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Savannas in Belize:

Results from Darwin Initiative Project

17-022 and the implications for

savanna conservation

Savannas in Belize: Results from Darwin project 17-022

Savannas in Belize:

Results of Darwin Initiative Project 17-022

and implications for savanna conservation

Report assembled by Belize Tropical Forest

Studies (BTFS) for Darwin Project Partners

June 2012

Contributing authors: Sam Bridgewater, Iain Cameron, Peter Furley, Zoe

Goodwin, Elma Kay, German Lopez, Jan Meerman, Dimitrios Michelakis,

Duncan Moss and Neil Stuart.


Table of Contents

1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 4

1.1 Project Overview ...................................................................................................................... 5

2 Status Overview ............................................................................................................................... 6

2.1 Conservation Status of Pine Savannas in Belize ........................................................................ 6

3 Products produced under the project ............................................................................................ 16

3.1 Project website launched and periodically updated; ............................................................... 16

3.2 Plant diversity surveys and vegetation habitat surveys conducted in lowland savanna areas; . 17

3.2.1 Selected Results ............................................................................................................. 20

3.3 Development of the Belize savanna plant database ................................................................ 36

3.4 Photographic field guide to savanna plants developed and field tested .................................. 38

3.5 Integration of the Savanna Map into the Belize Ecosystems Map; .......................................... 39

3.6 Soil-vegetation relationships in the Belizean savannas ........................................................... 45

4 The Way Forward .......................................................................................................................... 57

5 References ..................................................................................................................................... 61

6 Appendix 1: Agenda Science Meeting Wednesday April 13th, 2011 ............................................... 63

7 Appendix 2: Soil Analysis Methodology .......................................................................................... 65

8 Summary Table of Soils Fieldwork 2010-2012 ................................................................................ 67


Executive Summary

We report the results of a 3-year project of the UK government’s Darwin Initiative for the conservation

of biodiversity, involving partners from leading scientific institutions in the UK and Belize. From 2009 to

2012 information was collected about the plants and soils of the lowland savannas and a new national

mapping of the remaining savanna areas was produced as part of a new National Ecosystems Map and

published in 2012. In April 2011, a meeting was held at the Tropical Education Center at Belize Zoo, to

which leading national and international savanna experts were invited to present and to review the

state of knowledge about the biodiversity of Belize’s lowland savannas. This report documents the main

outputs from the Darwin Project that were presented at the Expert Meeting in April 2011 and

summarises the discussions that arose from the review of these outputs. We believe this report

provides the most current and comprehensive assessment of the present state of the lowland savanna

ecosystem in Belize and indicates how this can inform the future conservation and management of

remaining savanna areas in Belize.


1 Project Overview

In 2009 the “Savanna Ecosystem Assessment: Belize”, was initiated with the purpose of increasing

available data and enhancing the capacity of local institutions to undertake taxonomic research and

mapping required to identify priority areas for conservation within savannas. Commonly referred to as

the Darwin Savanna project, as it was funded by the UK Darwin Initiative, the project brought together a

consortium of partners from the UK and Belize including The University of Edinburgh (UoE), The Royal

Botanic Garden Edinburgh (RBGE), The University of Belize (UB), The Belize Forestry Department (FD),

Belize Botanical Gardens (BBG), Programme for Belize (PfB) and Belize Tropical Forest Studies (BTFS).

The specific aims of the Darwin Savanna project were to:

• Provide improved and more current savanna vegetation mapping for Belize to support

conservation and management;

• Conduct baseline taxonomic research and botanical survey of savanna areas;

• Enhance the capacity of local institutions to collect and interpret these data for conservation

management.

The savannas of Belize occupy almost 10% of the land area, furnishing distinctive landscapes of

ecological and economic value. They are the most northerly example of lowland savannas in the

Americas. Whereas upland savannas of Central America have been the subject of numerous studies of

plant diversity, the lowland savannas had received little attention until this project. Lowland savannas in

Belize are threatened by a combination of human pressures and by climate change. The project results

presented in this report show that these savannas and associated wetlands are diverse ecosystems

providing important habitats for plants and wildlife, crucial drainage functions and other services.

The Darwin Savanna project aimed to resolve the problem of the insufficient baseline information as of

2009 upon which to develop a national conservation strategy for savannas. Specifically:

• There was no comprehensive checklist of savanna species. Botanical information about plant

distributions was very partial. Many savanna areas, particularly in the south, were unexplored

botanically and little was known about patterns of endemism, so there was little basis for

making informed conservation decisions based on plant biodiversity in savanna areas.

• Previous national maps of savannas were not truly representative of the different diversity of

savanna types present in the country and lacked the the detail required to allow savanna areas

of particular landscape /other value to be identified.


2 Conservation Status of Pine Savannas in Belize

Based on previous analysis by Meerman (2005) and Cameron et al (2011), between 22- 27% of the

remaining lowland pine savannas lie within some type of protected area in Belize. However, as Walker

et al (2009) have reported, the actual degree of protection varies greatly between the different

protected areas in Belize dependent on their type of designation and their management effectiveness.

This is nevertheless a considerably greater national area under protection than for many other savanna

areas in the world. The estimate of 448 km2 classified by Cameron et al from SPOT satellite imagery

from 2008-10, which is mapped in figures 1 (a) and (b) includes 12 km2 of forest areas found within what

are broadly savanna areas – for example narrow gallery forests associated with watercourses traversing

savanna areas. It also includes 3 km2 of wetlands that occur as patches within savanna areas.

Subtracting these areas yields an estimate of 433 km2 of savanna areas under protection, which is similar

to the figure of 436 km2 calculated by Meerman in 2005. Care should be taken in making direct

comparisons however, as the boundaries of some protected areas may have changed between 2005 and

2011; some new protected areas such as HWATCHY and the Jaguar Corridor were being proposed at the

time of the Savanna Science Meeting in 2011 but are not included in table 1; also, the boundaries and

area of the Mango Creek (4) Forest Reserve were found to be different in the 2011 protected areas

mapping compared to their previous extents depicted on mapping before 2010.

Table 1. Conservation status as assessed by Meerman (2005) and Cameron et al (2011)

Figures 1 (a) and (b) and table 2 break down the total area of 448 square km of protected savanna

according to the different protected areas found in Belize. Inspection of table 2 shows that the large

tracts of savanna under protection in the south of Belize are found in three forest reserves - Deep River,

Swasey-Bladen and Mango Creek 4 (although the boundaries of this reserve appear to have changed

recently) and in the Paynes’ Creek National Park. In the North of Belize, the largest protected areas of

savanna are in the privately managed Rio Bravo Conservation & Management Area and the Crooked

Tree Wildlife Sanctuary. In central Belize, savanna is protected in smaller amounts in several privately

managed areas such as the quite recently created Peccary Hills National Park and the smaller Runaway

Creek Nature Preserve, the Monkey Bay Wildlife Sanctuary and within the Belize Zoo and Tropical

Education Center (although the latter is not designated formally as a protected area) while some

savanna still remains within the Grants Works forest reserve north of Dangriga.


Figure 1(a) Savanna areas and Protected Areas in Northern Belize


Figure 1(b) Savanna areas and Protected Areas in Southern Belize


Table 2: Areas of lowland savanna within each protected area (Km2)

(savanna areas based on Darwin savanna map 2010)

Protected Area Total Area of PA

Dense Tree Savanna

Forest Inclusion

Open Savanna

Seasonally Waterlogged Savanna

Wetland Inclusion

Savanna area

% of PA that is savanna

Bladen 404.11 0.81 0.81 0.20

Burdon Canal 21.26 0.31 0.04 0.24 0.11 0.70 3.31

Community Baboon Sanctuary

52.52 3.06 0.45 0.09 3.60 6.85

Crooked Tree 129.9 12.85 0.48 7.40 4.63 0.72 26.08 20.08

Deep River 272.31 29.90 3.10 69.25 102.25 37.55

Gales Point 36.81 0.22 0.11 0.27 0.21 0.81 2.19

Gragra Lagoon 5.34 0.10 0.10 1.86

Grants Works 31.99 1.09 0.64 5.40 7.13 22.29

Manatee 365.75 10.77 1.01 15.56 0.32 27.66 7.56

Mango Creek (1) 43.71 17.01 1.57 18.58 42.51

Mango Creek (4) 77.18 20.53 0.55 28.22 49.29 63.86

Monkey Bay 8.58 0.48 0.48 5.58

Monkey Caye 6.7 0.09 1.20 1.29 19.20

Payne's Creek 140.53 4.10 1.61 46.57 0.09 52.38 37.27

Peccary Hills 43.48 2.80 14.15 0.61 17.56 40.39

Rio Bravo C&MA 1048.97 30.86 2.75 44.89 4.02 0.61 83.13 7.92

Runaway Creek 23.23 2.02 0.02 0.93 0.00 2.97 12.78

Swasey-Bladen 59.8 23.41 1.64 25.24 0.24 50.53 84.50

Grand Total 2808.38 160.60 12.52 263.56 8.64 3.02 448.34


Protected Area Type of protected

area (IUCN) Organisation

Managing

Created

Management effectiveness

National ranking 1 (best) -65 (poorest)

Community Baboon Sanctuary Private Reserve (IV) Women's

Conservation Group

1985 38 - Moderate

Crooked Tree Wildlife Sanctuary (IV) Belize Audubon

Society

1984 15 - Moderate

Deep River Forest Reserve (VI) GOB Forest Dept. 1949 28 - Moderate

Grants Works Forest Reserve (VI) GOB Forest Dept. 1989 64 - Poor

Manatee Forest Reserve (VI) GOB Forest Dept. 1959 43 - Moderate

Mango Creek (1) Forest Reserve (VI) GOB Forest Dept. 1989 40 - Moderate

Mango Creek (4) GOB Forest Dept. GOB Forest Dept. 1989 41 - Moderate

Monkey Bay Wildlife Sanctuary Private Reserve (IV) MBWS 1987 29 - Moderate

Monkey Caye Forest Reserve (VI) GOB Forest Dept. 1996 63 - Poor

Payne's Creek National Park (II) TIDE 1994 9 - Very Good

Peccary Hills National Park (II) Gracie Rock Reserve for

Adventure/Ecotourism 2007 25 - Moderate

Rio Bravo Private Reserve (IV) Programme for Belize 1988 5 – very Good

Runaway Creek Private Reserve (IV) Foundation for Wildlife

Conservation/ Birds without Borders

1998 46 - Fair

Swasey-Bladen Forest Reserve (IV) GOB Forest Dept. 1989 36 - Moderate

Table 3: Characteristics of Protected Areas with over 5% savanna land over

(ranking of all PAs mean effectiveness scores from Walker & Walker, 2009)


One area of consensus from the delegates attending the savanna science meeting was that the socio-

political situation in Belize does not currently favour the creation of large new protected areas, and that

it would be better to focus on strengthening the effectiveness of savanna areas that are actually under

conservation. Table 3 indicates the management effectiveness of each of the protected areas

containing savanna. The ranking is based on a comprehensive assessment of 65 protected areas in

Belize according to an assessment framework including a variety of indicators developed by Young

(2005) for the National Protected Areas System Plan and used subsequently to report to APAMO on the

effectiveness of Protected Areas in 2009 (Walker & Walker, 2009).

An interpretation of table 3 is that privately managed areas are more effectively managed than

government forest reserves. Some of the privately managed protected areas such as Payne’s Creek,

RBCMA and Crooked Tree WS are managed very effectively and so the level of protection can be

considered to be very good for these savanna areas. Some of the smaller private reserves such as

Peccary Hills, Monkey Bay and Runaway Creek and the Community managed Baboon Sanctuary at

Bermudian Landing (which borders savanna areas) received moderate scores, whilst the forest reserves

received the lowest scores. Deep River forest reserve was noteworthy for being ranked higher than

some private reserves, whilst only Grants Works was assessed to be very poorly managed.

Using this information, one could identify a number of protected areas that are presently in the

moderate category, where efforts could be made to strengthen their management effectiveness and in

turn improve the level of protection for the savannas they manage. Among private protected areas,

priorities could be Peccary Hills, Monkey Bay and Runaway Creek, whilst among the forest reserves it

could be argued that Deep River, Swaysey Bladen and Mango Creek (1) would be the priorities.

Looking beyond the areas that are presently designated as protected areas, there may be management

options if privately owned lands were to become zoned according to ‘appropriate/not appropriate’ land

uses. This is part of the vision of the new Land Use Policy and Planning Framework, once this becomes

implemented. As an example, many savanna areas have been considered in the past as generally not

suitable for most forms of agriculture, other than very limited areas in the south where banana and rice

are grown. The poorly drained and infertile soils of many savanna areas have been mostly evaluated as

suitable for pine, pasture or aquaculture. Some of the better drained areas are suitable for housing and

infrastructure such as roads.

A more specific zoning of savanna areas could be developed, based on land cover, soils and drainage

which would make clearer the opportunities and limitations for private landowners. In the most

unfavourable areas for other use, conservation can be indicated. Many of the most frequently

inundated savannas have relatively high conservation value in terms of the habitats they create for birds

and mammals. This is evident for the savannas bordering the Crooked Tree WS, fringing the New River

Lagoon within the RBCMA and at Payne’s Creek.


2.1 Threats to the Pine Savannas

The above section advances two strategies for the identification of priority areas requiring conservation

– the strengthening of management effectiveness of some existing protected areas that contain savanna

areas and the zoning of savanna land within a national framework so that private land owners may

voluntarily consider managing savanna areas for conservation . To identify areas requiring protection

or enhanced protection, one also needs to consider the threats to different savanna areas, as well as

their intrinsic qualities such as their relative biodiversity and general suitability/unsuitability for other

purposes.

Figure 2 Estimated area of lowland savanna converted to other uses.

By comparing the Darwin Savanna Ecosystem Map 2010 against archived Landsat imagery dating from

1980, topographic mapping from 1993 and by inspection of recent high resolution imagery we estimate

that from an original total area of 168,000 ha, approximately 20,000 ha has been converted to other

uses, i.e. roughly 12% of the once existing lowland savanna has already been lost to development. Figure

3 shows that the largest conversions of savanna lands have been to agriculture (pasture mainly) and to

aquaculture (mainky shrimp farming), together making up almost 80% of the total areal loss of savanna.

Aquaculture in particular has dramatically increased in scale from the first experimental pond in 1980, to

generating revenues of BZ$ 84.28 million by 2004. Some of these areas are particularly concentrated

in certain parts of the country, with for example, most of the conversion of savanna to pasture taking

place in the northern and western districts of Orange Walk and Cayo, whilst most shrimp farms have

been constructed on southern savannas in Stann Creek and Toledo. Attempts to convert savanna to

smallholder agriculture have occurred in many Districts; larger scale citrus plantations were attempted

Land use

Estimated area

of savanna

converted to

other uses (ha)

Agriculture/Pasture 10844

Aquaculture 4884

Logging 373

Aggregates 782

Urban 3129


unsuccessfully in Orange Walk District (on savanna areas which are now mostly within the RBCMA and

the new Yalbac PA) whilst one sees papaya, banana and limited rice growing in wetter, low lying areas

close to water courses in some savannas of the Southern Plains. Savanna areas are often favoured

sites for infrastructure; the two largest airstrips in Belize (Philip Goldson and the as yet unfinished

airport near Placencia) are both on savanna tracts, whilst all the main highways preferentially pass

through savanna areas. The new capital city Belmopan was built in savanna and later new towns such

as Mahogany Heights have also been sited on savanna land. Recently, there have also been proposals

to locate other municipal facilities including Belize’s national waste dump on savanna, although some

have pointed out the possible negative effects on groundwater unless mitigation is in place.

Lowland savannas are in themselves a potentially significant economic resource. For example, the FD

seeks to harvest pine, palms and other plant resources and to promote ecotourism in a sustainable

manner that protects biodiversity hotspots within savanna areas, but presently lacks the taxonomic or

geographic information needed to ensure that harvesting does not inadvertently affect areas of high

conservation value.

One approach that is now widely used to establish the value of conserving or protecting an ecosystem,

especially where some of the value is not easily expressed in monetary terms, is to assess the services

that an ecosystem provides. This is often expressed by outlining and where possible also quantifying

the provisioning, supporting, regulating services provided by the ecosystem. This approach can be

applied to savanna areas, so that appropriate and sustainable use is made of savanna areas and the

biodiversity of these areas is not degraded.

2.2 Value of the Pine Savannas –

One approach for recognizing areas of savanna with particular value for conservation would be to

tabulate environmental services provided by specific Pine Savannas. Such environmental services

include:

• Economic opportunities/livelihoods

• Watershed protection, flood mitigation

• Biodiversity areas

• Carbon

• Climate control

• Timber

• Medicinal plants

• Firewood

• Amenities

• Ecotourism

• Aesthetics

• Hunting

• Education/appreciation


2.2.1 Animal biodiversity

– although originally thought to be barriers for many large mammals, The value of Pine Savannas as

biological corridor is under review (Jan; can you give some detail/links? on this to Key Biological Areas?).

New research (ref Bart please?)has revealed that at least some species will use a Pine Savanna matrix

when moving between forests. Some evidence from Bart and the Panthera project please?

2.2.2 Plant Biodiversity

Savannas were also thought to be species poor, yet this project has found more than 950 plant species

in the lowland savanna, or approximately 28% of the nation’s flora as recognised by Balick et al. (2000).

380 of these are savanna specialists. Of the 41 vascular plant species reported by Balick et al. (2000) as

endemic to Belize 18 (44%) are recorded in the lowland savanna. Whilst some savanna plants are

widespread, others (including some endemics) show localized distributions.

With 75% of savanna areas not under protection, this means that many of the endemic, endangered or

threatened species are vulnerable to having more of their habitat lost, as areas of savanna are

converted to other uses. (Zoe, can we identify certain plant distributions in section 3 that are mainly in

unprotected areas? E.g. Ageratum radicans, Melastelma stenomeres, Syngonanthus spp (all outside) ,

Turnera difusa only in North and except for one record in RBCMA, rest of the known findings are in areas

with no protection from development.

maybe also Passiflora urbaniana, altho its more widespread?)

Also, some restricted plants have only been found in one PA – e.g. Turnera curassavica only found in

Payne’s Creek to date.

2.2.3 Economic forestry

Jan:- some commentary about FD revenue from logging concessions on the southern plains please?

(Oswaldo?)


2.3 The conservation and management of Pine savannas

At present, only two NGOs managing protected areas (Programme for Belize for Rio Bravo and TIDE for

Paynes Creek) have large areas of savanna lands under their management. and this raises some

concerns about, -> Jan pls continue argument?

PfB have had a savanna management plan as part of their RBCMA management plan since 2005; in this

the primary function of the savannas was to provide ’buffer zone’ to protect the core broadleaf forest

from pressures outside the reserve boundary (including agriculture, hunting, increased fire etc) . In

recent years, the value of savanna as habitat for endangered birds has been recognized (e.g. yellow

head Parrot) and built into the Savanna Management Plan. A third aspect of savanna management has

been the assessment of fire frequency and controlled burning regimes, with both PfB and TIDE collecting

empirical data from ground surveys to refine guidance from <??US ref> as part of meso-american fire

prevention in savanna areas.

One concern to the long term conservation of savanna areas is that there is no clear view or policy from

the Forest Department within the Ministry of Natural Resources regarding savannas. Jan please list the

areas of savanna under different PA’s and what policies do apply – and how these may hinder savanna

conservation – eg burning to show signs of active management. etc

Crooked Tree is an area with a variety of savanna and wetland cover types and a conservation presence

(Community Based). This is a spectacular area, biologically and scenically. Expand? This raises the

question whether there should be more community involvement in the management of Pine Savannas.

Summarise discussion from the meeting?

Runaway Creek?

Private protected areas? Western highway Corridor?


3 Outputs from the Darwin project

3.1 Project website(s)

The project website (http://www.eeo.ed.ac.uk/sea-belize) is still maintained as it contains an archive of

material produced by the project such as educational materials about savanna plants and habitats and

reports that will remain a valuable resource in future. The website has links to the new Savanna

Ecosystem Map and to the online savanna plant database, now maintained by the University of Oxford.

(http://dps.plants.ox.ac.uk/bol/seabelize)

Figure 1. Project Website (main screen)

Figure 2. Brahms savanna plant database (main screen)


3.2 Plant diversity and vegetation habitat surveys in lowland

savannas;

Rapid botanical surveys were conducted at seventy lowland savanna sites by botanists Zoë Goodwin and

German Lopez in two field seasons from April – June and from October – December 2010. As figure 6

shows, the sites for the botanical surveys were selected to cover a wide range of savanna areas across

the country, including some sites within protected areas but also many sites in areas that are not

currently protected.

At each site within an area of approximately 25 x 25 m a full vegetation description and species list was

compiled, with known species recorded and unknown or unusual species collected. This focused species

list was augmented with wide patrolling around the core area. 600 plant specimen collections and

around 2,000 species observations were made across the seventy survey sites (with a mean of 36 taxa

recorded at each site).

In total 975 species have been collected in Pine Savanna (Landscape Level), but of these, only 380 are

"true" Pine Savanna Species. Also of the 975 landscape level species, 121 species have to be qualified

as wetland species.

The Pine Savanna is rich in endemic plant species, of the 41 country endemics, 17 are Pine Savanna

specialists. Some of these are widespread, others very restricted. Unfortunately, even with the sampling

effort achieved so far, true areas of high diversity/endemism cannot be identified. Although some

endemics are found within protected areas, many have been also found in areas with no protection.

Summarising the results of section 3.2.2 which follows:- summarise geographical distributions by

plants found mostly in protected/not, plants localized to just one or two PAs…

Zoe, can we identify certain plant distributions in section 3 that are mainly in unprotected areas? E.g.

Ageratum radicans, Melastelma stenomeres, Syngonanthus spp (all outside) , Turnera difusa only in

North and except for one record in RBCMA, rest of the known findings are in areas with no protection

from development. maybe also Passiflora urbaniana, altho its more widespread?)

Also, some restricted plants have only been found in one PA – e.g. Turnera curassavica only found in

Payne’s Creek to date.

ADo we need all these maps? Is it just bulk if we don’t interpret them?


Figure 3. Number of botanical records (left) and observed species richness (right).

Note that the species richness effectively depends upon the collecting effort.


Figure 4. Locations of the botanical collecting sites.


3.2.1 Results for selected species

Figure 5 Ageratum radicans - Endemic


Figure 6. Curatela Americana - Characteristic


Figure 7 Dalechampia schippii - Endemic


Figure 8. Hypericum pratense - Endemic


Figure 9 Hypericum terra-firmae - South and Central


Figure 10 Melastelma stenomeres - Endemic


Figure 11. Paepalanthus gentlei - Endemic


Figure 12 Passiflora urbaniana - Endemic


Figure 13 Syngonanthus bartletii - Endemic


Figure 14. Syngonanthus hondurensis - Restricted


Figure 15. Syngonanthus lundellianus - Restricted


Figure 16 Tibouchina aspera - Restricted


Figure 17 Turnera aromatic - Characteristic


Figure 18 Turnera curassavica - Restricted


Figure 19. Turnera difusa - North Only


Zamia prasina - Characteristic

Figure 20. Zamia prasina - Characteristic


3.3 Belize savanna plant databases

In 2009, collection data for approximately 4000 savanna specimens was collated and imported into a

database from three herbaria: Missouri Botanical Garden (MO) 2872, RBGE (E) 707 and the Natural

History Museum, London (BM) 406. Since then, additional specimen information has been added to the

Belize savanna plants database to give a total of 5,409 specimens for 4,640 botanical records. The

specimens in the database are now derived from records from nine institutions. For seven institutions

(GH, MO, NY, E, K, US & MICH) the data was derived from online resources (most of the data from E &

MO was obtained in year 1); the data from BM and BRH is from specimens seen.

A copy of the savanna plant database was published online in March 2010, hosted by the Department of

Plant Sciences, University of Oxford on the BRAHMS website (http://www.ox.ac.uk/bol/seabelize/).

Whilst the Brahms database is suitable for specialist users, a more general purpose interface, suitable

for a wider audience and allowing the plant collections to be browsed using a mapping interface, was

also developed ( http://xweb.geos.ed.ac.uk/~belize/)

Figure 21. Searching the Brahms database of all savanna plant records in Belize http://dps.plants.ox.ac.uk/bol/seabelize/Search/Index


Figure 22. Example of results from a Brahms database query

Figure 23. Web mapping tool allows geographical query and reporting of records.

http://xweb.geos.ed.ac.uk/~belize/


3.4 Photographic field guides to savanna plants

Several photographic guides to the common savanna plants have been developed throughout year 2.

The photoguides have already proved to be a useful teaching aid for both undergraduates students and

for protected area wardens, allowing non-specialists to perform field identifications of common species.

Positive feedback from field-testing such during the field course in November 2010 encouraged the

supplementary development of a more technical field guide that includes leaves and other

distinguishing characters, in addition to existing flower-based guides. A positive response was also

received to the Photoguide to Endemic or Rare Savanna Species that was field-tested this year by several

protected area management organisations. Laminated copies of the Casual User and Endemic Plant

photoguides were provided this year to attendees of the Introduction to the Vascular Plants of the

Belizean Savanna and the Botanical Resources for Conservation and Taxonomy courses.

These photoguides proved extremely useful for training in plant identification during the Introduction to

the Vascular Plants of the Belizean Savanna course. They were also commended by staff and students of

the University of Belize BSc Natural Resource Management programme who used the photoguides this

year during their field course held in the upland savannas of Mountain Pine Ridge.

The photoguides are published on http://www.geos.ed.ac.uk/research/eeo/sea-belize/education.html.

Figure 24: Example of photoguides available


3.5 Integration of the Darwin Savanna Map into the Belize Ecosystems Map 2012;

UoE have combined the new mapping with a variety of other geographical data sets including elevation

and drainage, the locations of roads and settlements, agricultural and aquaculture developments and

data on land ownership in order to determine which of the remaining areas of savanna are not presently

within protected areas and which may be at greater risk of degradation and conversion. The first stage

has been to calculate the proportion of the remaining savanna areas that are within protected areas.

In the Darwin savanna map (2011) the relationship of Pine Savannas with their surrounding and

integrated landscape is schematized as shown in Figure 27:

Figure 27. Savanna classes in the Darwin savanna map (2011)

BTFS agreed to further validate the mapping, to use it in formulating the National Land Use Policy for

the Government of Belize (http://www.landusepolicy.bz ) and to assimilate it into the National

Ecosystems Map of Belize in 2012.


Figure 28. 2004/2010 Ecosystems map classification detail

Figure 29. 2011 Savanna Map detail of same area


Figure 30: 2004 ecosystems map overlain on 2011 savanna map, showing some discrepancies

Figure 31: Resolution of discrepancies


Figure 32. Resulting 2011 Ecosystems Map

The new Belize Ecosystems Map (2012) data are accessible through:

http://www.eeo.ed.ac.uk/sea-belize/savanna_map.html and http://www.biodiversity.bz


Figure 33: Comparison of savanna areas from the Cameron et al (2010) image classification and savanna

areas mapped in the 2011 Ecosystems Map.


<insert table> refer to table 1.

Savanna mapping should now be considered finished for the present time. The new statistics and

mapping present a realistic baseline data for the extent of remaining savannas in Belize as of 2011

against which further changes can be monitored using remote sensing.

There is little requirement for more detailed national mapping of savannas, although individual PAs may

want to create their own higher resolution maps. Given the national remit, it has not been possible to

validate the map in all localities. Therefore, it will be important will be that PA managers test the

mapping and verify it for their local areas, reporting back changes or errors for future modifications.

The national mapping allows areas of savanna within/outside present protection to be examined in

relation to animal and plant biodiversity, and level of threat to these different areas to be examined.

Monitoring land use change in the savanna areas is the next important task, so that the conversion of

savanna areas can be monitored and assessed. The map can be used as a baseline for monitoring this

change. Depending on the baseline date selected, the amount and rate of savanna loss calculated

varies. For example, by comparing the Savanna Ecosystem Map 2010 against archived Landsat imagery

dating from 1980 and topographic mapping Cameron et al (2011) estimated that from an original total

area of 168,000 ha, approximately 20,000 ha has been converted to other uses, i.e. roughly 12% of

lowland savanna has already been changed into pasture, aquaculture or for other types of development.

Comparing the area mapped as savanna on the new 2011 Ecosystems Map with figures from the 2005

(table 1)…


3.6 Soil-vegetation relationships in the Belizean savannas

3.6.1 Preface

The soil investigations outlined here were not part of the original Darwin core programme but, following

the early reconnaissance, it became apparent that better knowledge of the soil properties could

contribute towards greater a understanding of the nature and characteristics of the savanna vegetation.

Soil properties such as fertility and drainage are among the factors that most limit the capability of

savanna lands for agriculture. Understanding the variation in soil properties is therefore vital for

reaching informed decisions about the potential for, or the constraints upon using savanna areas for

different purposes.

An award from the Carnegie Trust made it possible to complement the botanical surveys.

The principal aims of the soil survey component of the project were:

• To describe and assess the nature of soil properties underlying savanna vegetation

• To examine the soil-plant relationships of the dominant plant associations

3.6.2 Introduction

At a world scale, the extent of savanna in Belize is tiny, but the vegetation is characteristic of significant

stretches of the country and possesses a number of special features that deserve greater recognition.

The savannas in Belize represent the northernmost outliers of the neotropical lowland formation

although the upland savannas in the Maya Mountains are continued northwards into Guatemala and

Mexico along the highland axis of the cordilleras.

Throughout these areas, a typical sequence of savanna subtypes is evident , from open grassland to

savanna woodland. All of these subtypes are represented in Belize.

From a global point of view, savanna soils have a characteristic range of physical, chemical and biological

properties. Whilst many of these properties are cosmopolitan, the neotropical savannas are in general

more highly weathered and leached as a result of greater precipitation compared to those of Africa and

Australasia. (Table 1):


Table 2 World Savanna Soils Compared

Footnote: Belize has similar soil properties but the lowland savannas have a greater proportion of poorly drained soils.

The names in brackets refer to USDA Soil Taxonomy.

Figure 33. Structural variation in savanna (after Furley 1999)


3.6.3 Savanna soils of Belize

The soils underpinning savanna vegetation vary according to location but, for simplicity, can be divided

into two main groups related to altitude. Over the Maya Mountains, the soil cover is extremely old,

reflecting long periods of intense weathering, whereas over the lowland savannas the soils are younger

occurring over different parent materials in different environments resulting in heterogeneous soil

properties and diversified resource potential:

Upland savanna soils: These generally occur around 1000m asl; the climatic regime is cooler with

greater exposure to storms and weathering; the rainfall is orographic and the inland locations avoid

most coastal influences. The landscape is extremely old, consisting of deeply weathered, highly leached,

acidic soils with end-product low activity clay minerals (kaolinite and iron oxides), derived from granitic

and metamorphic parent materials; the soils are mostly very infertile (low cation availability) with low

levels of organic matter and associated nutrients (such as available P); characterised by stone lines and

erosion surfaces. The steep relief determines that runoff is rapid and the soils are freely drained. There

is a distinct catena effect with savanna woodland and grassland over the convex upper slopes and

damper plant associations or gallery forest in the valleys. The incidence of fire adds to the pressure on

fire-susceptible species and can result in a cyclical pattern from savanna woodland to virtual grassland

(Furley 1974/76; Hicks et al., 2010)

Lowland savanna soils: These environments are closer to sea level and coastal influences (saline spray

and marine influences on ground water); there is a marked seasonality with wetting and drying (flooding

and desiccation); the landscape is relatively flat and poorly drained and comprises younger parent

materials (largely siliceous palaeo-alluvium derived from the Maya Mountains and/or palaeo-coastal

deposits). King et al., refs. Most of the soils are coarse textured but with fine fractions washed to

depressions and to the subsurface where they may impede drainage. The soils are acidic with low

nutrient reserves and the entire area is susceptible to fire s and storms. Many of the inland savanna

areas occur over older Pliocene deposits (Figure 2), which have older, deeper and sandier parent

materials which can carry a dense pine cover where freely drained.

Figure 25 E-W section across the northern plains showing the locations of the

principal savannas


Figure 35.Sampling Sites for linked soil and botanical surveys


3.6.4 Methodology

The project extended over two short field seasons. The first survey in April 2010 concentrated on the

inland savannas of northern Belize, whilst the second in April 2011covered all the coastal savannas from

Sarteneja to Deep River. The analyses have been completed for the first samples; the second batch of

samples is currently being processed. Sites were chosen to give as broad a representation as possible of

the sub types of savanna vegetation. In most cases these followed the sites and numbering outlined in

the botanical surveys. In total 23 profiles were examined covering all the vegetation subtypes with the

exception of freshwater hyperseasonal grasslands. Profiles were taken to approximately rooting depth

except where ground water prevented further inspection. Samples were taken from the principal

horizons for later analysis in the UK.

The locations of field sites and links with the botanical surveys are illustrated in Figure 3 (map) and

summarised in Appendix 2. The soil profile descriptions are collated in Appendix 3.

The methods of soil analysis are summarised below:-

3.6.5 Results

The provisional (unchecked) results for sites 1-9 are given in Appendix 3.


3.6.6 Interpretation and discussion

The results so far are consistent with the pattern of properties for the neotropics, comparing the Belize

samples with an 800 site set of figures for the Brazilian savannas :-

Table 3. Belize Soil Data Compared with Brazilian Savanna Data

Savanna Surface Horizons • Median Belize (2010) Interpretation

pH (H2O) 5.0 [4.3 – 6.2] 5.3 High Acidity (<5)

Ca (cmol/Kg) 0.25 [0.04 – 6.81] 0.51 Below lower limit

recommended for agriculture

Mg (cmol/Kg) 0.09 [0.00 – 2.02] 0.02 Low

K (cmol/Kg) 0.08 [0.02 – 0.61] 0.28 Low

Effective CEC (cmol/Kg) 1.1 [0.35 – 8.10] 0.3 Indicative of highly

weathered soils

Organic Matter (%) 2.2 [0.7 – 6.0] 3.9 Contributes little to the

effective CEC values

P (Mg/ml) 0.4 [0.1 – 16.5] 0.5 Low –unsuited to cultivation

Clay (%) 33.5 [4.5 – 72.4] 7.6 Surface low; subsurface high

Note: Many of the Ex.K figures are unusually high giving high CEC results. These have been removed from

the averages and are being further checked. The figures quoted are from the earlier Programme for Belize

samples (Furley et al., 2001).

Most sites are acidic, with pH (H20) values ranging from 5.3 to 5.7 with the higher values often

associated with the influence of ground water or perched water table. The pH(CaCl2) levels were

approximately a pH unit lower. Cation exchange capacity and exchangeable cation figures are

consistently low supporting the view of poor soil fertility, with Ex. Ca averaging 0.51 cmol/kg; Ex.Mg

averaging 0.04 cmol/kg and Ex K 0.55cmol/kg (the K figures will need to be checked). The organic

matter, as described in the field and evidenced in the C and N figures (averaging 1.7% and 0.07%

respectively), is mostly concentrated in the top 10cm of the soil profile and varies with the degree of

vegetation cover and, as far as can be ascertained, with the incidence of fire. One distinctive feature of

the soils is the subsoil level of fine inorganic material, particularly the clay fraction. Most of the subsoils


in the flatter parts of the lowland savanna are markedly clay-rich, sufficient to impede drainage and

affect rooting depth (an average of 7.6% at the surface rising to 20.3% and often very much higher in the

subsurface horizons).

Dense pine (savanna woodland) usually occurs over freely drained soils with deep profiles in coarse

textured materials, frequently very sandy at the surface; oak woodlands appear to cope with at least

temporary flooding and, where the subsurface is impermeable, seem to have a root adaptation that

allows for greater surface spread. At site D3 for example, a single prostrate oak was found to spread

over the surface with a c.5m radius, with a few vary large roots (≥5cm lying above the more

permanently wet subsoil. Palmetto groves are nearly always associated with water but isolated trees

appear to have ingenious ways of coping with both seasonal flooding and intense desiccation (Furley

2008 ; Milne 1997). The most fertile surface soils seem to be associated with dense mixed savanna

woodland, although this is likely to be a result of vegetation affecting soil properties rather than the

reverse. Open grasslands and sedge-grasslands cover areas which are unfavourable to tree growth (as

in the seasonally flooded freshwater grasslands) or have been heavily disturbed (as illustrated in some

of the coastal saline grasslands and degraded savannas of the interior). The sub-type edges are

extremely dynamic and the tree-grass ratios may change relatively rapidly with changes in

environmental controls. Each of these sub-types has been influenced by the incidence of fire and the

current vegetation is therefore not necessarily synchronous with the character of the underlying soil.

Some of the preliminary ideas concerning the processes involved are summarised diagrammatically

overleaf:-


Figure 36. Hypothetical model showing the processes influencing the development of savanna sub-types


3.6.7 Savanna soil surveys; Summary

Several distinguishing features characterize the lowland savanna soils:-

• Many of the soils are strongly affected by seasonal or semi-permanent flooding or poor

drainage. This results from the low gradients preventing runoff, and/or the presence of argillic

subsurface horizons. The level land surface and proximity to the water table results in shallow

damp depressions which may be seasonally filled with water.

• Soil textures vary from gravel and fine sand to heavy clay, although most surface horizons are

coarse textured.

• The inland savannas over the northern plains tend to be higher with greater relief and

consequently drainage is better. The deeper soils on siliceous alluvium are more intensively

leached and more typical of other neotropical savanna conditions. These sites are often

associated with slightly older (possibly Pliocene) sands and gravels supposedly derived from

ancient outwash from the Maya Mountains (see Figure 3 – cross section across the north). In

some southern parts of the country, similar conditions at a smaller scale are found closer to the

shoreline. The marginally higher topography and greater slope generates a micro-catena effect

and significantly influences plant distribution.

• The soils are consistently acidic with low nutrient resources. Organic levels are frequently

higher than typical savanna soils and this may result from the impeded drainage and anaerobic

conditions and therefore less decomposition. Conversely this may be offset by the frequency of

fires. The locally heterogeneous environments result in considerable spatial variation in soil

properties at a micro-scale

• A provisional model of soil-plant association relations and dynamic processes has been

developed and will be tested further against the second field season results and compared with

the national soils surveys

• The soil data provides valuable information for land suitability assessment and potential

conservation strategies. At present it would appear that the savannas are too difficult to

manage for subsistence agriculture other than extensive ranching, except where there are

reliable water supplies.


3.7 Savanna Fauna

109, 200 specimens in Berds database in total for belize

Is this because savanna fauna are undercollected? The total number of fauna observations provided by

BERDS for the lowland savanna and MPR are 2833. The total number of fauna observations within just

the lowland savanna are 1188. Lowland savanna are relatively undercollected , representing only 1% of

the total collections from all ecosystems.


Figure 37: of the small number of records for the savanna, most are avian species.

Source: BERDS, 2012.


Figure 38: Geographical distribution of BERDS fauna records within savanna areas.


Implications of the findings for savanna conservation and management in Belize: the way

forward?

The project has produced a significant amount of primary scientific data that can be separated into:

• Plant diversity surveys;

• Savanna Map integrated into Belize Ecosystems Map;

• Soil Survey data;

Additionally, at the Meeting on April 13th 2011, our partners tabled important further data. For example

BTFS provided information concerning the fauna of savanna areas.

In the final session of the Expert meeting, the above information was considered together to form

various recommendations and advice concerning the lowland savanna ecosystem to be communicated

to the government of Belize, to NGOs and to others involved in the management or development of

savanna areas. These discussions are summarized around the following points:-

Is savanna in Belize adequately protected?

What are the main threats to savanna?

Although pressure for shrimp farming seems to be diminishing due to economic lack of competitiveness,

In the light of pressures for roads, housing (summarise other big threats ?)

What elements of savanna is it most important to conserve?

Should we conserve a/c to ecosystem services not just biodiversity? Although endangered spp like

Yellow head Parrots help? Services such as flood storage, pine carbon storage, local value of palmetto

and popta seeds etc?


Which areas of savanna in Belize have particular importance for conservation?

Existing protected areas Value/importance

RBCMA

Paynes Creek

Areas not presently under protection Value/importance

South of Crooked Tree

Lemonal-San felipe

Suggest a series of callouts

indicating the areas we are

identifying


How should we foster conservation of savanna areas?

Considered unlikely to have savanna on Crown Lands declared nationally for protection in their own

right, except in relation to other initiatives eg mile 34 jaguar corridor project, …any others?

Private land owners/ part of other projects/ community initiatives/pointing out their unsuitability for

other uses/pointing out their critical sustaining functions/land in trust-mechanisms/ zoning in land use

policy.

4.1 Next steps for savanna management and policy

National level mechanisms for conserving savannas

How to take these results forward – routes into government NGOs etc? Elma’s decision making

pathways?

• Forest Act

• National Protected Areas System Act

• National Land use Policy

• ?Sustainable Land Use management policy? (elma?)

• Convention on Biological Diversity

• Etc etc? jan?

While these studies have not (as yet) resulted in added protection for the savanna's, the foundation has

been laid for a better understanding and therefore better decision taking. The integration of the Belize

Ecosystems Map into the Belize Land Use Policy Mapping Tool is a first concrete step towards this. ..

Local level mechanisms

Assimilation of finding into savanna management Plans (PfB and TIDE)

4.2 Next steps for data

Although the project has gathered significant new primary data, it has also revealed areas where more

data would further assist conservation zoning and monitoring efforts. The mapping of savanna

nationally has been completed to a high specification and the challenge is mainly now to maintain the

currency of the Ecosystems Map 2012 in the coming years by receiving corrections and updates.


Botanically, in spite of the wealth of data gathered, there are difficulties in using this to identify

"hotspots" or areas of savanna with unusually high biodiversity, because the species richness per site

was shown to be strongly correlated with the sampling effort (See figure 5). In simple terms, more

variety was found in areas where more survey effort was expended. This is normal for botanical surveys

and should encourage ongoing sampling efforts within savannas, especially in different seasons to

search specifically for certain plants. The photoguides and other resources created to aid the

identification of certain rare or less common species will assist NGOs and organisations such as the ERI

(which has a national remit for botanical surveying and monitoring) with this task.

While the soil survey was added to the project at a later stage and funded through a different source;

this very valuable addition opens the way for a truly better understanding of the ecology and floristic

composition of the Belize Savannas. One of the next steps forward would therefore be to study the

relationships between the sampled soils and the species composition at these sites. Ultimately an

improved understanding of the relationships between savanna soils and vegetation cover could inform

the next revision of the ecosystem map.


4 References

Balick, M.J., Nee, M.H. & Atha, D.E. 2000 Checklist of the Vascular Plants of Belize. Memoirs of the New

York Botanical Garden 85: 1–246.

Bridgewater, S., Ibáñez A, Ratter J. A. & Furley, P. 2002. Vegetation Classification and floristics of the

savannas and associated wetlands of the Rio Bravo Conservation and Management Area, Belize.

Edinburgh Journal of Botany 59 (3): 421-442.

Cameron, I. D., Stuart, N. & Goodwin, A. Z. 2011. Savanna Ecosystems Map of Belize 2011: Technical

Report, Darwin Initiative Project 17022, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh.

http://www.eeo.ed.ac.uk/sea-belize/data/sav_eco_2011/sea-belize_sav-eco-map-2011_tech-

report.pdf

Furley,P.A. 1999 The nature and diversity of neotropical savanna vegetation with particular reference to

the Brazilian cerrado. Global Ecology and Biogeography 8, 223-241.

Furley P A 1974,1976 'Soil-slope-plant relationships in the northern Maya Mountains, Belize: 1, The

sequence over metamorphic sandstones and shales', Journal of Biogeography, 1,3:171.86 2. The

sequence over phyllites and granite', Journal of Biogeography, 1:263-79 3. Variations in the

nature and distribution of soil properties', Journal of Biogeography, 3;303-19.

Furley P.A. and Ratter, J.A. 1989 Further observations on the nature of the savanna vegetation and soils

in Belize. Biogeographical Monographs No 3, 1-22.

Furley, P.A. 2008. Significance and biomass of the palmetto palm (Acoelorraphe wrightii (Griseb. &

H.Wendl.) ex Becc. In Belizean lowland savannas. Report to the Carnegie Trust 14pp.

Edinburgh.

Furley, P. A.,Bridgewater, S., Ibanez-Garcia, A., Minty, C.,Murray, M., Ratter, J. A., Stuart, N and Vasquez,

M. 2001. Savannas of the Rio Bravo Conservation Area: Vegetation and soil –plant community

relationships. In Furley, P. A. and Young, R.. (eds) Ecological and environmental research in

Belize. Vol.1 Vegetation and Plant-Soil Studies. Journal of Belizean Affairs Vol. 3.No.2, 56-96.

Goodwin, Z.A., Harris, D.J., Bridgewater, S.G.M., Lopez, G.N., Haston, E., Cameron, I.D., Michelakis, D.,

Ratter, J.A., Furley, P.A., Kay, E., Whitefoord, C., Solomon, J. & Stuart, N. (2011) A checklist of the

vascular plants of the lowland savannas and associated wetlands of Belize, Central America.

Phytotaxa (accepted –vol/pages??)


Hicks, J.,Goodwin, Z.A.,Bridgewater, S.G.M., Harris, D.J. and Furley, P.A. 2011. A floristic description of

the San Pastor savanna and preliminary checklist of the savannas of Belize, Central America.

Edinburgh Journal of Botany 68(2),273-296.

King, B., Baillie,I.,Grimble,J.,Pratt,J.,Wright,A.C.S & Zisman,S. 1992 Land Resource assessment of

Northern Belize. Natural Resources Institute, ODA. Chatham, Kent

King, R.B.,Pratt,J.H., and WarnerM.P & Zisman S. 1993 Agricultural development prospects in Belize,

Bulletin No 48, Natural Resources Institute, ODA. Chatham, Kent.

Lenthall.J., Bridgewater,S.,Furley,P.A. 1999. A phytogeographic analysis of the woody elements of New

World savannas. Edinburgh Journal of Botany 56 (2), 293-305

Meerman, J. C. 2005. NPASP – Protected Areas System Assessment & Analysis: Gap Analysis, Protected

Areas Systems Plan Office, Belize.

http://biological-diversity.info/Downloads/NPAPSP/gap_analysis.pdf

Milne, Rhoderick,F 1997 A biogeographical and ecological study of Acoelorraphe wrightii, Belize,

unpublished thesis, BSc Geography, University of Edinburgh


5 Appendix 1: Agenda Science Meeting Wednesday April 13th, 2011

Facilitator: Jan Meerman

Location: Belize Zoo and Tropical Education Center.

8.30 AM Registration

9.00 AM Welcome – Jan Meerman

9.05 AM Introduction of participants, individual expectations of this meeting

9.15 AM Quick overview of the Darwin Savanna conservation project – Neil Stuart

9.25 AM 2010 Mapping of the Lowland Savannas of Belize. Methodology and outputs – Duncan

Moss, Neil Stuart

9.45 AM Botany and Biodiversity of the Lowland Savannas of Belize – Zoe Godwin

10.00 AM Fauna of the Lowland Savannas of Belize – Jan Meerman

10.15 AM Soils of the Lowland Savannas of Belize – Peter Furley

10.30 AM Synthesis of findings from the Darwin project– Sam Bridgewater. Linking soils,

geography and vegetation: An Ecological Integration.

10. 45 AM Break

11.00 AM Integration of the 2010 Savanna Map into the Belize Ecosystems Map.

Current status and follow up needs – Jan Meerman

12.15 AM Break for Lunch

1.00 PM Group working session: Status and future of Belize’s Lowland Savannas, threats,

conservation priorities, data needs, future activities

Introductory presentation: Protected areas with substantial savanna coverage and which savanna areas

are still within the national lands portfolio? Can we deduct focal areas? Followed by group discussions

and analysis

3.00 PM Conclusions and delegation of future activities


3.30 PM Closing

Present:

David Tzul (BWB)

Dimitrios Michelakis (UoFE)

Duncan Moss (UofE)

Elma Kay (ERI/UB)

Elmer Requena TIDE

German Lopez (ERI/UB)

Jan Meerman (BERDS)

Jon Pixler (BBG)

Judy DuPlooys (BBG)

Maarten Hofman (YCT)

Mario Muschamp TIDE

Neil Stuart (UofE)

Omar Figueroa (ERI/UB)

Percival Cho

Peter Furley (UofE)

Raina Lamb (APAMO)

Ramon Pacheco PfB

Rudi Aquil (BBG)

Sam Bridgewater (UofE)

Steven Brewer (BFREE)

Zoe Goodwin (RBGE)


6 Appendix 2: Soil Analysis Methodology

Soil Analysis: Soil samples were analysed for water content, pH, phosphate content, carbon and

nitrogen content, exchangeable cations (Ca.,K.,Mg.) cation exchange capacity and particle size.

Preparation of soil for analysis

The soil samples were air-dried and then passed through a 2 mm sieve. If soil contained

aggregates larger than 2 mm these were crushed with a pestle and mortar prior to sieving. Stone

content was determined to be negligible.

Analysis of water content

2 g of soil (± 3 d.p.) was oven dried at 105ºC for 24 hours, re-weighed, then transferred to a

furnace at 550ºC for 16 hours. Soil samples were re-weighed and the water loss (the difference in

sample weight between oven and furnace drying) was calculated.

Analysis of pH

A 10 g sample of the 2 mm sieved air-dried soil was placed in a 100 ml pyrex beaker with 25 ml

de-ionised water, the mixture was then stirred vigorously with a glass rod before being left to

stand for ten minutes. Then the mixture was stirred again before a pH reading was taken. 2 ml of

0.125M CaCl2 was added to the mixture, followed by more stirring, before a second pH reading

was taken. This procedure was repeated for all soil samples. The pH probes were recalibrated

with standard solutions of known pH after every six readings.

Analysis of carbon and nitrogen content

Sample particle size was reduced to powder. 12 g samples of powdered soil were placed in

screw-top bottles, sealed with electrical tape and placed in a mill for a 20 minute cycle. Samples

where then analysed for carbon and nitrogen content using an automated Dumas procedure on a

Carbo Erba NA 1500 analyser (Erba Science UK).

Soil samples, approximately 15-30 mg, were placed in a combustion column maintained at

955°C. The sample was flash combusted in a temporarily enriched atmosphere of oxygen. The

combustion products were carried by a carrier gas (helium) past an oxidation catalyst of

chromium oxide, and then past silvered cobalt oxide which ensures complete combustion inside

the combustion column. The combustion products were then passed through a reduction reactor


to remove excess oxygen and reduce N oxides to N2. The resulting gases were then passed

through magnesium perchlorate to remove water, and transferred to a thermal conductivity

detector. The detector generates an electrical signal proportional to the concentration of N or C

present (Clarity chromatography software (DataApex Ltd., Czech Republic)). The results were

given in percentages (Sollins et al., 1999).

Analysis of phosphate content

2.5 g samples of air dried soil were added to 20 ml of distilled water, the mixture were shaken

(92 rpm, 20 minutes) and then centrifuged (500 rpm, ten minutes) at 20ºC. The resulting

supernatant was then collected in screw-top bottles and analysed for phosphate.

The procedure for the determination of phosphate levels is based on the reaction of ammonium

heptamolybdate and potassium antimony (III) oxide tartrate in an acidic medium with diluted

solutions of phosphate to form an antimony-phosphomolybdate complex. This complex is

reduced to an intensely blue-coloured complex by L(+) ascorbic acid. The complex is measured

at 880 nm.18

Individual exchangeable cations and cation exchange capacity

2.5 g of air dried soil was weighed out and added to a filter funnel that had been plugged with

cotton wool. The soil was then washed with 33 ml of 1M potassium chloride three times and then

twice with 20 ml of ethanol and the resulting fluid discarded. The clean soil was then washed

three times with 1M ammonium acetate and the liquid product was collected in a bottle and made

up to 100 ml using more 1M ammonium acetate. A 2.5 ml sample of this was then mixed with

10% lanthanum and absorbance measured against at set of known standards using a Unicam

AAS Flame M5.

Mechanical analysis

100g of air dried sample was treated with 20% hydrogen peroxide to oxidise organic matter.

After end-over-end shaking, the sample was then dispersed into a 1000ml cylinder and made up

to the mark with distilled water. The dispersed solution was then passed through sieves to extract

the coarser fractions and the clay was obtained by weight from oven dried residue.


7 Summary Table of Soils Fieldwork 2010-2012

Sample

No

Grid

reference

UTM/lat-

long

Location Type of

vegetation

Slope(°) Aspect Site and

drainage

Botanical

Survey

No.

D1 A1 17 51

49N

Trail to

Booth River

Dense oak

dominated

savanna

3 W Well drained

towards Booth

River

34

D1 A2 88 47

08W

woodland Booth River

D1 B

D1 C

D2 A1 130468 Trail to

Booth River

Open oak-

dominated

savanna

3 W Ditto 35

D2 A2 1975913 (closer to

San Felipe)

woodland

D2 B1

D2 B2

D3 A1 345856 North of

Belize Goal

Low oak

colony within

2 SW Wet at surface

and very wet

in subsurface;

WT at 37cm;

radial

prostrate oak

36


colony; much

oak generation

above

palmetto

gallery

D3 A2 1937140 open

grassland

much oak

generation

above

palmetto

gallery

D3 B1

D3 ?B2


Sample

No

Grid

reference

UTM/lat-

long

Location Type of

vegetation


drainage

Botanical

Survey

No.

D4 A1i 17 31

25N

North of

Belize Goal

Oak clump c

30x20m

0 to 1 SW 75m from D3;

discrete clump;

very wet below

surface;WT at

30cm filling

36

D4 A1ii 88 27

07W

within

grassland

D4 B1

D4 B2

D5 A1 18 01

16N

N end of

old

Northern

Oak

dominated

savanna

0 to 1 S Open

character of

savanna

woodland -

fire? Slope

wash from

?limestone hill

to S -heavy

textures

37

D5 A2 88 31

26W

Highway woodland heavy textures

D5 B1

D5 B2


D6 A1 17 54

15.7N

Old

Northern

Highway

Low woody

savanna

woodland

(Curatella-

Byrsonima)

0.5 NW Lies to N of

low hill ridge;

alluvial

flooding from

nearby

lagoon?

32

D6A2 88 20

8.2W

1.5km N of

Maribu

Lodge

Byrsonima

D6 B1

D6 B2


Sample

No

Grid

reference

UTM/lat-

long

Location Type of

vegetation


drainage

Botanical

Survey

No.

D7 A 17 31

25N

North of

Belize Goal

Open

grassland

0 to 1 SW Not sampled

systematically;

intermediate

site between

D3 and D4;

burnt grass

over

impermeable

B; surface

water in places

36

D7 B 30m D4 impermeable

heavy textured

substrate

D8 A1 ? 300m W of

Coffin

Creek, East

gate to

Yalbec Gate

PfB

Dense pine

savanna

1 NE Densest pine

(seen from

road) on PfB;

unusually tall

palmetto

clumps

na

D8 A2 East Gate to

Yalbec gate

PfB

woodland Very well

drained

D8 B1


D8 B2

D8 C

D9 A1 17 30

49.3N

300m E of

Coffin

Creek

Dense Oak-

pine mixedf

savanna

1.5 SW Very well

drained

na

D9 A2 88 42

57.3W

PfB woodland

D9 A3

D9 B1

D9 II? B2

D9 II? B3

Sample

No

Grid

reference

UTM/lat-

long

Location Type of

vegetation


drainage

Botanical

Survey

No.

D10 A1 18 20

21.7N

100m from

lagoon

saline(?)

grassland

1 SE Lagoonal

alluvium over

38

D10 C1 88 07

25.7W

Wild Tracks

D10 C2/R

D11 A1 18 18

59.3N

Shipstern

Lagoon

saline(?)

grassland

1 SE Lagoonal

alluvium over

limestone

42

D11 A2 88 09 Silted solution


39.7W hollow

D11 A3

D11 Bg

D12 A1 17 45

15.6N

Crooked

Tree

open

savanna with

pine and

some oak

and palmetto

2 W level plain

below shallow

convex ridge

31

D12 A2 88 35

54.5W

Lemonal

track

palmetto

D12 A3

D12 Bg

D13 A1 17 46

37.9N

Crooked

Tree

savanna

woodland

<1 na level well

drained site;

broad

interfluvial

plain

9C

D13 A2 88 34

48.3W

1/2m W of

second

causeway

oak

dominated

D13 A3

D13 Bg


Sample

No

Grid

reference

UTM/lat-

long

Location Type of

vegetation


drainage

Botanical

Survey

No.

D14 A1 16

3222.6N

Deepr River

FR (N)

medium

dense pine

with dense

understory

and

discontinuous

grass cover

0-1 E long footslope

and coastal

plain below

karstic hills;

c.1km from

Bladen R to W

17 to 18

D14 A2 88 42

52.0W

Nr Bladen

River bdy

and

discontinuous

grass cover

D14 A3g

D14 Bg

D15 A1 16 31

37.0N

Deep river

FR (N)

open sedge-

grassland

with

scattered

<1 na long footslope

and coastal

plain

D15 A2 88 42

29.8W

palmetto

clumps

evidence of

surface water

flow

12

nearest

D15 B1g

D15 B2g


D16 A1 16 23

15.9N

Paynes

Creek

open sedge

grassland

with

<1 na dry coastal

plain with

D16 A2 88 36

24.7W

c 8km NW

of station

very large

clumps of

palmetto

evidence of

surface water

flow

24

nearest

D16 B1

D16 B2g

D16 B3g

D17 A1 16 24

37.0N

Deep River

FR (S)

mixed dense

savanna

woodland

<1 na well drained

through out

profile

25

D17 A2 88 37

49.4W

Sample

No

Grid

reference

UTM/lat-

long

Location Type of

vegetation


drainage

Botanical

Survey

No.

D17

A3/B1

D18 A1 16 30

19.0N

Off

Southern

Highway;

road

open

tussocky

grassland and

sedges;

1-2 N upper slope of

catena with

overall slope

3-4ºN

D18A2/B1 88 28

30.6W

to shrimp

farm

scattered

pine,oak &

gentle convex-

linear; signs of

26


low shrubs surface water

flow

D18 Bg

D19 A1 16 30

37.3N

Off

Southern

Highway;

road

dense pine

savanna

woodland;

continuous

grass cover &

numerous

shrubs

3 to 5 N lower slope of

catena-

footslope step

3

D19

B1/2g

88 28

27.2W

to shrimp

farm

grass cover &

numerous

shrubs

dry valley

downslope -

base c 100m.

D19 B2g

D20 A1 16 32

04.4N

Behind

Savanna

Forest

dense (thin

bole) pine;

thick grass

3 to 5 SE middway

down long

linear slope;

well drained

53

D20 A2 88 27

29.7W

Station cover with

frequent

shrubs

D20 B1

D20 B2g

D21 A1 16 37

27.7N

E of

Georgetown

medium

dense pine

with open

grass

1 to 2 N Level plain

leading down

to a small

gallery

68


D21 A2 88 27

16.1W

track

leading

towards the

coast

with mixed

arboreal

patches

Sample

No

Grid

reference

UTM/lat-

long

Location Type of

vegetation


drainage

Botanical

Survey

No.

D21 B1

D21 B2g

D22 A1 17 08

57.3N

Coastal

Highway N

of Gales

oak

dominated

clump with

pine and

numerous

shrubs

<1 na level [plain

dipping E

through

grassland and

palmetto

clumps

28

nearest

D22 A2 88 19

31.6W

Point

turning ;

100m from

road

numerous

shrubs

D22

B1h/Fe

Matamore

Pine ridge

D22 B1Fe

D22 B2

D22 B3

D23 A1


D23 A2

D23 B

D23 C 17 15

32.5N

Coastal

Highway

Oak thicket

with pine and

1 to 2 E Gently upward

sloping plain

to E

30

88 25

24.9W

off trail to E

Bocotra

Pine Ridge?

palmetto

shrub

over grassland

(topsoils

washed off?)

savannas in belize: results from darwin initiative project ... · savannas in belize: results from...

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