• Research question / Problem

• Background / Observation

• Formulate hypothesis

• Design experiment

• Test hypothesis / Collect data

• Interpret / Analyze results

• Publish findings

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What are you interested in?What do you have to know about it?

Make observations & gather background information about the problemAn educated guess …It shall be possible to measure / test it.It should help answer the original question

How will you test your hypothesis? What tests will answer your question?

Test your hypothesis by executing your experiments. Collect data from them

What do your results tell you? Do they prove or disprove the hypothesis. It is OK to be wrongWrite papers for conferences & journals. Write thesis

Scientific Research Steps

LITERATURE REVIEW

The review of the literature is defined as a broad, comprehensive, in-depth, systematic, and critical review of scholarly publications, unpublished scholarly print materials, audiovisual materials, and personal communications

• The review of the literature is traditionally considered a systematic and critical review of the most important published scholarly literature on a particular topic.

• Scholarly literature refer to published and unpublished data based literature and conceptual literature materials found in print and non print forms

• Data based literature reports of completed research

• Conceptual literature reports of theories, concepts

LITERATURE REVIEW

PURPOSES OF LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Determines what is known about a subject, concept or problem

2. Determines gaps, consistencies & inconsistencies about a subject, concept or problem

3. Discovers unanswered questions about a subject, concept or problem

4. Describes strengths & weaknesses of designs, methods of inquiry and instruments used in earlier works

5. Discovers conceptual traditions used to examine problems

6. Generates useful research questions or projects/activities for the discipline

7. Promotes development of protocols & policies related to e.g. nursing practice

8. Uncovers a new practice intervention, or gains support for changing a practice intervention

PURPOSES OF LITERATURE REVIEW

The Use of Literature Review in Quantitative Research

• Theoretical frameworkThe literature defines concepts and terms in relation to the study

• Problem statement and hypothesesThe literature review helps to determine what is known and not known; to uncover gaps, consistencies, or inconsistencies, and/or to reveal unanswered questions about a subject, concept or problem

The literature review allows for refinement of research problems and questions and/or hypotheses

• Design and methodThe literature review reveals strengths and weaknesses of designs and methods of previous research studies

• Outcome of the analysis (findings, implications, and recommendations)The literature review is used to discuss the results or findings of a study. The discussion relates the study’s findings to what was or was not found in the review of literature

The Use of Literature Review in Quantitative Research

Steps of Searching the LiteratureDetermine concept/issue/topic/problem

Conduct computer (and/or hand) search

Weed out irrelevant sources before printing

Organize sources from printout for retrieval

Retrieve relevant sources

Conduct preliminary reading and weed out irrelevant sources

Critically read each source (summarize & critique each source)

Synthesize critical summaries

Primary and Secondary Sources

Primary source: is written by a person(s) who developed the theory or conducted the research

Secondary source: is written by a person(s) other than the individual who developed the theory or conducted the research

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The Role of Secondary Sources

Two general reasons for using secondary sources:1. A primary sources is literally unavailable2. A secondary source can provide different ways

of looking at an issue or problem

Secondary sources should not be overused

Critiquing Criteria for a Review of the Literature

1. Does the literature review uncover gaps or inconsistencies in knowledge?

2. How does the review reflect critical thinking?3. Are all the relevant concepts and variables included

in the review?4. Does the summary of each reviewed study reflect the

essential components of the study design?

Critiquing Criteria for a Review of the Literature

5. Does the critique of each reviewed study include strengths, weaknesses, or limitations of the design; conflicts; and gaps or inconsistencies in information in relation to the area of interest?

6. Were both conceptual and data based literature included?

7. Were primary sources mainly included?8. Is there a written summary synthesis of the

reviewed scholarly literature?

HYPOTHESIS

DEFINITIONS OF HYPOTHESIS (1)

• “A hypothesis is a tentative statement of the relationship between two or more variables. Hypotheses are always in declarative sentence form and they relate, either generally or specifically variable and variables.”

• James E. Greighton, “It is a tentative supposition or provisional guess which seems to explain the situation under observation.”

• A.D. Carmichael, “Science employs hypothesis in guiding the thinking process. When our experience tells us that a given phenomenon follows regularly upon the appearance of certain other phenomena, we conclude that the former is connected with the latter by some sort of relationship and we form an hypothesis concerning this relationship.”

DEFINITIONS OF HYPOTHESIS (2)

• Goode and Han, “A hypothesis states what we are looking for. A hypothesis looks forward. It is a proposition which can be put to a test to determine its validity. It may prove to be correct or incorrect.

• Bruce W. Tuckman, “A hypothesis then could be defined as an expectation about events based on generalization of the assumed relationship between variables.”

• M. Verma, “A theory when stated as a testable proposition formally and clearly and subjected to empirical or experimental verification is known as a hypothesis.”

NATURE OF HYPOTHESIS1. It is conceptual in nature. Some kind of conceptual elements in the

framework are involved in a hypothesis.2. It is a verbal statement in a declarative form. It is a verbal

expression of ideas and concepts, it is not merely idea but in the verbal form, the idea is ready enough for empirical verification.

3. It has the empirical referent. A hypothesis contains some empirical referent. It indicates the tentative relationship between two or more variables.

4. It has a forward or future reference. A hypothesis is future oriented. It relates to the future verification not the past facts and informations.

5. It is the pivot of a scientific research. All the research activities are designed for its verification.

FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHESIS

1. To delimit the field of the investigation.2. To sensitize the researcher so that he should

work selectively, and have very realistic approach to the problem.

3. To offer the simple means for collecting evidences to the verification.

IMPORTANCE OF A HYPOTHESIS (1)

1. Hypothesis as the Investigator’s “Eyes”: Carter V. Good thinks that by guiding the investigator in further investigation it serves as the investigator’s “Eyes” in seeking answers to tentatively adopted generalization.

2. It Focuses Research: Without it, research is unfocussed research and remains like a random empirical wandering. It serves as necessary link between theory and the investigation.

3. It Places Clear and Specific Goals: A well thought out set of hypothesis is that they place clear and specific goals before the research worker and provide him with a basis for selecting sample and research procedure to meet these goals.

IMPORTANCE OF A HYPOTHESIS (2)

4. It Links Together: “It serves the important function of linking together related facts and information and organizing them into wholes.”

5. It Prevents Blind Research: “The use of hypothesis prevents a blind search and indiscriminate gathering of masses of data which may later prove irrelevant to the problem under study.”

6. As a Sort of Guiding Light: A hypothesis serves as a powerful beacon that lights the way for the research work.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS (1)

1. A good hypothesis is in agreement with the observed facts.

2. A good hypothesis does not conflict with any law of nature which is known to be true.

3. A good hypothesis is stated in the simplest possible term.

4. A good hypothesis permits of the application of deductive reasoning.

5. A good hypothesis shows very clear verbalization.6. A good hypothesis ensures that the methods of

verification are under control of the investigator.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS (2)

7. A good hypothesis guarantees that available tools and techniques will be effectively used for the purpose of verification.

8. A good hypothesis takes into account the different types controls which are to be exercised for the purpose of verification.

9. A good hypothesis ensures that the sample is readily approachable.

10. A good hypothesis indicates clearly the role of different variables involved in the study.

11. A good hypothesis maintains a very apparent distinction with what is called theory law, facts, assumption and postulate.

Hypothesis – independent & dependent variables

• The hypothesis shall contain two types of variables: Independent Variable(s) and

•Dependent Variable(s)

• Independent Variable - the one the researcher controls.

It is what you, the researcher, change to cause a certain effect.

• Dependent Variable - the one you measure or observe. It’s the effect of the researcher’s change.

“If skin cancer is related to ultraviolet light, then people with a high exposure to UV light will have a higher frequency of skin cancer.”

“If temperature affects leaf color change, then exposing the plant to low temperatures will result in changes in leaf color.”

HOMEWORK

• Refine the last homework and state the hypothesis.

• Report must be submitted/e_mailed on or before Oct. 31 midnight.