Below was an eagle

with wings spread out. A biga driven by the sun god and a biga

driven by the moon were depicted either side of the three

gods.

The temple completed by Domitian is thought to have lasted

more or less intact for over four hundred years, until the fifth

century depredations of Stilicho, Gaiseric, and Narses.

Relief sculpture of Marcus Aurelius sacrificing at the fourth temple.

It was said that the Temple of Jupiter was dedicated on September 13 the year of the Roman Republic, c. 509 BC. It was sacred to the Capitoline Triad consisting of Jupiter and his companion deities, Juno and Minerva. The man to perform the dedication of the temple was chosen by lot. The duty fell to Marcus Horatius Pulvillus, one of the consuls in that year. The original Temple measured almost 60 x 60 m and was considered the most important religious temple of the whole state of Rome. Each deity of the Triad had a separate cella, with Juno Regina on the left, Minerva on the right, and Jupiter Optimus Maximus in the middle. The first temple was decorated with many terra cotta sculptures. The most famous of these was of Jupiter driving a quadriga, a chariot drawn by four horses, which was on top of the roof as an acroterion. This sculpture, as well as the cult statue of Jupiter in the main cella, was said to have been the work of Etruscan artisan Vulca of Veii. An image of Summanus, a thunder god, was among the pedimental statues.

The plan and exact dimensions of the temple have been heavily debated. Five different plans of the temple have been published following recent excavations on the Capitoline Hill that revealed portions of the archaic foundations. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the same plan and foundations were used for later rebuildings of the temple. The first Temple burned in 83 BC, during the civil wars under the dictatorship of Sulla. Also lost in this fire were the Sibylline Books, which were said to have been written by classical sibyls, and stored in the Temple (to be guarded and consulted by the Quindecemviri (council of fifteen) on matters of state only on emergencies).

The Etruscan obsession with elaborate burials leads us to suppose that they may have had an underlying belief, similar to the Egyptians that a part of the soul remained with the body, or at least that the body was important for the afterlife. Having said that, the earliest grave sites were cremations, with the ash being retained either in biconical urns, or urns fashioned to represent huts. Gradually inhumation burials began to appear, the first being in Tarquinia and Caere, and during the Orientalizing period eventually became the prevailing rite, except in northern Etruria, where cremation persisted right up to the 1st century BC, epitomised by the elaborately carved alabaster urns of Volterra.

In the Orientalizing period the use of writing, the potter's wheel, and monumental funerary architecture reflected the accumulation of luxury goods of gold and ivory and exotic trade items such as ostrich eggs,tridacna shells, and faience. Many scholars hypothesize the existence of a powerful aristocratic class, and craftsmen, merchants, and seamen would have formed a middle class; it was probably at this time that the Etruscans began to maintain the elegant slaves for which they were famous.

Funerary Games The passion for games was very widespread among the Etruscans. Besides the funereal games of the Phersu (See: tomb of the Augurs), other games of skill were popular ( See tomb of the Juggler): In this game, the objective was to throw a series of disks into a large wine crater balanced on the head of a female performer. The game of Pertica, consisted of a slippery wooden pole which competitors had to climb . Sporting competitions were important events in the Etruscan world and took place at religious ceremonies such as funerals. Athletic competitions took place in the stadiums while horse races took place in the Hippodrome. One of the most frequent competitions was the chariot race, as illustrated in dramatic detail in the Tomb of the Bigas in Tarquinia. In the arena jumpers and discus and javelin throwers also competed. The Tomb of the Olympic Games shows some graphic details of such sports together with crowds of spectators.

The Tombs of Caere (or Cerveteri as it is known today) span an extensive timescale, from the Villanovan period right up until the late Roman period, but by far the majority of the tombs are those of the 6th and 7th Century BCE- a time when Caere reached its peak, and must have rivaled such cities as Athens and Corinth.

Caere

Caere

The tombs occupy a wide area: The valley of the Sorbo, where the famous Regolini - Galassi tomb (c. 650 - 625 BCE) with its splendid Gold Jewellery was discovered, and the neighbouring hills of Monte Abatone, with its Torlonia tomb and Campana Tumulus, and the Banditaccia, which has over four hundred Tombs, in some cases forming veritable streets of the dead carved out of the volcanic tufa.

*1 - Via degli Inferi (street of Hades) *2 - Tomba dei Capitelli (Tomb of the Capitals) *3 - Tombs of the late period *4 - Tufa containers (Ziri) *5 - Tomba della Capanna (Tomb of the Hut) *6 - Excavation of tombs of the late period *7 - Tomba dei Rilievi (Tomb of the Bas-reliefs) *8 - Tomba della Cornice (Tomb of the Cornice) *9 - Tomba della Casetta (Tomb of the House) *10 - Via dei Vasi Aretini (Street of the Aretine Vases)

*11 - Via dei Monti della Tolfa (Street of the Tolfa Hills) *12 - Tomb of the Street of the Tolfa Hills *13 - Via dei Monti Cerifi (Street of the Cerveteri Hills) *14 - Maroi Tumulus *15 - Tumulus of the Polichrome Cornice *16 - Tumulus with decorated drum *17 - Mengarelli Tumulus *18 - Drainage tunnel *19 - Tumulus of the Colonel *20 - Tomba a Dado (Cube Tomb) *21 - Drainage channel

Tarquinia The earliest archaeological remains at the original site of Tarquinia are 9th-century BCE Villanovan (Iron Age) well tombs. Cremation with ashes in a biconical vessel is commonly found from this period, but the earliest examples of

inhumation also started to appear, contemporaneous with cremation sites, but possibly associated with varying family traditions.

The famous Etruscan necropolis of Monterozzi, situated on a ridge southwest of the ancient city, contains the most

important painted tombs in Etruria, mostly rock-cut chamber tombs dating from the 6th to the 4th century BCE.

Today the location of more than one hundred and fifty painted tombs are known. The Tarquinia tomb frescos are well preserved in many cases, and we owe much of our insight into Etruscan lifestyle to the Tarquinia frescos. The

Tarquinia frescos represent approximately 90% of all Etruscan necropolis frescos.

One of the most famous is the Fowling and Fishing Tomb with its polychrome frescoes painted about 520 BCE. The tombs of the Lionesses of the Augurs , and of the Banquet (Bacchantes) (all 6th century BCE) show dancing and

banqueting scenes.

The Tomb of the Triclinium is the most outstanding 5th-century painted tomb, and the Tomb of the Shields is a masterpiece of 4th-century painting. A distinctive 2nd-century painting tradition, rare in Etruria, is found in the

paintings of the Tomb of the Cardinal, and the Tomb of the Typhon. A serious conservation problem has arisen as many of the paintings have been attacked by moisture and fungus since the collection was opened to the public. A

rich collection of articles from the necropolis is housed in the archaeological museum in the Palazzo Vitelleschi (1436-39) in modern Tarquinia.

At the upper floor some tombs have been rebuilt with the original paintings. The race between chariots (bigas)

where one is moved by the feeling of speed (from the "Tomb of the Olympic games"), the cruel game of "phersu" (in the "Tomb of the Bigas " ) or scenes of funeral banquets and dances and the rare representation of a big ship

are the rare and fascinating visions of a magnificent past where Tarquinia imposed itself as one of the most

flourishing centres of the Etruscan Civilisation especially in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE.

Above: Tombs of Tarquinia

Vulci The Tombs of Vulci date from the 8th Century BCE. The frescoes of one of its tombs, called the "François Tomb" after its discoverer, are unique in that they show early scenes from Etruscan history. These paintings, which date from the 4th-3rd century, were detached and taken to the Museo Torlonia in Rome. From other tombs came remarkable stone sculptures and imported Greek vases. Four necropolises dating from the 8th century BCE have been found around the city of Vulci. The tombs of the 6th and 5th centuries BCE are generally of the sarcophagus type. Only a few inhumations are to be found, including the large tumulus of the "cuccumella". The habit of placing statues of imaginary animals to guard the tombs is characteristic of Vulci. Immensely rich burial treasures have been found in these tombs, in particular a large number of ceramics of Greek production, and bronze objects of local production. In the second half of the 4th century BCE, the tombs became of the hypogeal type and reproduce the shapes of the dwellings. The most well-known of these hypogea is the François tomb, famous for its paintings (now at Villa Albani in Rome) portraying, as well as the deceased, episodes from Greek mythology together with characters from Etruscan myths and history.

Architecture 5th century BC

The Temple of Castor and Pollux is an ancient edifice in the Roman Forum , Rome , central Italy . It was originally built in gratitude for victory at the Battle of Lake Regillus (495 BC ). Castor and Pollux (Greek Polydeuces) were the Dioscuri , the "twins" of Gemini , the twin sons of Zeus (Jupiter ) and Leda . Their cult came to Rome from Greece via Magna Graecia and the Greek culture of Southern Italy.

Temple of Castor and Pollux

Location Regione VIII Forum Romanum

Built in 495 BC

Built by/for Unknown builder

Type of structure Roman Temple

.

According to Edward Gibbon, the temple of Castor served as a secret meeting place for the Roman Senate. He said the senate was roused to rebellion against Emperor Maximinus Thrax and in favor of future emperor Gordian I at the Temple of Castor in 237 AD. The temple was still standing intact in the 4th century, but nothing is known of its subsequent history, except that in the 15th century, only three columns of its original structure were still standing. The street running by the building was called via Trium Columnarum.

The Temple of Castor and Pollux (right) with the Temple of Vesta to the left

Architecture The octostyle temple was peripteral, with eight Corinthian columns at the short sides and eleven on the long sides. There was a single cella paved with mosaics. The podium measures 32×49.5m and 7m in height. The building was constructed in opus caementicium and originally covered with slabs of tuff which were later removed. According to ancient sources the temple had a single central stairway to access the podium, but excavations have identified two side stairs

The Temple of Saturn is a monument to the

agricultural deity. The Temple of Saturn

stands at the foot of the Capitaline hill in

the western end of the Forum Romanum

in Rome, Italy

Temple of Saturn

Location Regione VIII Forum Romanum

Built in 497 BC

Built by/for Tarquinius Superbus

Type of structure Roman temple

Interior According to the sources, the statue

of the god in the interior, veiled and

provided with a scythe, was wooden

and filled with oil. The legs were

covered with linen bents, which

were released only on December

17, the day of the Saturnalia.

While dedicated to the god Saturn, the temple's chief use was as the seat of the treasury of the Roman Republic ,storing the Republic's reserves of gold and silver. Also the state archives, the insignia and the official scale for the weighing of metals were housed in the temple . Later, the aerarium was moved to another building, while the archives were transferred to the nearby Tabularium. The temple's podium, in concrete covered with travertine , was used for bill-posting.

All Roads Lead to Rome The road system of the Ancient Romans was one of the greatest engineering accomplishments of its time, with over 50,000 miles of paved road radiating from their center at the miliarius aurem in the Forum in the city of Rome the roads were used for trade. The Romans were the first ancient civilization to build paved roads, which did not prevent travel during or after inclement weather. Roman engineers, however, did not stop with just paving Roman roads. Roads were crowned—that is, they were higher in the middle than on the sides to allow water to run off—and they often had gutters for drainage along the shoulders. Probably the most incredible engineering feat concerning the Roman road system, though, is how well the roads were built. Many are still major thoroughfares for cars today. Indeed, their road-building methods were unsurpassed until the invention of the macadam in the 19th century.

Architecture 4th century bc

ROMAN CITY WALLS WERE BUILT

Appian Way An expanding network of roads helped to link Rome's distant territories. One of the most important paved military roads was the Appian Way, commissioned by the Roman official Appius Claudius Caecus. It became the major route from Rome to Greece. Although these large lava blocks may not be the original material, the route itself has remained unchanged and in use since it was first paved more than 2200 years ago.

There was nothing like it and without it Rome could not have won its tremendous empire. The use of cemented stone blocks has preserved it to the present day. Roman roads were built so well that some are still in use today. They built their roads in this manner: from bottom to top they contained rubble, flat slabs in mortar, concrete and gravel, and tightly laid flat paving stones. Each road had its own curb (curb stones) and a drainage ditch.

Aqueduct

Among the other great public building projects of the Romans, the most noteworthy are the network of bridges and roads that facilitated travel throughout the empire, and the aqueducts that brought water to the towns from mountain sources (Pont du Gard, late 1st century bc or early 1st century ad, near Nimes).

The Roman aqueduct at Pont du Gard near Nîmes, France, was built between the late 1st century bc and the early 1st century ad. The Romans built extensive systems of aqueducts to carry water to their residential areas from distant sources.

The Aqua Appia was the first Roman aqueduct. It

was constructed in 312 BC by Appius Claudius

Caecus , the same Roman censor who also built the

important Via Appia . Its source, which Frontinus

identifies as being about 780 paces away from via

Praenestina , was allegedly established by Caius

Plautius Venox.

The Aqua Appia flowed for 16.4 km into the city

of Rome through the Porta Maggiore , and emptied

into the Forum Boarium , near the Porta Trigemina.

Nearly all of its length was underground, which was

necessary because of the relative heights of its

source and destination, and afforded it protection

from attackers during the Samnite Wars that were

underway during its construction. It dropped only 10

m over its entire length, making it a remarkable

engineering achievement for its day.

Frontinus calculates that the aqueduct was capable

of delivering 73,000 cubic meters of water a day into

Rome.

Aqua Appia

In 377 B.C., the city of Halicarnassus was the

capitol of a small kingdom along the

Mediterranean coast of Asia Minor. It was in

that year the ruler of this land, Hecatomnus of

Mylasa, died and left control of the kingdom to

his son, Mausoleums. Hecatomnus, a local

satrap to the Persians, had been ambitious and

had taken control of several of the neighboring

cities and districts. Then Mausolus during his

reign extended the territory even further so

that it eventually included most of

southwestern Asia Minor.

Mausolus, with his queen Artemisia, ruled over

Halicarnassus and the surrounding territory

for 24 years. Though he was descended from

the local people, Mausolus spoke Greek and

admired the Greek way of life and government.

He founded many cities of Greek design along

the coast and encouraged Greek democratic

traditions.

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

then in 353 B.C. Mausolus died, leaving his queen

Artemisia, who was also his sister, broken-hearted (It was

the custom in Caria for rulers to marry their own sisters).

As a tribute to him, she decided to build him the most

splendid tomb in the known world. It became a structure so

famous that Mausolus's name is now associated with all

stately tombs throughout the world through the

word mausoleum. The building, rich with statuary and

carvings in relief, was so beautiful and unique it became

one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

Artemisia decided that no expense was to be spared in the

building of the tomb. She sent messengers to Greece to find

the most talented artists of the time. These included

architects Satyros and Pytheos who designed the overall

shape of the tomb. Other famous sculptors invited to

contribute to the project were Bryaxis, Leochares,

Timotheus and Scopas of Paros .

According to the historian Pliny Bryaxis, Leochares,

Timotheus and Scopas each took one side of the tomb to

decorate. Joining these sculptors were also hundreds of

other workmen and craftsmen. Together they finished the

building in the styles of three different cultures: Egyptian,

Greek and Lycian.

This lion is among the few free-standing sculptures from the Mausoleum at the British Museum.

Architecture 3rd century BC

The Circus Maximus was the largest stadium in ancient Rome. At one point the Circus could seat 250.000 people, one quarter of Rome's population.

Circus Maximus

Early History Chariot races were one of the Roman's most popular form of entertainment. Romulus, the first of Rome's seven kings, is said to have held chariot races. The origins of the Circus Maximus go back to the 6th century BC when Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of Rome, created a track between the Palatine and Aventine hills. The first permanent starting gates were created in 329 BC. In 174 BC the gates were rebuilt and seven wooden eggs were placed on top of the spina, the central wall in the arena. The eggs were used to count the number of laps; after each lap one egg was removed. In 33 BC seven bronze dolphins were added to the spina for the same purpose.

Wooden Structures A fire in 31 BC, the first of three, destroyed the

wooden structure. It was rebuilt by emperor

Augustus who also added an imperial box on the

palatine hill. A large obelisk from Heliopolis was

added to the spina as a decoration. The obelisk

can now be found at the center of the Piazza del

Popolo. Another obelisk was added much later, in

the 4th century.

A second fire, in AD 64, which started in wooden

shops at the bottom around the track started the

fire that burned much of Rome during the reign

of emperor Nero.

The Marble Stadium After yet another fire the Circus was rebuilt by Trajan in AD 103. The Roman empire was

at the height of its power and the new Circus Maximus reflected this status. The Circus

was now a stone construction, three stories high. The lower part of the cavea (seating

area) was built in marble. The arena complex was now more than 600m long and 150m

wide (2000x500ft).

Popular Events The Circus Maximus was occasionally used for events such as processions or gladiator combats, but on most days only chariot races with quadrigaes, pulled by four horses, were held here. The races themselves were wildly popular with people fanatically supporting one of the four factions: red, white, green and blue representing summer, winter, spring and autumn respectively. Bets were laid on one of the factions and supporters of the different factions often clashed, sometimes resulting in deaths among the spectators. The Last Race The last race at the Circus Maximus was held in AD 549, almost a millennium after the first races were held at this location. Today only the layout of the original circus can be seen in what is now a large grassland. Most of the original structure has been used as building material for medieval and Renaissance constructions.

The Colossus of Rhodes Travelers to the New York City harbor see a

marvelous sight. Standing on a small island in the

harbor is an immense statue of a robed woman,

holding a book and lifting a torch to the sky. The

statue measures almost one-hundred and twenty

feet from foot to crown. It is sometimes referred

to as the "Modern Colossus," but more often

called the Statue of Liberty.

This awe-inspiring statue was a gift from France to

America and is easily recognized by people

around the world. What many visitors to this

shrine to freedom don't know is that the statue,

the "Modern Colossus," is the echo of another

statue, the original colossus, that stood over two

thousand years ago at the entrance to another

busy harbor on the Island of Rhodes. Like the

Statue of Liberty, this colossus was also built as a

celebration of freedom. This amazing statue,

standing the same height from toe to head as the

modern colossus, was one of the Seven Wonders

of the Ancient World.

The Colossus of Rhodes was a statue of the

Greek Titan Helios, erected in the city

of Rhodes on the Greek island of Rhodes

by Chares of Lindos between 292 and 280

BC. It is considered one of the Seven

Wonders of the Ancient World. It was

constructed to celebrate Rhodes' victory

over the ruler of Cyprus, Antigonus I

Monophthalmus, who unsuccessfully

besieged Rhodes in 305 BC. Before its

destruction, the Colossus of Rhodes stood

over 30 meters (107 ft) high, making it one

of the tallest statues of the ancient world

Architecture 2nd century BC

Basilica

The basilica was a roofed hall with a wide central area—the nave—flanked by side aisles, and it often had two or more stories. In Roman times basilicas were the site of business transactions and legal proceedings, but the building type was adapted in Christian times as the standard form of the Western church with an apse and altar at the end of the long nave. The first basilicas were put up in the early 2nd century b.c. in Rome's own Forum, but the earliest well-preserved example of the basilicas (circa 120 b.c.) is found at Pompeii.

This Roman basilica was begun by the emperor

Maxentius between 307 and 310 and

completed by Constantine the Great after 312.

Although it was one of the most important

monuments in classical antiquity, almost all

that remains of the building are these three

huge, barrel-vaulted bays

ST. PETERS BASILLICA - ROME

ANCIENT BASILLICA OF AGIA SOPHIA – ROME

ANCIENT BACILICA AEMILIA NEAR ROMAN FORUM

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 100 BC

TABULARIUM ROME The Tabularium is a building that housed important documents and decrees in ancient Rome. To fully understand the significance of the Tabularium, one must remember that this was the place where deeds, records and laws were housed. To put it in modern day terms, this was the National Archives of ancient Rome. Those who wanted to study the documents would have gone to the Tabularium as well as those looking for some particular piece of information. In addition, new filings would have been handled by clerks there, and a number of public officials kept offices in the Tabularium.

PLAN OF ROMAN CITY SHOWING TABULARIUM

THEATRE OF MARCELLUS

Architecture 0 AD - 100 AD

Pantheon Roman temples were erected not only in the forum, but throughout the city and in the countryside as well; many other types are known. One of the most influential in later times was the type used for the Pantheon (ad 118-28) in Rome, consisting of a standard gable-roofed columnar porch with a domed cylindrical drum behind it replacing the traditional rectangular main room, or cella.

The Pantheon in Rome is one of the most

famous buildings in the world. It was

commissioned by Hadrian in 118 and

completed in 128. At one time it had a

colonnaded court leading to the portico.

The dome of the rotunda behind the portico is

43.2 m (142 ft) in diameter. The oculus (a

round opening) at the top is 8.5 m (28 ft) in

diameter and provides the only source of light

for the interior.

Roman engineers completed the Pantheon, a

temple to all the gods, in ad 128. Its interior

was conceived as a single immense space

illuminated by a single round opening, called

an oculus, at the highest point in the dome.

The interior is decorated with colored marble,

and lined with pairs of columns and carved

figures set into niches in the wall.

Roman Theaters Roman theaters first appeared in the late Republic. They were semicircular in plan and consisted of a tall stage building abutting a semicircular orchestra and tiered seating area (cavea). Unlike Greek theaters, which were situated on natural slopes, Roman theaters were supported by their own framework of piers and vaults and thus could be constructed in the hearts of cities.

The Roman emperor Augustus founded the

city of Aosta during the 1st century b.c near

the junction of natural transportation routes

from Italy through the mountains to France

and Switzerland.

The city has many remnants of Roman

architecture, including wall segments from

this theater.

Amphitheater Amphitheaters (literally , double theaters) were elliptical in plan with a central arena, where gladiatorial and animal combats took place, and a surrounding seating area built on the pattern of Roman theaters. The earliest known amphitheater (75 bc) Is at Pompeii, and the grandest, Rome's Colosseum (ad70-80) , held approximately 50,000 spectators , roughly the capacity of today's large sports stadiums.

The Colosseum in Rome (70-82) is best known for its multilevel system of vaults

made of concrete.

It is called the Colosseum for a colossal statue of Nero that once stood nearby, but

its real name is the Flavian Amphitheater.

It was used for staged battles between lions and Christians, among other

spectacles, and is one of the most famous pieces of architecture in the world.