scandinavian loans in old and middle english

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Scandinavian loans in Old and Middle English,Scandinavian loans in Old and Middle English,Scandinavian loans in Old and Middle English,Scandinavian loans in Old and Middle English,

and their legacy in the dialects of Englandand their legacy in the dialects of Englandand their legacy in the dialects of Englandand their legacy in the dialects of England

and modern standard Englishand modern standard Englishand modern standard Englishand modern standard English(Updated 15 October 2011)

Word coloursWord coloursWord coloursWord colours:

green= Old Norse (ON) and Old English (OE); red= Modern English; maroon= Middle

English (ME); blue= Modern English dialect; purple= cognates in Modern Scandinavian andGerman

* Old English examples cited are given in an Early West Saxon form unless stated.

* * Modern Scandinavian parallels are given where these seem appropriate, and are represented in Modern

Norwegian form. This means Norwegian Bokmlunless stated otherwise, i.e. in such cases where Nynorskor

even Danish forms are closer to the ON than the Bokml ones.

Opening remarks

Some ON words were already beginning to find their way into Old English, mostly due to Viking

raids and later settlement (in the Danelaw) in England. However the full extent of Norse

influence on English did not become clear until the Middle English period of the language,

c.1150-1500. The reasons behind this are complex, as is the sometimes subtle interplay

between ON and Old English in the early period. Old English and ON were probably mutuallyintelligible to quite a degree, and this situation both accelerated borrowing and hindered it,

depending upon region, the speakers' ethnic background and the words concerned themselves.

If a word in ON already had an identical or very similar parallel in Old English, the chances

are it would not find its way into Standard English, linguistic excess usually being a bad thing.

However this varies according to region, and as the North of England was most heavily settled

by Norsemen, there are not a few examples of this principle being ignored. In the south,

dinavian loans in Old and Middle English http://germanic.zxq.net/ON-Engloa

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Saxon words prevailed, and Norse influence was both slower and smaller.

It is, however, true to say the language of the speakers of the Danelawdid more to directly

change English than did the Norman Conquest of 1066. This was because the two languages

ON and OE resembled one another enough for the learning of a second language to not be

necessary. OE and ME could quite comfortably admit loans from Norse and the reverse was

presumably the case.

An example to show the complexity of the issues at hand would be the Northern dialect and

Scots bairnwhich means "child" in Standard English. It may come from ON barn(it)and exists

in all the Modern Nordic languages (Norwegian and Danish barn, Icelandic and Faroese barn

etc.). Old English also had a version of this word, bearn. The Old English word seemed to fall

out of favour in Standard English (i.e. the West Saxon or Early Middle English of the south)

reasonably early on - being replaced by child(OE cild). The current Northern dialect usage

could therefore be a result of three possible scenarios:i) The Old English usage was well rooted and familiar enough to remain in use despite

standardising tendencies from southern English.

ii) The Old English word was declining until the Norse users maintained its existence by using

an identical or very similar word from their tongue.

iii) The Old English word died out completely, and was re-introduced (perhaps unwittingly) by

the Norse speakers in the occupied districts.

The Norsemen gave us a good number of words that are in everyday use and a fundamentalelement of the everyday vocabulary of English. Many of the words which came in through

Norse were those associated with the sea, law and local administration - as will be seen from

the divisions made below. Everyday Norse words in English are, for example: law, fellow, get,

take, anger, sky, skin, wrong, same, as well as, most remarkably, the pronouns they, their

and them, which ousted the OE equivalents he, heoraand him. They also gave us the present

meanings of words like bread(original meaning bit, piece, morsel), dream(original

meaning joy), earl(original meaning warrior; hero), dwell(original meaning go astray,

tarry) and restricted the meanings of words like holm(original meaning sea, ocean, water)

and starve(original meaning die). Borrowing of pronouns is a very rare phenomenon and

illustrates both the intimate relations and deep effect Norse had with, and on, early English.

Most loans would have found their way into the language from the 9th 11th centuries, but they

do not start appearing in quantities until the written records of the 1200s i.e. Early Middle

English. Norse words were relatively slow to show themselves in written verse, but when they

did, beginning in the North and Midlands of the country, they appeared in considerable


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numbers. Most of these words did not endure long, or else are still confined to the dialects

(Norse followed by French being the most significant donor of words to the dialects). Norse

probably had a lower status even than English in the late Middle Ages, which in its turn had a

lower status than (Norman) French and Latin.

The effects of Norse speech can be appreciated from the fact that East and West Mercian

developed into considerably different dialects in Middle English. There must have been areas ofparticularly dense Danish settlement for the local Saxons to need to acquire at least a basic

understanding of the settlers language due to their numbers and social and commercial

importance. Moreover, to Nordic cross-border linguistic interference and a form of creolized

Old English can to a large measure be attributed the inflexional-levellingwhich occurred in

English from c.1100-1350 AD. This process has to a greater or lesser extent happened in all

Germanic languages, but the need for the Saxon English and Norsemen to communicate, in

languages whose vocabulary but not inflexional endings were very similar, very likely

accelerated this process in English. However, not everyone now agrees with this view

(advanced, among others, by Jespersen). Robert Burchfield, writing in his The English

Language, argues:

"This view[i.e. the creolized, flexionless English], which supposes a period, however

temporary, of creolized and virtually illiterate speech, cannot be sustained. It is much more

likely that the linguistic changes of the period 900 to 1200 result from an increasing social

acceptance of informal and unrecorded types of English ....These informal types of English

emerged because of the instability of the Old English declensional system itself ..." (p.14).

He continues to point out that the OE case system contained too few clearly distinguishable

inflexions required to reflect the relationships between words in a sentence. Therefore the

inflexional system, since it was an imperfect linguistic tool - perhaps to the point of hindering

communication - was gradually scaled down (to a few easily distinguishable forms) in favour

of a system which expressed syntactic relationships more clearly, i.e. prepositions. These, as

Burchfield notes, were "powerful but insufficiently exploited". His argument certainly has the

force of logic behind it. In defence of the views of Jespersen and others, it is instructive tonote, as he points out (p.76):

"So when we find that the wearing away and levelling of grammatical forms in the regions in

which the Danes chiefly settled was in a couple of centuries in advance of the same process in

the more southern parts of the country, the conclusion does not seem unwarrantable this

acceleration of the tempo of linguistic simplification is due to the settlers, who did not care to

learn English correctly in every minute particular...".


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Simplification of the OE case system began in precisely those areas where Saxon and Dane

lived side by side. Jespersen draws our attention to the situation in South Africa, where the

Early Modern Dutch of the white Boer settlers became simplified into today's Afrikaans through

contact with foreign English- speaking settlers and indigenous natives. That this occurred,

despite the Dutch case system being a mere pale imitation of the OE system's complexities,

would suggest that the need for the OE case system to simplify in the face of Anglo-Scandinavian efforts at reciprocal communication was all the more necessary.

The reasoned conclusion arrived at from all this is that the OE case system was already

breaking down, and the inflexional levelling that occurred during the late OE period and Early

ME period was no doubt accelerated (especially in the Danish settled regions) by Norse

influence, but not causedby, Norse influence on the English language. Loss of the case system

was essentially a native phenomenon, clearly influenced by, but independent of, the

Scandinavian settlements.

The Orrmulumwritten about 1200 in the north-east Midlands contains the first substantial

hoard of Scandinavian loans recorded in Middle English. About 120 Nordic loans are

incorporated within the poem and some are the first known usage of the words in English,

including anger, bloom, booth, raise, scareand notably, the conjunction occand and the

relative particle summas (both of which failed to make it into the standard language), as

well as the adverb thoughand the pronouns they, their, and them- these forms did not

become standard in Chaucer's English (i.e. that of London) until the 1400s. Among other

words used in The Orrmulumwe find awe, aye, bait, band, boon, bound, bull, flit, fro, gain,

guest, hail, ill, kid, kindle, loft, low, meek, root, scathe, skill, sleuth, thrive, tilland wing.

The Middle English words radafraid, leytenseek, occand, rowstvoice, rospraise,

summas, ropeace, uselwretched, galmad, skildivide and allesamentogether

seem entirely foreign to us but a Dane would immediately recognize them as his own. None of

these words made it into modern Standard English.

The Early Middle English poems ofKing Hornand Havelok the Daneboth show considerable

Scandinavian features at the level of lexis - the former being from the London area and the

later probably from around Grimsby in Lincolnshire.

In Laghamons Brutwe find the first use of the words leg(ON leggr) and Thursday(ON

rsdagr) instead of Saxon shank(OE) and Thundersday(OE unresdge). Chaucer was to

use some 25 Scandinavian words in his later Canterbury Tales.

From the 1200s onwards scores of Norse words start to appear in English texts, often replacing


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words of native origin. Of these could be mentioned the replacement ofwerpby cast, halseby

neck, eyethirlby window, swesterby sister, ireby anger, snithby cut. In some cases

synonymous or near-synonymous word pairs arose, e.g. craft/skill, sick/ill, rear/raise, b/both

(bothof course eventually became the word in Standard English).

Eorl, which in Anglo-Saxon England denoted a minor official was elevated in meaning to a

high-ranking nobleman due to the influence of Norsejarl. Theonest, tithandeand brydlopareall attested in ME, but only tidingshas survived in the modern standard language. Thou art

and they arereached London in Caxtons day (late 1400s) and saw off native expressions thou

bistand he sind(cf. German du bistand sie sind).

Some 400 items whose origins are demonstrably Scandinavian are still alive in the modern

standard language, and they are one of the cornerstones of the basic word-stock, representing

some of the most common and everyday words of the language. If we add the Norse terms in

the English dialects, a figure of well over 2,000 items can be arrived at.Baugh and Cable arrive at a rather larger number for the standard language:

That number, if we restrict the list to those for which the evidence is fully convincing, is about

900To this group we should probably be justified in adding an equal number in which a

Scandinavian origin is probable or in which the influence of Scandinavian forms has entered.

(p.105)

The following list of nouns, adjectives and verbs includes some of the most common words in

the language: awkward, bag, bait(vb.), band, bank, bask, birth, boon, brink, bull, cast(vb.), clip(vb.), crave, crawl, crook, dirt, down(feathers), dregs, drip, droop, drown, egg,

egg(on), fellow, flat, flit, fog, gait, gap, gape, gasp, gaze, girth, glint, glitter, guess, hap, ill,

keel, kid(noun), kindle, leg, lift(vb.), link, loan, loose, low(adj.), lug, lurk, meek, mire,

muck, muggy, nag, odd, prod, race, raise, rake(vb.), ransack, rid, rift, root, rotten, rug,

rugged, scab, scare, score(noun), scowl, scrap, screech, seat, seemly, sister, skill, skin, skirt,

skull, sky, slaughter, slouch, sly, snare, snub, sprint, stack, steak, swain, take, tangle,

tattered, thrift, thrive, thrust, tidings, tight, trust, want, weak, whisk, window. Possibly of

Norse origin are sag, scrub, and toss.

Norse words which reached us via Norman French are flounder, faggot, frown, equip,

blemish, target, tryst, scutch, jolly, elope, brawl, waive(after Geipel).

OE scyrtegives rise to modern shirt, while the corresponding ON term skyrtagives us skirt.

Similarly, retention of the hard sounds ofkand gin such words as kid, get, giveand eggis

telling of Norse origins. In OE ploughmeant a measure of land, but in Norse it referred to the


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agricultural implement.

The following, according to Geipel, are used over an area stretching from Shetland to East

Anglia and Northampton: haversoats, biggbarley, addleearn, clegghorsefly, scarn

cow dung, ewer udder, leascythe, skellumrascal, kenspeckeasily recognisable,

scratgoblin, howkto dig, ayealways, ketcarrion, nayno, toomempty, steg

gander, munmouth, waurworse, smootnarrow passage, hoastcough, laithebarn, ingmeadow, beckbrook, sprottwigs.

So thorough was the integration of Norse elements in English that many words remained

undetected until linguists began to investigate English using the comparative method in the

second half of the 1800s. It is reasonable to assume that if a form is not recorded in OE but is

found in Scandinavian, and it is recorded in ME from the Danelaw or other areas heavily

settled by Scandinavians, it is likely to be a loan. Interestingly enough it is thought that the

lexical convergences between Norse and Northumbrian Anglian dialects i.e. just in thoseareas where the Norse presence was the strongest would have been particularly plentiful,

something which probably assisted the uptake of Norse loans into those same dialects. ME

texts in the Northumbrian dialect are particularly rich in Norse loans.

When we find English words with an occlusive rather than palatalised gor kbefore a front

vowel, a feature that was preserved in Old Norse, we may suspect a Norse loan or at least

Norse influence. So there are the Norse forms garn, kista, skmm, skrubesides native

cognates yarn, chest, shameand shroud. So words like get, kidand skinare loans, while the

words giveand kettlewere clearly influenced by Norse (had they not been, the modern forms

of their OE cognates would be *yiveand * chettle).

Our word loosedescends from the Norse form laussand not its OE cognate las. Likewise

weakis derived from ON veikrand not OE wc. The archaic word swainis from ON sveinnand

not OE swn.

The -sk in baskand buskis a relic of the Norse reflexive form (ON baaskand bask). Also a

relic is the -t in scant, athwartand wantfrom ON skammt(the neuter form ofskammrshort

while), vert(the neuter form ofverrperverse)and vant(the neuter form ofvanrdefective).

In some cases both the OE and Norse words have survived with a difference of meaning or

use, as in the following pairs (English word first): no-nay, whole-hale, rear-raise, from-fro,

craft-skill, hide-skin, sick- ill.


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1 - OLD ENGLISH

Attested before 1016 and thus before the reign ofKnud den Store(Canute) are a small

number of words relating specifically to Danish or Danelaw concepts, e.g. sailing bara,

cnearr, floege, sceg, sc, mercantile matters ran, marc, battle and the court dreng, hold,

social, administrative and legal matters liesing, gri,Denelagu,bonda, lagu, wpengetc,

socn, hmsocn, sclas, withermal, stefnan,toft. These terms are not common in Denmark in

the same period and they must be considered having become obsolete in the mother country.

Of the pre-1016 loans, the following have survived in the standard language: husband, fellow,

thrall, outlaw, husting, wrong, call, to egg, law(ousted OE at an early date).

sc, the name of a Viking ship (ONaskr), is attested in the Chronicleas early as 893.

Hsbndawas first in general use around 1000.Eorlwas influenced by Norse iarl. After 1017 eorlreplaced the old title ealdorman, which does

not completely disappear, but no longer denotes the highest office in the state of the king. In

1036 Godwine eorlis mentioned in the Chronicle. This is the first time eorl is used instead of

ealdormanabout an Englishman outside the Danelaw.

Terms connected with the reign of Canute and his sons are lismen,hscarlandning.

Hscarllived alongside nativehredman.Also associated with Canute aregrsuman

treasures (ODan.grsum).During the late 1000s and the first half of the 1100s about thirty Norse terms appear in English

manuscripts for the first time, and around half of these survive in modern standard English:

knife, root, rag, score, skin, snare, haven, die, hit, take, crooked, they, them, their(in the

case of the personal pronouns the Norse forms probably triumphed because the Saxon forms

could be confusing). More Danelaw terms appear during this period: hird, hofding, fylcian,

manslot, sceppe, tapor-x. Also during this period deyjareplaced sweltan, skinreplaced fell,

rootreplaced wyrt, and takareplaced niman. (The first appearance oftakeis in 1072 in the

Chronicle: ond a men ealle he tc). The words bothand tillmake an appearance during this

period (in the Peterborough Chronicle), while birth, gape, castand wantappear soon after.

Scandinavian loans in Old English poetrypoetrypoetrypoetryare confined to the accounts of heroic battles against


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the Norse and others in The Battle of Brunanburhand The Battle of Maldon. Warfare and

trade are two principal ways in which loans can come into languages and the Anglo-Saxons

and Norsemen regularly participated in both - especially war. It comes therefore as no

surprise that the lexis derived from the ON which appears in these poems is entirely martial in

nature.

In Maldonwe have: dreng"Viking warrior" (where it only appears here before 1066) - ONdrengr"bold man, warrior" etc. (Norwegian dreng, Danish dreng; the OE equivalent was ceorl,

with a shift of meaning in modern churl); gri"truce, peace, cessation of hostilities" (OE word

for a general condition of peace was fri, and it sometimes appears with griin ME in the

expression gri and fri) - ON gri"truce, peace" (archaic Danish grid"peace", historical

Norwegian grid"mercy"; note also grilas"violated" - ON grialauss"truceless" - this latter

word is the first known Norse loan into English); grrs"attack" (lit. "spear-rush") - ON

geirrs"spear-rush" (the compound appears to be Norse derived); ceallianto call where it

appears as a synonym to native clypian- ON kalla. Also in this poem we have what appears to

be a conscious echo of a Norse legal idiom selja sjlfdmi"deliver self-judgement" in the OE

on hyra sylfa dm"on their own reckoning". Byrhtno, the tragic hero of the poem, is called

an eorl in the full Nordic sense of the word.

And in Brunanburhwe find the Norse word knrr"merchant ship" twice in the OE loan cnearr

"(small) ship"(cf. Norwegian knarr"sailboat").

Poetic vocabulary is much less prone to survive language change and decay, and cnearrnever

had, to my knowledge, anything more than a short life within Old English poetic diction. But

drengdid survive longer, appearing in Early Middle English poems from the North and

Midlands such as Havelok the Dane.

Loans in Old English proseproseproseproseare more numerous and frequently met. Here is a list of many of

them, some of which are easily recognisable as common everyday words in Modern English,

such as husband, law, and outlaw. Loans from ON into OE are sometimes for concepts or

things peculiarly Scandinavian, or those things in OE for which Anglo-Norse contact altered the

conception. But most simply define or describe everyday objects or concepts for which the

early English already had words. The vast majority of such Norse loans are found in the late

texts after 1000 AD, especially The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, where we find such Norse loans as

orrest"battle", gri(1002) "truce, cessation of hostilities" and ning"villain", among a

number of others. Some are, however, found in earlier texts such as Alfred's Laws(880-90).

Naturally many required adaptation to the OE sound and inflexional systems:


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sc"ash" - with the sense "warship" - ON askr"ash-tree; small ship"; btswegen

"boatswain" - OE bt+ ON sveinn; btlas(late loan) "unpardonable" - ON btlauss"without

remedy, irreparable" (cf. Modern English bootless); brdlp"bridal" (the first element is

native) - ON brlaup"bridal, wedding feast" (cf. Norwegian bryllup"wedding"); bnda-

"householder" - ON bndi"farmer, householder"; btsecarl(1052 ASC) "sailor (in royal fleet),

seaborne merchant" - ON buza"boat" and karl"man"; b"dwelling" (found occasionally inME) - ON b"farm, homestead"; cann"cognizance" (legal term) - ON kanna; carlmann

"male, man" - ON karlmar "man, vigourous man"; ceallian(Maldon) "call" - ON kalla

(ousted OE htan, clipian"call, yell"); cnearr"(small) ship" - ON knrr"merchant ship"; cnf

"knife" - (probably ) ON knfr(OE used seax"short sword, knife"); crafian"demand" (late

loan) - ON krefja"crave, demand, request" (cf. English crave, Norwegian kreve); crcod(once

in late 1100s) "crooked" must derive from unrecorded OE *crk< ON krkr"hook, barb"

(Serjeantson); degan, dgan(late OE, Anglian) "die" - ON deyja"die" (ousted OE sweltan

"die" and altered OE steorfan"die, perish" which now only denotes "starve"; ON deyjaonce

had an OE cognate which may have given rise to ME deienbut forms from 1000 onward very

likely stem only from the ON form, according to Serjeantson); efne"material, matter" - ON

efni"material" (cf. Norwegian emne); farnian"prosper" - ON farnast"succeed"; folaga(1016

ASC) "colleague, mate" - ON flagi"partner; fellow, mate"; flege(rare) "little ship" - ON fley

"swift ship"; fylcian(e.g. 1066 ASC) "(to) marshal" - ON fylkja"array, marshal"; genge

"troop" - ON gengi"help, support"; grsume(1035 ASC; survived into Early ME

(Serjeantson)) "treasure" - ON grsemi"costly thing, jewel, treasure"; h(once, 1039 ASC)"rowlock" - ON hr; hmele(once, 1040 ASC) "rowlock" - ON hamla; hmsocn"the offence of

attacking someone in his home" - ON heimskn"attack on someone's home"; hsta

"oarsman" - ON hseti; hofding(1076 ASC) "leader, ringleader" (has the latter meaning in

ASC(Serjeantson)) - ON hfingi"leader, chief"; hittan(one instance in OE meaning "come

upon" in 1066 ASCa com Harold ure cyng on unwr on a Normenn, and hytte hi

begeondan Eoferwic) - ON hitta"hit upon, meet; strike"; hold(921 ASC) "vassal" - ON hldr

(a kind of higher yeoman); hsbnda"householder" - ON hsbndi"master of the house";

hscarl(1036 ASC) "a member of the royal bodyguard" - ON hskarl"manservant; member

of the royal bodyguard"; hsting(1012 ASC) "meeting, tribunal" - ON hsing(i.e. a thing

held in a building); lagslit"breach of law" ---- ON * lgslit"breach of law"; lahbryce"breach of

law" - ON lgbrot"breach of law"; lagu"law" (one of the most common and important ON

loans) - ON * lagu, lg(npl.) - (the OE word was ); landcop, landceap"tax paid on a land

purchase" - ON landkaup"purchase of land"; lesing(Laws) "freed man" - ON leysingi"freed

man" (survives only in modern dialect as leising); li(1052 ASC) "fleet" - ON li"troops, host,


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following, crew" (OE form was lid); lismenn(ASC1036) "sailors" - ON lismenn"troops";

loft(found once with meaning "air") - ON lopt(native OE equivalent was lyft); lst(1000s)

"fault, sin" - ON lstr"fault, flaw; vice"; ml(e.g. 1086 ASC) "suit, case, pleading;

agreement" - ON ml"suit, action, case" (the word later occassionally appears in ME and

appears in Modern English as -mail, e.g. as in blackmail); manslot"portion of land granted

the householder" - apparently ON manns-hlutr; ning(c.1000; 1049 ASC se cing a and eallhere cwdon Swegen for niing) "villain, evil man, niggard, wretch" (the word is also fairly

common in ME) - ON ningr"villain, scoundrel"; ranplural ofra(Danish coin) - ON

aurar, OSwed. re(cf. Norwegian re); orrest(1096 ASC) "battle" - ON orrosta"battle" (also

appears once in ME Ormulum, c.1200: orrest); rn"robbery, rapine" - ON rn"robbery;

plunder, spoils"; rt(first in 1127 ASCcompound rt-fst) "root" - ON rt; rfter"beam"

(modern raft) - ON raptr; saclas"innocent" - ON saklauss"innocent"; sala(one instance)

"sale" - ON sala"sale"; sang(does not survive into ME) "bed" - ON sng"bed" (cf.

Norwegian seng); scg"warship" - ON skei"warship, galley"; scgmann"seaman; Viking,

pirate" - ON skeimar; sceppe(reappears in 1400s (Serjeantson)) "measure of grain or malt"

- ON skeppa"dry measure"; scinn(1075 ASC) "skin" - ON skinn(OE used felland hd"hide"

to denote both animal and human skin); scoru(late OE) "a score, notch" - ON skor (cf. ON

skora"score, make a notch, tally", related to OE verb scieran"incise, score with a point");

snacc"small vessel, war-ship" - ON snekkja"swift ship"; sparrian"bar" (ME sparren,

sperren) - ON sparra"spar, bar"; stefnian"summon" - ON stefna"summon, call"; tacan

"take" (1072 ASC) - ON taka(ousted OE niman"take" during the ME period); taper-x(e.g.ASC1071) "small axe" - ON tapor-x"small axe"; targe(late OE) "small shield, buckler" - ON

targa"small round shield"; tdung"news, tidings" - ON tindi"news, events, tidings"; til

(Northumb.) "till" - ON til; nest, egnest"service" - ON jnusta"service" (cf. Norwegian

tjeneste, German Dienst); onestmen"retainers" - ON jnostumenn"retainers, servants";

r"female servant" - probably ON rr"female slave, maidservant"; riing"third part (of a

county), riding" - ON rijungr"third, third part"; rl"thrall, slave" - ON rll; weng

"band" - ON veng"thong"; unlagu"violation of law, injustice" - ON lg"breach of law";

tlaga"outlaw" (common term in later OE) - ON tlagi (note derived OE verb tlagian"to

outlaw"); wlraf"plunder from the slain" - (probably) ON valrof, valrauf"plunder from the

slain"; wpengetc (Laws) "wapentake" (division of a riding) - ON vpnatak"the grasping or

brandishing of weapons"; wcing"pirate, viking" - ON vkingr "man of the fjords"; wierml

(1052 ASC) "counter-plea" - ON * vir-ml"counter-plea"; witter(once in 1067 ASC; common

in ME) "wise" - ON vitr"wise"; wtword"written evidence, proof" : ON vitor"knowledge,

privity";


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Serjeantson makes a fascinating observation which is worth mentioning here. She points out

that in OE ge, we maybe seeing the first appearence of ON eir"they" in English. The word

appears in two OE texts, for example, in the Late West Saxon Gospelsas sume ge wron

hene"some of them were heathens".

When we bear in mind that Old English was remarkable for the small amount of loanwords in

its vocabulary, the number of loans from Old Norse at this stage seems quite significant; itinforms us of the close links between the two linguistic communities, which were not always

hostile. Indeed, the borrowing of pronouns and particles from one language to another seldom

occurs, and yet perhaps OE and certainly ME borrowed these elements from Old Danish or Old

West Norse. When we recall that in they areboth the pronoun and verb form are Scandinavian

(ousted OE (West Saxon) hie syndon), we realize how intimately the language of the Norse

invaders affected English.

2 - MIDDLE ENGLISH*

i) Everyday words

a(ME) "river, stream" : ON "river" (cf. Norwegian "river"; form argues against derivation

from OE a"river"); addlen(ME Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only) "earn" :

ON lask"gain, procure" (survives in dial. addle"earn, procure" - see below); algate"in

every way" (ME c.1225: algate, other forms allegate, algates) : ON alla gtu"always" (-s

adverbial suffix is native); allesamen(ME) "altogether, everyone together" : ON allir saman

"all together" (cf. Norwegian alle sammen"everyone"); aloft(ME Ormulum, c.1200: o loft)

from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON lopti"above, aloft"; anger (ME c.1250 anger, angre) :

Scandinavian source corresponding to ON angr "grief, sorrow"(ousted OE words gramaand

irre); attlen(Brut, c.1250) "think, intend; go" (now only in dial. ettle) : ON tla"intend,

propose"; awe(ME c.1200: aghe, 1250: age): ON agi"fear; unrest" (ousted OE ege"awe,fear"); awkward(ME pre-1400: awkward, awkwart) : ON fug- "reversed, facing the wrong

way" + Eng. -ward; axle(ME 1290, in the compound axeltre"axletree", ME 1368: axle) eaxl

"shoulder" is known in OE but the modern word is probably from the ON loan xultr(hence

axeltreabove) from xull"axis, axle" and tr"tree"; bag(ME pre-1200: bagge) : ON baggi

"pack, bundle"; bait(n) "food to entice animals" (ME c.1300: bait) from a Scandinavian

source, cf. ON beita"food, especially that which entices prey, bait", beit"pastureland"; the


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verb dates from c. 1300 (Barnhart); band"strip of material" (ME 1126: band, a dialectal

variant ofbond) - this was a combination of a Scandinavian word corresponding to ON band

"bond, fetter; cord" and Old French bande"strip", originally from Germanic (Barnhart); bank

(ME c.1200: banke) : probably from ON banki, bakki"bank, ridge, mound"; bark"outer layer

of a tree" (ME c.1300: bark) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON brkr"bark", Mainland

Scandinavian bark"bark"; bask(ME 1397: basken"wallow in warm water") : ON reflexivebaask"bathe oneself"; bennk, binc(ME; now only in dial. benk, bink- see below) "bench,

shelf" : ON bekkr "bench" (preservation of the -kproves this ME and dial. form to be

Scandinavian and not derived from OE benc, from which the Modern Standard English form

derives); b(ME c.1315) "town" : ON br"farm, homestead"; bigg(ME early 1300s) "dwell;

build" : ON byggja"colonise, populate, dwell, settle" (now only dial. bigg); birth(ME 1170:

burth, 1200: burthe, burde): ON byr"birth, descent" (ME ibirdefrom OE gebyrdwas

ousted); bleak(ME 1300: bleike): ON bleikr"pale, whitish" (blkefrom OE blcis found in ME

but gives way to the Scandinavian form); bloom(ME 1200: blom, blome): ON blmi(native

were OE blstm, blstma>blossom); bloute(ME Havelok, c.1275) "soft" : ON blautr"soft";

bondeman(ME and eModE) "male slave" : ON bndamar (with a different meaning to the

ME word; cf. Norwegian bonde"farmer, peasant", (archaic) "master, husband"); boon(ME

bn) "prayer, boon" : ON bn"request, petition" (cf. OE bn"request, prayer"); booth(ME

1200: bothe(recorded earlier in ME place-names)): ON b"shop"; booty(ME 1474: botye) :

ON bti"share" (bta"divide"); both(1124: bathe, 1225: bothe): ON bir; bound for"ready

to go" (ME Ormulumc.1200: bn, pre-1400: bownde) : ON binn"prepared, ready",ODan.ben"ready, prepared"; br(ME c.1315) "violently" : ON brr"sudden, hasty"; bread(by

ME c.1200 breadhad the modern meaning) : ON brau(OE bradmeant "crumb, fragment"

- OE used hlfto denote bread); brennen(1137) "burn" : ON brenna"burn" (cf. OE brnan,

biernan"burn"; cf. Norwegian brenne); br(ME c.1250) "eyebrow" : ON br; brodd(ME

Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only) "spike" : ON broddr"point, spike"; brink

(ME 1225: brinke) : ODan. brink(ON brekka) "verge, brink"; brunie(ME; Brut, c.1250:

brunie; - now only found in archaic Scots. byrnie) "corslet, mailshirt" - ON brynja(OE form

was byrne); boulder(ME Havelok, c.1275 bulder(ston)) "stone" : cf. Swedish bullersten"stone

in a stream which makes a roaring noise from the rushing water" - compound ofbullra"roar"

and OE stn"stone" (Barnhart) ; bull(ME bule) "bull" : OEast Norse bule;bulxe(ME) - ON

bol-x"wood-axe"; bylaw"secondary law" (ME 1257: birelage, 1280: bilage, 1370: bilawe):

ON bjar-lg"local ordinance" (modern meaning appeared in 1541); cake(ME c.1220: kake

"flat cake, flat loaf") from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON kaka"cake", Modern Norwegian

kake, Modern Danish kage"cake"; calf(ME pre-1325: calf) "hind of the leg below the knee"


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from ON klfi"calf of the leg"; call(ME 1200: callen, kallen) : ON kalla(ousted OE htan,

clipian); carl(e) (known in OE in compounds and post-ME period only in English dialects

meaning "rustic" - see below) "man, chap" : ON, ODan. karl"man, man of the people" (cf.

Norwegian kar, Swedish karl"fellow, chap"); carling, carline"fore-and-aft beam in a vessel,

used for supporting the deck" from ON kerling"old woman, hag"; carp(ME c.1225: carpen

"talk, converse") now "complain, find fault" is a Scandinavian loan, cf. ON karpa"boast",karp"boasting, bragging"; cast(ME c.1200: casten) : ON kasta"throw" (ousted OE weorpan

"throw, cast" cf. German werfen, Dutch werpenbut was later largely pushed out bythrow

from OE rwan); clip"trim, cut" (not "fasten") (ME Ormulum, c.1200: clippen) from a

Scandinavian source, cf. ON klippa"clip, cut", Modern Icelandic, Modern Swedish klippa"cut,

shear", Norwegian klippe"cut, clip"; coupe(ME Havelok, c.1275) "buy, purchase" : ON kaupa

"buy" (cf. OE ceapian"bargain, trade, buy", Norwegian kjpe); crawl(vb.) "move slowly

along the ground on one's hands and knees" (ME c.1200: crewlen, pre-1400: crawlen) from a

Scandinavian source, cf. ON krafla"make a pawing movement with the hands", Modern

Danish, Norwegian kravle"crawl, creep; swarm"; crook(ME pre-1200: crk"evil device")

from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON krkr"hook, bend", Norwegian and Swedish krok, Danish

krog"hook, bend, curve, nook"; cut(ME pre-1300: cutten, kittenand early dial. forms cutte,

kitte, kettepoint to OE * cyttan, probably a Norse loan) : cf. Icelandic kti"small knife",

Norwegian kutte"cut" (Norse word ousted OE snan"cut, slice" and partly ceorfanwhich

survives as carve); cweld(ME) "evening" : ON kveld"evening" (cf. Norwegian kveld

"evening"); derf(ME c.1250) "bold" : ON djarfr"bold, daring"; dil(ME c.1315) "conceal" : ONdylja"hide" (cf. Nynorsk dylje, dlje, Norwegian dlge); dirt(ME pre-1300: drit, drytt, 1425:

dert, 1434: dyrt) : ON drtr"dirt, dung" (cf. Norwegian drit"rubbish"); dirty(ME c.1425:

dyrty, from earlier dritty(pre-1400), from ME drit+ y) - see dirtabove; down"soft

feathers" (ME 1345-49: doune) : ON dnn"down, bed of down"; drag(late ME 1440: draggen

"draw, pull") from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON draga"pull, draw, drag", but possibly a

dialectal variant of ME drawen"draw" from OE dragan"draw, drag"; dream(ME 1250: drem)

: ON draumr"dream" (OE drammeant "joy"); dregs(ME 1378: dregges): ON dregg

sediment;dreng(ME; Brut, c.1250: dring, Havelok, c.1275:dreng) known from late OE -see above) "doughty young man" : ON drengr "bold man; fellow; attendant" (cf. Danish dreng

"boy", Norwegian dreng"farmhand", (archaic) "brave young man"); drepen(ME Havelok,

c.1275) "kill" either from ON drepa"kill, strike, beat" or OE drepan"strike, kill"; drip(ME

c.1300: drippendrop down) : cf. ON dreypalet fall in drops; droop(ME 1300: drupen,

1333-52: droupen) : ON drpa"droop (from sorrow)"; drown(ME c.1325 drounen, drunen) :


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maybe from a Danish equivalent to ON drukna"drown"; egg(ME 1340: eg, 1366: egge) : ON

egg(defeated OE parallel gwhich appeared in ME asei); egg"to incite" is according to

Serjeantson already known in the OE loan from Norse eggianbut I cannot corroborate this.

Other authorities have ME c.1200: eggen from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON eggja"incite,

whet"; farcost(ME) "boat; circumstances" : ON farkostr"vessel, ship"; fellow(ME 1250:

felawe) : ON flagi"partner, comrade"(already recorded in OE as folaga); fken(ME c.1225)"hurry about" : ON fkjast"desire, yearn for"; fisk(ME) "fish" : ON fiskr (cf. Norwegian fisk;

Modern English form derives from OE fisc, cf. German Fisch); flat(ME 1300: flat) : ON flatr

"flat, level"; flit(MEpre-1200: fluttenconvey, move, take, flittenME King Horn(c.1225) "flit

about") : ON flytja"carry, convey; fo, fa(ME) "get, obtain, attain" : ON f"take; get gain,

win" (cf. Norwegian f); fog(1554 but clearly much older) probably from a Scandinavian

source, cf. ON fok"snow flurry", fjk"drifting snow storm", Norwegian fokk"drift", Danish

fog"drift, drifting snow"; frastys(ME early 1300s) "tempt" : ON freista"tempt"; frest(ME

Havelok, c.1275) "delay" : ON frest"delay, respite"; fro(only in phrase to and fro; ME 1325:

fra, fro) : ON fr"from"; frost(ME pre-1475: forst, frost) : ON frost; froe(ME c.1300)

"froth" : ON froa"froth"; gain(ME 1473: gayne) : ON gagn"advantage, profit"; gait(late ME

c.1450: gait, gatewalking, departure, journey) : cf. ON gataway, road, path; gaite(ME)

"goat" : ON geit"goat" (cf. Norwegian geit; Modern Standard English form comes from OE gt

as indicated by the dipthong); gal(ME) "mad, foolish, crazy" : ON galinn"mad, wild;

bewitched" (cf. Norwegian gal); gap(ME c.1325: gap) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON gap

"chasm, empty space" (related to ON gapa"gape"), Modern Norwegian gap"wide openmouth; gap, chasm"; gape"stare with mouth open, yawn" (ME 1250: gapen) : ON gapa

"gape"; garen, geren(ME c.1250) "prepare, do, cause" : ON gra"do, make"; gasp(ME 1393:

gaspen) : ON geispa"yawn"; gaze(ME c.1395: gazenstare) : cf. ON gto heed; gere(ME

early 1300s) "equipment, army" : ON grvi"gear, apparel"; gestning(ME c.1250)

"entertainment, feast" : cf. OSwed. gstning; genge(ME Havelok, c.1275) "retinue, household)

: ON gengi"help, support"; get(ME 1200: geten) : ON geta"be able to" (OE cognate gietan

only occurred in compounds in OE); gten(ME Havelok, c.1275) "watch, guard" : ON gta

"watch, take care of, guard"; gift(ME 1250: gift) : ON gipta"gift; good fortune" (OE form

would given modern *yift); gill(mainly Northern dialect) "ravine, gorge" : ON gil; girth(ME

c.1300: gerth"belt used in husbandry") from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON gjr"girdle,

belt"; the modern meaning first appears in 1664 (Barnhart); give(ME c.1200: gifen(pre-1130:

yiven, yeven is from the native OE source West Saxon giefan"give" (OE c.725))) the gutteral g

in the form of 1200, the form from which the modern word is descended is the result of

Scandinavian influence, cf. ON gefa, Old Swedish giva"give, grant", whose form spread from


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the north during the ME period; glintalteration of earlier c.1380 glentengleam, flash : cf.

Swedish dial. glintaslip, shine;glitter (vb.) (ME c.1375: gliteren"flash, sparkle") from aScandinavian source, cf. ON glitra, glita"glitter, gleam"; greien(ME) "prepare" : ON greia

"make, get ready"; guess(ME 1303: gessen) : cf. OSwed. gissa, ODan. gitze, related to ON

geta"be able to, get, guess" (cf. ON noun geta"guess, conjecture"); gte(ls) (ME

Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only) "careless" : ON gta"heed, attend to";hansel(ME early 1300s) "gift" : ON handsal"handshake binding an agreement"; happy(ME

1380: happy"lucky") : ON happ"good luck" (survived in ME as hap"luck, success"); haven

(ME 1200: haven, from OE hfen"haven, harbour", probably from the ON word, and

therefore the only ON nautical loan to survive into ME) : ON hafn; hwer (ME c.1225) "skilful"

: ON hgr"handy, skilful"; helder (ME - now only dial.) "preferably, rather" : ON heldr

"more, rather" (cf. Norwegian heller); heen(ME Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland

ME only) "hence" : ON hean"hence"; hething(ME early 1300s) "scorn" : ON hing

"derision, scorn"; hilen(ME c.1250) "hide, conceal" : ON hylja"hide, cover"; hit(ME

pre-1200: hitten; also found once in late OE - see above) : ON hitta"hit upon, meet; strike";

hrnes(1137) "brains" : ON hjarni"brain, skull"; ill(ME 1150: ille"morally evil") : ON illr

"evil, ill, bad" (OE used yfel"evil"); immess(ME Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland

ME only) "variously" : ON miss"various, sundry"; keel (1338: kelle, 1410: kele) : ON kjlr;

ket(ME c.1250) "flesh" : ON kjt"meat, flesh"; kettle(ME 1338: ketil, ketel) : ON ketill

(replaced ME chetelfromOE citel); kevel(ME Havelok, c.1275) "gag" from ON keflialso "gag";

kid"young goat" (ME Ormulumc.1200: kide) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON ki"younggoat", Modern Mainland Scandinavian kid"kid"; kick(ME 1384 kiken) : possibly derived from

a cognate to ON kikna"bend backwards, bend at the knees"; kindle(ME c.1200 kindelen,

kindeln) : cf. ON kynda"kindle", OSwed. quindla"kindle"; laire(ME c.1315) "clay" : ON leir

"clay, loam"; leg(ME c.1275: leg) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON leggr "leg; hollow

bone", Modern Norwegian legg"calf, lower leg", Modern Swedish lgg"shin"; lift(ME c.1200:

liften) : ON lypta"raise"; ling(date?) "heather" (ME ling) : ON lyng"heather"; link(ME

c.1415: lynke"section of a cord or rope", c.1443: "link of a chain") from a Scandinavian

source, cf. Old Swedish lnker"chain, link", Modern Swedish lnk, Modern Norwegian lenke

"chain, fetter", ON hlekkr "link"; (vb.) (ME c.1385: linken) probably derived from the noun;

lre(ME) "face, skin" : ON hlr"cheek"; lit(now only dial.) "colour, hew" : ON litr"hew,

colour" (cf. Norwegian ld); loan(ME 1175: ln, pre-1250: loan) : ON laun"reward,

recompense" (cf. Norwegian lnn"wages"); loft(ME c.1225: loft) : ON lopt"loft; air, sky"

(found once in OE - see above); loghe(ME Ormulum; c.1200: lwe; word Northern/Midland


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ME only) "fire" : ON logi"flame"; loose(adj.) "not firm" (ME pre-1200: lowse, c.1350: loos)

from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON lauss"loose" (OE form was las); (vb.) "set free, release"

(ME c.1200: lowsen, c.1325: loosen) derived from the adjective (Barnhart); low(ME 1175: lah,

1280: low) : ON lgr"low, low down, short"; lug(vb.) "pull, drag" (ME c.1375: luggen"move

heavily", c.1390: loggen"pull, drag") from a Scandinavian source, cf. Modern Swedish lugga,

Modern Norwegian lugge, both "pull by the hair"; lurk(ME 1300 lurken, lorken, older * lusken): cf. Danish luske"slink, sneak about, prowl" from MLG lcshen"lie hidden"; ml(ME

Ormulum, c.1200: ) "speech, payment" : ON ml"suit, action, case"; may(ME Brut, c.1250)

"maiden" : ON mey"girl" (also OE mg"kinswoman"; Norwegian m); meek(ME 1200:

mok) : ON mjkr"soft, mild" (cf. Swedishmjuk"soft"); mire(ME 1300: muir, 1338: myre) :

ON mrr"bog, marsh"; muck(ME c.1250: mucfilth) : ON mykicow dung; muggy

"humid" (ME 1390: mugen"to drizzle") : ON mugga"mist"; mun(ME) "mouth" : ON munnr

"mouth" (cf. Norwegian munn); myn(ME early 1300s) "remember" : ON minna"remember,

recall"; mynnyng(ME c.1300) "remembrance" : ON minning"memory, remembrance"; nag:

cf. ON naggacomplain, groan, grumble, dial. Norwegian naggagnaw; irritate;naken(ME) "naked" : ON nktr(cf. Danish ngen; Modern Standard English form is from OE

ncod); nae(ME) "grace, favour, mercy" : ON n"grace, mercy" (cf. Norwegian nde);

nevenen(ME King Horn, c.1225; later nevnen) "name" : ON nefna"name, mention"; occ(ME

Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only; now only dial.) "and" : ON ok"and, also"

(cf. Norwegian og); odd(ME 1280: odde) : ON oddi"odd number"; r(ME c.1250) "before" :

ON r"before"; outlaw(ME 1300: outlawe) : ON tlagi; prod1535, developed from ME

brodden(c.1475) goad, urge from ealier brodepointed instrument : cf. ON broddrshaft,

spike; race(ME c.1300: ras) : ON rs"race; course, channel" (cf. OE rs"onrush, attack;

jump, leap"); radd(ME Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only) "afraid" : ON

hrddr"afraid, frightened" (cf. Norwegian redd); rag(ME 1325: ragge) : ON rgg"tuft,

shagginess"; raid(ME c.1425) "military excursion" (originally on horseback) either from ON

rei"ride, riding" or a Scandinavian influenced northern English form of OE rd"ride, riding,

journey; raid" with an extension of meaning - which has otherwise given us "road"; raise(ME1200: reysen, c.1250: reisen): ON raisa"cause to rise"; rake(vb.) "gather in, sweep" (ME

c.1250: raken"gather, rake") from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON raka"scrape, rake"; rake

"dissolute man" (ME rakel"rash" > eModEng. rakehell(1554) > rake) : cf. ON reik"strolling,

wandering", Icelandic reikall"vagabond"; ran(ME; - known in OE (see above) with meaning

"robbery") "spoils, plunder, loot, booty" : ON rn"robbery, plunder; spoils" (cf. Norwegian

ran"robbery; booty"); ransack(ME 1250: ransaken) : ON rannsaka"search a house"; rapelike


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(ME c.1250) "hastily" : ON hrapeliga"hurredly, hastily"; rapen(ME c.1250) "hasten" : ON

hraa"hasten"; r(ME Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only) "counsel" : ON

r"counsel, advice"; reef"section of a sail that can be taken in or let out" (ME c.1390: riff,

emodE 1667: reef) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON rif"reef of a sail"; usage probably

derived from ON rif"ridge, reef" from which our word reef(1584: riffe, riff) "narrow, rocky

ridge" comes, via Early Modern Dutch (Barnhart); reindeer (ME c.1400: rayne-dere, 1408:reyndere) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON hreindri(hreinitself meant "reindeer" while

drdenotes "animal"); OE hrn"reindeer" is identical but was ousted by the Norse form; rid

(ME 1200: ruden, rudden, c.1250: ridden) : ON ryja"clear, free up"; rift(pre-1325) a split,

act of splitting : cf. ON riptbreach; rig(ME Havelok, c.1275) "back" : ON hryggr"back,

spine"; r(ME Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only) "quiet, peace" : ON r

"rest, calm"; roose"to praise", ros"praise" (ME; - now only in dial roose) : ON hrsa, hrs

"(to) praise" (cf. Norwegian rose, ros); root(ME1127: rot): from ON rtroot;roen,ren(ME) "counsel" : ON ra"advise, rule, govern, command" (cf. Norwegian rde);rotten(ME pre-1300: roten) : ON rotinn"rotten, putrid" (the verb rotis however from OE

rotian"rot, putrefy"; cf. ON rotnaalso "rot, putrefy" (Norwegian Bokml rtne, Nynorsk

rotne)) ; rowst(now only dial.) "voice" : ON raust"voice" (cf. Norwegian rst); rug(1551-2)

coarse fabric : cf. Norwegian dial. ruggacoarse coverlet, ON rggshaggy tuft; rugged

(ME 1300 or earlier rugged) : ON rugrcf. Nynorsk rugga"large, heavy person"; sacrabar (ME)

"plaintiff" - ON sakarberi"plaintiff"; sag(ME 1392: saggen): possibly borrowed from Scand.:

cf. Norw. sakkeslow down, lag behind, Swed. sackasink down; same(ME c.1200: same)

: ON sami; sammtale(ME Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only) "agreed" : cf.

ON samtala"conversation" (Norwegian samtale"conversation"), a samtala"agree"; scab(ME

1275: scab) : ON skabb"mange, scab, scratch" (note also derived adjective scabby, a direct

equivalent to native English shabby, which derives from OE cognate scb); scale(ME c.1300:

scale) : ON skl"(measuring) bowl"; scant(ME c.1350: scant) from a Scandinavian source, cf.

ON skamt, the neuter singular of adjective skammr "short, brief"; scar"skerry, cliff" (ME

1395: scar) : ON sker"skerry" (cf. ON skera"cut"); scare(ME 1200: skerren) : ON skirra"avoid"; ON skjarr"timid"; scathe(ME c.1200: scathen) : ON skaa"harm, damage, injure"

(cf. Norwegian skadeor ska); scgh(ME early 1300s) "wood, forest" : ON skgr"wood,

forest" (cf. Norwegian skog); scorch(ME skorken,pre-1325: scorchen) : probably from a

Scandinavian source, cf. ON skorpna"be shrivelled"; scot"shot" (now only dial.) : ON skot

"shot, shooting; missile"; scot(ME mid-1300s), skat(late ME/eModE dialect) "tax" : ON skattr

"tribute, tax" (cf. Norwegian skatt"tax"); scowl(ME 1340: scoulen) : probably ODan. skula


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"scowl"; scrap: ON skrap"clatter"; scrape(ME 1225: skrapen) : ON skrapa"scratch out";

scream(ME 1175: scrmen) : possibly ODan. skrmme, ON * skrma"frighten, scare";

screech(ME 1250: schrichen, early 1300s skrken) : ON skrkja"screech, shriek"; scrub(c.

1303) scratch or rub oneself : could be from Middle Low German but cf. Norwegian and

Danish skrubbeto scrub; seat(ME c.1200: sete) : ON sti"seat"; seem(ME c.1200: semen) :

perhaps ON sma"beseem", from smr "befitting" (cf. related OE sman"reconcile");seemly"proper, fitting" (ME c.1200: semlich) : ON smiligr "becoming"; sr(ME Ormulum,

c.1200: ) "separate" : ON sr"for or by oneself, separately"; serk(ME; - now only in Scots.

sark) "shirt" : ON serkr"sark, shirt" (cf. Danish and Norwegian serk"shift, chemise"; ON

word has reinforced OE cogante serc); silt(ME c.1440: silt) from a Scandinavian source, cf.

Modern Danish sylt"salt marsh"; Barnhart argues for Middle Low German or Middle Dutch

silte, sulte"salt marsh" - either is possible; sister(ME c.1250: sister): ON systir(ousted OE

form sweostorwhich appeared in ME as swuster); skath(ME c.1300) "injury" : ON skai

"harm, damage"; skemten(ME) "joke, jest" - ON skemta"amuse, entertain" (cf. Norwegian

skjemte"banter, jest", Icelandic skemmta"amuse, entertain"; note also ME skenting

"amusement"); skere"clear, pure" (ME; - obsolete dial. skir, skeer "sharp") : ON skrr"clear,

bright, pure" (cf. Nynorsk skir, Norwegian skjr "pure, sheer"); skid(1610) "beam or plank

on which something rests" from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON sk"stick of wood" (also

"ski"); skill(ME 1175: skil"skill, discrimination") : ON skil"distinction" (cf. ON skilja

"separate"; - skilousted descendant of OE crft"skill, art" in this sense); skirt(ME 1325:

skirt) : ON skyrta"shirt" (competed with OE scyrte); skulk(ME c.1200: skulken) : probablyON skolla"skulk away, remain aloof", (cf. ODan. skulk; Norwegian skulke"shirk"); skull(ME

pre-1200: sculle) : ON skalli"bald head, skull"; sky(ME pre-1200: sky) : ON sk"cloud" (cf.

Norwegian sky"cloud" - ON word marginalised OE hofon"sky, heavens" to religious/lyrical

use and OE wolcen"cloud"(cf. German Wolke) fell out of use (except in poetic and archaic

welkin"sky, heavens")); slaughter (ME 1303: slaghter) : ON sltr"fresh meat" (cf. OE slieht

"slaughter, murder; animals for slaughter"); slouch(1515) awkward, slovenly or lazy man :

cf.ON slkra slouching fellow;sly(ME 1200: sleh, 1303: slye) : ON slgr "cunning"; smile(ME c.1303: smylyng) probably from a Scandinavian source, cf. Swedish smila, Danish smile

"smile, smirk, grin" but perhaps from Middle Low German * smlen; snare"trap" was already

loaned from Norse in Old English times (OE snearu) from ON snara"snare, noose"; in ME we

find pre-1100: snear, c.1300: snare, while the corresponding verb appears c.1395: snaren- a

derivation from the noun (Barnhart); snub(vb.) (ME c.1250: snibben"rebuke", c.1340:

snubben) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON snubba"curse, reprove, chide"; sprint(1566)


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spring, dart, prob. an alteration of ME sprenten(c. 1325) to leap or spring: cf. ON spretta

to jump up; squall (modE. 1719: squall) : probably related to ON skella"make a noise;

break out, burst out, strike" (cf. Nynorsk skjelle"cold wind", Swedish skvala"pour, gush");

stack(n) "hayrick" (ME c.1300: stac"pile, heap") from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON stakkr

"haystack", Norwegian stakk, Danish stak"rick, stack"; stagger (ME c.1434: stageren, a variant

of c.1355: stakeren"stagger") from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON stakra, staka"push, shove;stagger", Modern Danish stavre"dodder, totter"; steak(ME 1440: steyke) - ON steik"steak");

sterne(ME) "star" : ON stjarna"star" (cf. Norwegian stjerne; Standard English form derives

from OE steorra); str(ME; now only dial.) "strong, great" : ON strr"big, great" (Norwegian

stor); stro, stra(ME) "straw" : ON str(cf. Norwegian str; Modern Standard form is from

OE straw); summ(ME Ormulum, c.1200: ) "as" : ON sum"as, like" (cf. Norwegian sum

"as"); swain"(arch.) a male lover; a country youth, a rustic lad" (ME pre-1160: swein"young

man, attendant") from a Scandinavian source (Scand. form ousted ME variant swonfrom OE

swn"herdsman, peasant; youth, swain"), cf. ON sveinn"boy, servant, attendant", Modern

Danish svend"fellow; swain; shop assistant", Modern Swedish sven"swain, page", Modern

Norwegian svenn"youth, squire, page; journeyman" - as a personal name, Svend, Sven is still

popular in Mainland Scandinavia; the now archaic or poetic sense in English of "lover, wooer"

first appears c.1585 (Barnhart); swen(ME c.1250) "burn" : ON svia"singe, burn, roast"

(now only in dial. swithen- see below); take(ME c.1200: taken) : ON taka(ousted OE niman

"take, get, seize" (cf. German nehmen, Dutch nemen) which still occurred in the forms nimen,

nemenduring ME period); tangle(ME pre-1340: tangilen, variant oftagilen"entangle")probably from an OScand. source, cf. Swed. dial. taggla(Barnhart); tarn(ME) "pool, pond"

(now only dial. tarn) : ON tjrn"small lake, pool" (cf. Norwegian tjrn, tjern"small lake,

pond"); tattered(ME c.1340: tatridwearing ragged clothes) : cf. ON tturrrag; their(ME

1303: theyr) : ON eira; them(ME c.1300: them): ON eim; theonest(ME) "service" (already

loaned into OE as nest, egnest) : ON jnusta"service" (cf. German Dienst); erne(ME

Havelok, c.1275) "serving wench" : ON erna"maidservant" (cf. poetic Danish terne

"handmaiden", archaic Norwegian terne); they(ME c.1200: thei) : ON eir; though(ME 1200:

thohh, c.1378: thowgh) : ON , auh"yet, though, nevertheless" (cf. OE ah, h); tnen

(ME c.1250) "lose" : ON tna"lose"; tt(ME c.1315) "quickly" : ON ttadverb formed from

tr"frequent, usual"; thrift(MEpre-1300 prosperity, profit, savings from ME thrivento

thrive) : prob. influenced by ON thrift, variant ofthrifprosperity; rinne(ME Ormulum,

c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only) "three" : ON rinnr"three"; thrive(ME c.1200:

thrifenn, c.1300: thriven) : ON rfa"grasp", middle voice rfast"thrive, prosper" (cf.

Norwegian trives"prosper, thrive", (dial.) trive"grab, seize"); thrust(ME 1175: thrusten


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"push with force") from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON rsta"thrust, force". The noun

appears in 1513 (Barnhart); Thursday(ME pre-1250: thursdei; from OE c.1000 Thurresdg,

probably a contraction influenced by the ON form) : ON rsdagr (OE had unresdg, which

would have become * Thundersdayin Modern English - cf. German Donnersdag); thwart(ME

c.1200: thweart) : ON vert, neuter ofverr"athwart, converse, adverse" (Norwegian tvert

"crosswise, athwart"); tight(ME 1325: tigt) : ON ttr"tight" (cf. Norwegian tett); toss(MEpre-1450: tossenpitch or throw about) : possibly Scand.: cf. dial. Swedish and Norwegian

tossato strew, spread; trust(n) "faith, confidence" (ME c.1200: truste) from a

Scandinavian source, cf. ON traust"help; confidence", Norwegian trst"comfort, solace";

(vb.) "have faith, confidence in" (ME c.1200: trusten) from a Scandinavian source, cf. ON

treysta"trust; make firm"; uggen (ME c.1250) "fear" : ON ugga"fear"; ugly(ME c.1250:

uglike, c.1325: ugli"horrible, fearful"; modern sense not until into 1300s) : ON uggligr

"frightful" (cf. uggr "fear", OE ege"awe, fear"); tome(ME; - now only in dial. toom- see

below) "empty, idle" : ON tmr"empty, vain, idle" (cf. Norwegian tom); umme(ME

Ormulum, c.1200; word Northern/Midland ME only) "about" : ON umb"around, about";

wandra(ME) "suffering" : ON vandri"difficulty"; want(ME c.1200: wanten) : ON vanta

"lack"; wassail(Early ME 1140: wes heil, c.1200: wshail, later: wasseyl, wassayl) : ON ves

heill"be thou hale!" (could be OE wes hl) note the derived verb ME Havelok, c.1275

wesseylen"drink healths"; waythe(ME early 1300s) "hunting" : ON veir"hunting, fishing";

weak(ME c.1300: wayke, c.1325: weke) : ON veikr"weak, feeble" (OE equivalent was wc -

this would have become * woakor *wokein Modern English); whisk(ME 1375: wisk, wyskquick sweeping movement) : ON viskwisp; window(ME c.1200: window) : ON vindauga

(lit. "wind-eye"; Norse word ousted OE agyrellit. "eye-opening"); wing(ME c.1175: wenge,

c.1200: whing, 1390: winge) : ON vngr "wing" (OE used feera); witerr(ME Ormulum,

c.1200: ) "wise" (a common word during the ME period) : ON vitr"wise"; witnen(ME)

"witness" : ON vitna"witness, attest"; wr(ME early 1300s) "corner" : ON * wr"corner,

nook"; wrong(ME pre-1200: wrang"twisted, crooked", c.1250: wrong, 1325: wrong"bad,

immoral") : ON vrangr "injustice, wrong"; wyterly(ME) "plainly; indeed" : ON vitrligr"wise,

sensible, judicious" (cf. Norwegian vitterlig"known, obvious").

* Note that these words were merely first recorded in ME literature but no doubt were more ancient in spoken

English.

* * They are given in their modern forms with ME forms in brackets, where known. Some forms have not

survived into Modern English and are given in their recorded ME forms.


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ii) Scots, Northern and Midlands English dialect words

One result of the Norse input into the English language is the large number of words in thedialects beginning sc- or sk-. Not all of these are loans from Norse but the presence in the

dialects of large numbers of words starting with these letters probably lead to the use ofsc- in

native words originally beginning sh-.

The northern dialects often have [k] where Standard English has [t] and [g] where Standard

English has [dj], for example thackthatch (ON ak), kirkchurch (ON kirkja), brig

bridge (ON briggja).

The fact that such a frequent and fundamental part of speech as an auxiliary verb munmust made into the dialect vocabulary provides some idea of just how deeply Norse

penetrated into early English.

The Scandinavian influence has left an indelible mark on the pronunciation of Scots and

northern English. In some areas one can still hear forms such as garthyard, garnyarn,

kistchest, kirnchurn, skiftshift, skelfshelf, skrikeshriek and scroodshroud.

It is ON -au- that we find in dialectal rowkreek and nowtcattle not the OE cognates with

-a-. Norse medial -ei- contributed to the retention in northern dialects of such forms as stainstone, hamehome, mairmore, ainown and aikoak. The -oo- sound familiar in

such dialect words as oot, hooseand doon(feathers) may well have been reinforced by the

same sound in the Norse cognates. The lack of a medial guttural -h- (cf. knight, right) sound

in Norse probably accelerated the shedding of this feature in medieval English spellings such

as dowterand riteare attested from the late 1300s onward in areas most densely settled by

the Danes. Native Norse terms not attested in early English at the time of their borrowing are

drengrbold man, grsspig, kjtflesh, lyngheather, sildherring and elskato

love. All these words can be found in the dialects. The words barnchild (cf. Norwegian

barn), cwenwoman (cf. Norwegian kone), wynstraleft (cf. Norwegian venstre), gamol

old (cf. Norwegian gammel), gnidanto rub (cf. Norwegian gni, gnide), tyglebridal were

once common to both OE and ON, but are now only found in modern Scandinavian and some

of the English dialects.

According to Xandry, Westmoreland, County Durham, Cumberland, Lancashire, and


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Northumberland have best preserved the Norse idiom in their local dialects, followed some

way away by Cheshire, Derbyshire, Rutland, Nottinghamshire, Northamptonshire and Suffolk.

Of the 1617 words which Joseph Wright labeled as Scandinavian in origin in his Dialect

Dictionary, Xandry calculates that 40% can be traced back to ON, 24% are to be found in

Norwegian dialects, while 9% and 5% are found in Danish and Swedish respectively. Of these

words, Xandry reckons 220 (13.6%) are agricultural expressions, 202 (12.5%) are to do withsailing and fishing, 155 (9.6%) relate to tools, 85 (5.3%) are names of animals, 52 (3.2%)

refer to people, children etc., 35 (2.2%) refer to parts of the body, and 25 (1.5%) are plant

names.

Many northern words in English dialects (and Scots) only occur in isolated regions or individual

counties, so it is not possible to give an exhaustive list here. Some are also obsolete. But an

attempt is made below to include dialectal terms from Norse which have at least a fairly wide

currency.

addle"earn, procure" : ON la, lask"gain, procure"; air"sandbank" : ON eyrr

"sandbank", MDan. r(Norwegian yr); algate"in every way" (ME c.1225: algate, other forms

allegate, algates) : ON alla gtu"always" (-sadverbial suffix is native); and"breath" (ME

c.1315 and) : ON andi"breath; soul, spirit" (cf. Norwegian nd); arr"scar" : ON rr"scar";

aund"fated, forewarned" : ON auinn"destined" (Norwegian auden, Swedish en); awns

"chaff" : ON agnar (sing. gn) "chaff, husks" (Danish avner, Norwegian agner); aye"always"

(ME ay) : ON ei, ey"always, ever" (OE "ever" > ME ); bain"flexible, ready, direct" (ME

early 1300s bein, bain) : ON beinn"straight, direct" (note Yorksh. bainsome"helpful, at

hand", Norwegian beinsam); bairn"child" (ME 1150: barn) : ON barn"child" (partly OE

bearn) "child"; bait"graze, send to pasture" : ON beita"cause to bite" (Norwegian beite);

bask"thrash, beat severely" : ON (probably from Middle Low German batschen) "thrash,

beat" (cf. Norwegian baske"slap", Standard English bashprobably derives from the Norse

form); batten"thrive" : ON batna"improve"; beck"stream" : ON bekkr "brook, stream"

(Norwegian bekk); biggbarley : ON bygg, cf. Norwegian byggbarley; big, biggen"build" :ON byggja, byggva"inhabit; build" (Norwegian bygge, Nynorsk byggje); birr"force, impetus" :

ON byrr"favourable wind"; blowt"soft, weak" : ON blautr"soft, weak; wet" (Norwegian

blt); brae, bree(mainly Scots.) "hillside, slope, bank; an upland area" (ME 1300s: br, brea)

: probably from ON br"eyebrow" or related (cf. Norwegian Nynorsk br"eyelid", English

brow< OEbr); brat"steep; sudden" : ON brr"sudden, hasty" (Nynorsk br"abrupt,

sudden", Norwegian bratt"steep; sudden"); brenn"burn" : ON brenna"burn" (Norwegian


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brenne); bro"footbridge" : ON br"bridge"; busk"dress oneself" : ON bask"get oneself

ready"; cair"drive" (ME kairen, cairen) : ON keyra"drive, thrust; ride" (Norwegian kjre); car

"pond, swamp, pool" : ON kjarr"thicket, copsewood" (Danish kr, Norwegian dialect kjerr

"bog"); carle"rustic, peasant" : ON karl"man, fellow" (Norwegian kar, Swedish karl"fellow,

chap"); carlin, carline(Scots., dial.) "old woman, hag, witch" first recorded in 1300s ME ,

from ON kerling"old woman, hag" (therefore identical in origin with carlingabove), cf.Modern Danish klling"hag, crone; old woman", Modern Swedish krring"old woman;

crone", Modern Norwegian kjerring"old woman"; chaftjawbone; mouth (in pl.) : ONkjaptr

(cf. Norwegian kjft); cled"clothes, apparel" : ON kli"cloth, garment" (Nynorsk klede,

Norwegian klr); clegggadfly : ON kleggi; crake"raven, rook" : ON krkr"crow, raven"

(Norwegian krke"crow"); dag"dew" : ON dgg"dew" (Norwegian dugg, dogg); drucken

drunken : ON past participle drukinn; eaisland : ON ey island (cf. Norwegian y);

elding"fuel" : ON eldsneyti, eldvir"wood, material for burning"; elt"slush, mud, quagmire"

: from ON verb elta"knead, squeeze" (Norwegian elte"mess, quagmire"); ert"pea" : ON ertr

"pea" (Norwegian ert); ettle"intend, propose" : ON tla"intend"; ewer "udder" : ONjgr

"udder" (Danish yver, Norwegianjur); far"sheep" : ON f"cattle, sheep; money" (Norwegian

fr"sheep"); feal"hide" : ON fela"hide, conceal"; fell"hill, mountain" (ME fell) : ON fell, fjall

"hill, fell, mountain" (cf. Norwegian fjell); flit"move" : ON flytja"carry, convey, move"

(Norwegian flytte); force"waterfall" (ME fors) : ON fors, foss(cf. Norwegian foss); frae

"from" : ON fr(Nynorsk fr, Norwegian fra); frosk"frog" : ON froskr (cf. Norwegian frosk);

gain"convenient, handy" : ON gagn"advantage, benefit, profit"; gape"yawn" (ME 1250:gapen) : ON gapa"gape, stare with the mouth open"; gar"make" : ON gera, grva"make,

do, construct" (Norwegian gjre); garn, gairnvb. "to darn" and noun "yarn" : ON garn(ME

garn; standard English yarnprobably derives from OE gearn); garth"field, yard" : ON garr

"fence, enclosure; dwelling" (Norwegian grd; cf. modern yard< OE geard); gate"way,

street, road" : ON gata"path, way, road"; gaum"heed" : ON gaumr "attention, heed"

(Nynorsk gaum; cf. also English gormlessfrom ON gaumr); gawk"cuckoo" : ON gaukr

(Norwegian gauk); glatten, gladden"smooth, polish, soften" : ON * gletta(?) (cf. Norwegian

glatte, Norw. dial gletten"smooth, slippery", Danish glat"smooth", Middle Dutch glad, glat);

gleg"small window" : ON gluggr"window" (Norwegian glugg"small window"); glegg"clear-

sighted, sharp" : ON glggr "sharp, clear" (Nynorsk glgg); goadick"mystery, riddle, puzzle" :

ON gta"riddle" (Norwegian gte); gool"yellow, fallow" : ON gulr"yellow" (Norwegian gul);

grice"pig" : ON grss"hog, pig" (Norwegian gris); grum"angry, surly" : ON gramr "wroth,

angry" (cf. OE gram"angry, cruel, fierce"); haaf"open sea" : ON haf"sea, ocean"; hag"to

hew" : ON hggva"strike, smite, hew" (cf. Nynorsk hogge, Norwegian hugge); haver "oats" :


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ON hafre(cf. Norwegian havre); helder"rather" : ON heldr"more, rather" (cf. Norwegian

heller); henstee"chicken runway" : ON hnsstgr (?) (Norwegian hnsestige); heppen"tidy" :

ON heppinn"lucky, happy" (Nynorsk heppen); hill"cover up, wrap" : ON hylja"hide, cover";

hoast"cough" : ON hsti"cough" (Norwegian hoste); how"hillock" : ON haugr"mound"

(Norwegian haug, Danishhj); ing"meadow" : ON eng"meadow, pasture"; intakenew

enclosure : ON in+taka; keek in"peep in" : late ON derived from MLG kken(cf. Norwegiankikke); kelda"spring" : ON kelda"well, spring" (Norwegian kilde); kenning"knowledge" : ON

kenning"teaching, doctrine; hallmark"; ket"carrion" : ON kjt"meat" (Norwegian kjt); kirk

"church" (ME 1200: kirke) : ON kirkja; kirn"churn" : ON kjarni"kernel" (Norwegian kjerne,

Nynorsk kinne); kist"chest" : ON kista"chest, coffin"; kittling"chicken" : ON kjklingr"chick"

(Norwegian kylling); laik, lake"to play, sport" : ON leika"play" (cf. Norwegian leike, leke); lait

"search" : ON leita"seek, search" (Norwegian leite); lathe"barn" : ON hlaa"store-house,

barn"; lax"salmon" : ON lax(cf. Norwegian lax, German Lachs); lea"scythe" : ON ljr, l

(Norwegian lj); leising"freed man" : ON leysingi"freed man"; lift"air, sky" : ON lopt"air,

sky; loft"; lig"lie (down)" : ON liggja"lie (down)" (Nynorsk liggje, Norwegian ligge); ling

"heather" : ON lyng"heather" (Norwegian lyng); lit"to dye" : ON lita"dye"; lithe, lythe(ME

len; now only obsolete dial. form) "listen" : ON hla"listen, obey" (cf. Norwegian lytte

"listen"); lop(ME loppe) "flea" : ODan. lopp"flea" (Norwegian loppe); loup"leap, run with

strides" : ON hlaupa"run" (Norwegian lpe, lype, ME loupen, Standard English lope, all from

hlaupa, English cogate was OE hlapan, modern leap); mealsandbank : ON melr

sandhill; mense(ME mensk) "honour, respect, good manners" : OSwed. mnska"goodness"; mickle"great, large" : ON mikill"great, large; much" (Norwegian Bokml meget,

mye, Nynorsk mykje); min"less" : ON minnr"less" (cf. Norwegian mindre"less"); minne

"lesser" : ON minni(cf. Norwegian mindre"less"); mirk"dark" : ON myrkr"darkness"(cf.

Norwegian mrke; this mainly dialect word may in fact derive from OE mirce"darkness,

murk"); mun"mouth" : ON munnr"mouth" (cf. Norwegian munn); mun"must" : ON munu

"shall, will, must" (cf. Norwegian m"may, must"); mug"fog" : ON mugga"drizzling mist";

naut(Scots), nowt(North. Eng.) "cattle" : ON naut"cattle, livestock" (OE parallel was nat,

found in Shakespeare - now obsolete; Norwegian naut, Jutlandic dialect nd); nay"no" (ME

1325: nai) : ON nei; neave, neive"fist" : ON hnefi"fist" (Norwegian neve"fist, handful");

near, niere, nyrekidney : ON nra(cf. Norwegian nyre); oast"cheese" : ON ostr"cheese"

(Norwegian ost); oc"and" : ON ok"and, also" (cf. Norwegian og"and"; OE ac"but, and");

ouse"bale out" : ON ausa"to pump, bale" (cf. Nynorsk ause, Norwegian se); ownly"lonely,

dreary" : ON aumligr"wretched" (cf. Nynorsk aumleg"wretched", OE earm"poor,

wretched"); quey, quee"heifer" (ME cwie) : ON kvga"heifer" (cf. Norwegian kvige"heifer",


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kveg"cattle"); raun, rowna female fish, esp. the herring or salmon : ON hrogn(cf. Dan.

rogn); rawksea fog, fog : cf. Swed. rk, Danish rgsmoke; red up"tidy, clear" : ON

reia"shift, convey; lift" (Norwegian redeopp); rig"rye" : ON rugr(Danish ryg, Norwegian

rug); roose"praise" : ON hrs"praise"; roose" to praise" : ON hrsa"praise" (cf. Norwegian

ros, rose); sammen"together" : ON saman"together, in common" (cf. Norwegian sammen,

German zusammen); scar, skerskerry : ON skerskerry; scarn, skarn"dung, filth" : ONskarn"dung" (Norwegian skarn"dirt, filth, dung", Swedish skarn"dung, filth"); scratgoblin

: ON skrattidevil, demon; seng"bed" : ON sng(found once in OE - see above; Norwegian

seng); skep"basket" : ON skeppa"a measure" (archaic Norwegian skjeppe"dry measure");

skoal(Scots - recorded from 1600 onwards) "hail! cheers!" : ON skl"bowl, vessel" (cf.

Norwegian skl"bowl" and also "cheers!"); skrellin"weakling, wretch" : ON skrling"native

inhabitant of Greenland" (Norwegian skrling"weakling, wretch"; cf. Modern Icelandic

skrlingi "barbarian"); slem"mud, sludge, ooze" : cf. Norwegian slam"mud, ooze, sludge,

slime", Swedish slem"slime, phlegm"; sniggle"snail" : ON snigill(Nynorsk snigel, Norwegian

snegl); spae"foretell" : ON sp"predict, prophesy" (Norwegian sp); spear"ask, enquire" :

ON spyrja"ask" (Nynorsk sprje, Norwegian sprre); stang"stake, pole" : ON stng"staff,

pole" (Danish stnge"bar, pole, rod, shaft"); stithy, stiddy"anvil" (ME stee, stei, stii) :

ON stei"anvil" (Norwegian ste); stive"dust, smoke" : late loan in ON from MLG stof

(Norwegian stv, Danish stv); stor "large, big" (ME str"strong, great") : ON strr"big,

great" (Norwegian stor); stud"steer, bullock" (ME 1200: stod) : ON sttr"stud" (Norwegian

stut); sum"as" : ON sem"as, which, like" (Norwegian som"as, which"); swawl"swallow" :ON svelja(Nynorsk svelgje, Norwegian svelge; Modern Standard English swallowis descended

from OE swelgan); swip"likeness" : ON svipr"look, appearance" (cf. Nynorsk svip

"resemblance, appearance"); swithen(also swiddenand swizzen) "burn superficially, shrivel

up, singe, scorch" : ON svina"be singed" (also nouns swidden, swivven"place in a moor

cleared by burning"; cf. Nynorsk svide"burn, scorch"); tangspit of land : ON tangi; tarn

(ME 1380: terne) "pool" : ON tjrn"small lake, pool" (cf. Norwegian tjrn, tjern"small lake,

pond"); tine"to lose" : ON tna"lose, destroy" (cf. Nynorsk tyne"plague, torment; kill,

destroy"); toft"homestead" : ON topt"homestead"; toom"empty" : ON tmr"empty, idle,

vain" (Norwegian tom); trigg"safe, secure" : ON tryggr "faithful, true" (Norwegian trygg);

udal: ON al"ancestral property, inheritance" (Norwegian odel; cf. OE eel "ancestral

home"); ug"fear" : ON uggr "fear, apprehension"; veesick"show" : reflexive of ON vsa

"show" (Norwegian vise); wale"choose" : ON velja"choose, select, pick out" (Nynorsk velje,

Norwegian velge); wath"ford" : ON va(cf. Norwegian vad"ford", OE w"wade, ford");

waur "worse" (ME werre) : ON verr "worse" (Norwegian verre); wick"creek" : ON vk"bay,


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inlet" (cf. ON vkingr); will"bewildered" : ON villr"bewildered, astray, wild" (cf. Norwegian

vill"savage, fierce; unruly"); yammer "moan; bewail, lament" : ODan. imrefrom MLG

jmeren(cf. Norwegianjamre).

* sources:

Barber, Charles: The English Language: A Historical Introduction. (Cambridge Approaches to

Linguistics). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993;

Barnhart, Robert, K.: Chambers Dictionary of English Etymology, Chambers Harrap Publishers,

Edinburgh, 1999;

Baugh, A.C. & Cable, T.: A History of the English Language. London: Routledge, 2003.

Bennett, J.A.W & Smithers, G.V.: Early Middle English Verse and Prose, Oxford: O.U.P., 1982;

Bjrkman, Erik: Scandinavian Loan-words in Middle English, Scholarly Press, M.I., 1978;Brook, G.L.: English Dialects(The Language Library). London: Andre Deutsch Ltd., 1978.

Brook, G.L.: A History of the English Language(The Language Library). London: Andre Deutsch

Ltd., 1977.

Burchfield, Robert: The English Language, Oxford: Oxford U.P., 1987;

Campbell, A.: Old English Grammar, Oxford U.P., Oxford, 1968;

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Edward Sproston 2011

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