semiconductor concepts back up 2
TRANSCRIPT
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ELECTRONICS course outline
By : Eng’r. Red
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ELECTRONICS course outline
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ELECTRONICS course outline
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ELECTRONICS course outline
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ELECTRONICS course outline
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ELECTRONICS course outline
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ELECTRONICS course outline
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ELECTRONICS course outline
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ELECTRONICS course outline
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SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
Intrinsic Semiconductor
The term intrinsic here distinguishes
between the properties of pure"intrinsic" silicon and the dramaticallydierent properties of doped n-type orp-type semiconductors.
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SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT At any temperature above absolute zero temperature,
there is a finite probability that an electron in the lattice will beknocked loose from its position, leaving behind an electron
deficiency called a "hole".
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SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
Both electrons and holes contribute to current flow in an intrinsic
semiconductor.
If a voltage is applied, then both the electron and the hole can
contribute to a small current flow.
Semiconductor Current
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The current flow in an intrinsic semiconductor is influenced by the
density of energy states which in turn influences theelectron density in the conduction band. This current is highly
temperature dependent.
SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
The current which will flow in an intrinsic semiconductor consists
of both electron and hole current.
Semiconductor Current
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Electrons and Holes
SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
In an intrinsic semiconductor like silicon at temperatures above
absolute zero, there will be some electrons which are ecited across
the band gap into the conduction band and which can produce
current.
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Energy Bands for Solids
SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
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Silicon Energy Bands
At finite temperatures, the number of electrons which reach the
conduction band and contribute to current can be modeled by the
!ermi function. That current is small compared to that in
doped semiconductors under the same conditions.
SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
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SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
Germanium Energy Bands
"!ermi level" is the term used to describe the top of the collection
of electron energy levels at absolute zero temperature.
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Silicon and Germanium
SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
olid state electronics arises from the uni#ue properties of silicon
and germanium, each of which has four valence electrons and which
form crystal lattices in which substituted atoms $dopants% can
dramatically change the electrical properties.
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SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
ilicon is by far the more widely used semiconductor for electronics,
partly because it can be used at much higher temperatures than
germanium.
Silicon
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SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
&ermanium will at a given temperature have more free electrons
and a higher conductivity.
Germanium
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SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
Silicon Lattice
ilicon atoms form covalent bonds and can crystallize into aregular lattice.
The actual crystal structure of silicon is a diamond lattice.
This crystal is called an intrinsic semiconductor and can
conduct a small amount of current.
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Silicon Crystal Structure
SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
ilicon crystallizes in the same pattern as diamond, in a structure which
Ashcroft and 'ermin call "two interpenetrating face(centered cubic" primitive
lattices.
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The illustration shows the arrangement of the silicon atoms in a unit cell,
with the numbers indicating the height of the atom above the base of the
cube as a fraction of the cell dimension.
SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
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The Doping of Semiconductors
SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
The addition of a small percentage of foreign atoms in the regular
crystal lattice of silicon or germanium produces dramatic changes in
their electrical properties, producing n(type and p(type
semiconductors.
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SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
Valence Electrons
The electrons in the outermost shell of anatom are called valence electrons;
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Examples of acceptor atom
1. oron2. Aluminum. #alium
Trivalent impurities
Impurity atoms with * valence electrons produce p(type
semiconductors by producing a "hole" or electron deficiency.
SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
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-Type Semiconductor
SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
The addition of pentavalent impurities such as antimony,
arsenic or phosphorous contributes free electrons, greatly
increasing the conductivity of the intrinsic semiconductor .
hosphorous may be added by diffusion of phosphine gas
$*%.
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P- !unction
SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
/ne of the crucial keys to solid state electronics is the
nature of the (0 1unction. 2hen p(type and n(type materials
are placed in contact with each other, the 1unction behaves
very differently than either type of material alone.
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+illing a !ole ma,es a negati)e ion and lea)es 'e!ind
a "ositi)e ion on t!e n#side. - s"ace c!arge 'uilds u"&
creating a de"letion region (!ic! in!i'its any %urt!er
electron trans%er unless it is !el"ed 'y "utting a
%or(ard 'ias on t!e $unction.
SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
/ITI45 I/0 !6/'
65'/4A7 /! 5758T6/0
05&ATI45 I/0 !6/'
!I77I0& /! 3 T95
4A8A089
/755758T6/0
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SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
Bias effect on electrons in depletion #one
-n a""lied )oltage in t!e for$ard direction as
indicated assists electrons in o)ercoming t!e coulom'
'arrier o% t!e s"ace c!arge in depletion region.
%&"'("D B)(S
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SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
- reverse voltage dri)es t!e electrons a(ay %rom t!e
$unction& "re)enting conduction.
"EVE"SED B)(S
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SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
%or$ard Biased P- !unction
electrons and !oles com'ine at t!e $unction so
t!at a continuous current can 'e maintained.
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SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
re)erse )oltage across t!e "#n $unction (ill cause a
transient current to %lo( as 'ot! electrons and !oles are
"ulled a(ay %rom t!e $unction.
!en t!e "otential %ormed 'y t!e (idened de"letion layer euals t!e a""lied )oltage& t!e current (ill cease e*ce"t
%or t!e small t!ermal current.
"everse Biased P- !unction
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!or a p(n 1unction at e#uilibrium, the fermi levels match on the two
sides of the 1unctions.
5lectrons and holes reach an e#uilibrium at the 1unction and form a
depletion region.
SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
P- Energy Bands
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P- Energy Bands
SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
To forward bias the p(n 1unction, the p side is made more
positive, so that it is "downhill" for electron motion across the
1unction.
The conduction direction for electrons in the diagram is right to left,
and the upward direction represents increasing electron energy.
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SEMICONDUCTOR CONCEPT
%or$ard Biased Conduction
the electrons in the n(type material have been elevated and
diffusion across the 1unction occurs.
At a higher energy than the holes in the p(type
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
The P- !unction Diode
T!e nature o% t!e "#n $unction is t!at it (ill conduct current in
t!e %or(ard direction 'ut not in t!e re)erse direction.
T!e 'asic $unction diode ma,es use o% a "#n $unction toac!ie)e recti%ication and is (idely used %or t!at a""lication.
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HO S!M"O# O$ % DIODE %S DERI&ED '
C%THODE
(
%NODE
%
%CTU%# COMPONENT
IC%TES TH%T THIS SIDE IS % C%THODE ) (
%NODE
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
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Type of Diodes
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
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The *ener Effect
it! t!e a""lication o% su%%icient re)erse )oltage& a
"#n $unction (ill e*"erience a ra"id a)alanc!e 'rea,do(n
and conduct current in t!e re)erse direction.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
Tunnel Diode The tunnel diode has a region in its
voltage current characteristic where the current decreases
with increased forward voltage, known as its
negative resistance region.
This characteristic makes the tunnel diode useful inoscillators and as a microwave amplifier.
Schematic s*m+ol
S CO C O O
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
Tunnel 0iode C!aracteristic
The negative resistance region of the tunnel diode makes
oscillator action possible.
The uni1unction transistor has a similar oscillator application.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
find application as rectifiers for high fre#uency signals.
$unction of lightly dopedn-type semiconductor witha metal electrode.
The 1unction of a doped semiconductor $usually n(type%
with a metal electrode can produce a very fast(switching.
used in high fre#uency circuits or high speed digitalcircuits.
Schematic s*m+ol
Schott+y Diode
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
1aractor Tuner electronic tuning circuits, as in television tuners.
The :8 control voltage varies the capacitance of the
varactor, retuning the resonant circuit.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
Light Emitting Diode Structure
75:s are p(n 1unction devices constructed of gallium arsenide
$&aAs%, gallium arsenide phosphide $&aAs%, or gallium phosphide
$&a%.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
LE0 C!aracteristics
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
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LE0 Radiation 2atterns
The typical radiation pattern shows that
most of the energy is emitted within +;< of
the direction of maimum light.
ome packages for 75:s include
plastic lenses to spread the light for a
greater angle of visibility.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
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Electroluminescence in LE0s
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
light is produced by a solid state process called electroluminescence.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
T!e Organic LE0 3 OLE0 4
/75: is a device that consists of two or three layers of materials oforganic molecules or polymers .
/75: produce light thru the process of electrophosphorescence.
/75:s typically emit less light per unit area than inorganic solid(
state based 75:s which are usually designed for use as point(light
sources.
8an be used in television screens, computer monitors, small, portablesystem screens such as mobile phones and :As, watches,
advertising, information and indication.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
OLE0 3 Organic LE0 4
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
OLE0 3 Organic LE0 4
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
7arge :isplay screen formed by many 6&B piels.
iel is greatly eaggerated for illustration.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
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Searc! %or a Blue LE0
After a decade of intense research, a bright blue 75: was
successfully produced by 0ichia 8hemical of 5a"an in 6778.
The material used for the diode was gallium nitride &a0.
0ichia has also produced an In&a0 laser diode which lases in the
blue(violet region of the spectrum.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
Blue 75:s are important for the development of high(information(
density storage on optical disks.
itachi and 'atsushita have taken this approach to producing
blue light for optical disks and digital versatile disks $:4:%.
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
Laser 0iodes
"#n $unction %ormed 'y t(o do"ed gallium arsenide layers.
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
T!e 2IN 0iode
The I0 diode has heavily doped p(type and n(type regions separated by
an intrinsic region.
It acts like an almost constant capacitance reverse biased
It behaves as a variable resistor forward biased .
It is used in microwave switching applications.
TR%NSISTOR
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THE OR0 T"(S)ST&" )S ( C&T"(CT)& &%
,C""ET-T"(S%E"")G "ES)ST&"./
TR%NSISTOR
TR%NSISTOR
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TR%NSISTOR
The Bipolar !unction Transistor 0 B!T 1
consists o% t!ree regions o% do"ed semiconductors.
DI$$ERENT (INDS TR%NSISTOR
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DI$$ERENT (INDS TR%NSISTOR
TR%NSISTOR
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t!e most !ea)ily do"ed o% t!e t!ree semiconductor regions o% a
B5T.
Emitter
Collector
T!e largest o% t!e t!ree semiconductor region s o% a B5T
Base
T!e 'ase is )ery t!in and lig!tly do"ed com"ared to t!e t(o
regions.
TR%NSISTOR
TR%NSISTOR
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Transistor &peration
- transistor in a circuit (ill 'e in one o% t!ree conditions:
6. Cut o%% 3no collector current4& use%ul %or s(itc! o"eration.
9. -cti)e region use%ul %or am"li%ier a""lications.
. Saturation large current use%ul %or ;s(itc! on; a""lications.
TR%NSISTOR
TR%NSISTOR
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Transistor &peration
TR%NSISTOR
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TR%NSISTOR
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T!e analogy to a )al)e is sometimes !el"%ul& t!e smaller current
in t!e 'ase acts as a ;)al)e;& controlling t!e larger current %rom
collector to emitter.
- ;signal; in t!e %orm o% a )ariation in t!e 'ase current is
re"roduced as a larger )ariation in t!e collector#to#emitter current&
ac!ie)ing an am"li%ication o% t!at signal.
TR%NSISTOR
N P N
TR%NSISTOR
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TR%NSISTOR
P N P
TR%NSISTOR
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Constraints on Transistor &peration
TR%NSISTOR
TR%NSISTOR CON$I-UR%TION
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P Common Emitter (mplifier The common emitter configuration lends itself to voltage
amplification and is the most common configuration for
transistor amplifiers.
TR%NSISTOR CON$I-UR%TION
TR%NSISTOR CON$I-UR%TION
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P Common Collector (mplifier
/ften called an emitter follower since its output is taken
from the emitter resistor.
Is useful as an impedance matching device since its input
impedance is much higher than its output impedance.
It is also termed a "buffer " for this reason and is used in
digital circuits with basic gates.
TR%NSISTOR CON$I-UR%TION
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TR%NSISTOR "I%SIN-
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DC Bias
Esta'lis!es t!e dc o"erating "oint 3 < "oint 4 %or "ro"erlinear o"eration o% transistor as an am"li%ier.
It is use to esta'lis! a steady le)el o% transistor current and
)oltage .
In order %or t!e transistor to o"erate "ro"erly as
am"li%ier & t!e t(o 2#N $unctions 3BC and BE $unctions4
must 'e correctly 'iased (it! e*ternal dc )oltages.
TR%NSISTOR "I%SIN-
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TR%NSISTOR "I%SIN-
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'4 Nonlinear o"eration : out"ut )oltage limited 3cli""ed4 'y cuto%%.
E$$ECTS O$ IMPROPER "I%SIN-
-m"li%ier
TR%NSISTOR "I%SIN-
TR%NSISTOR "I%SIN-
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c4 Nonlinear o"eration : out"ut )oltage limited 3cli""ed4 'y saturation.
E$$ECTS O$ IMPROPER "I%SIN-
-m"li%ier
TR%NSISTOR "I%SIN-
5?NCTION +IEL0 E++ECT TR-NSISTOR
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2. !unction %ield Effect Transistor 0!%ET1
- is a uni"olar , )oltage#controlled device in which current flows from the
Source to the 0rain. It uses an induced electric %ield to control current.
( the value of the drain to source voltage of a !5T at which the drain
current becomes constant when the gate 3 to 3 source voltage is zero.
3. Pinch - off - voltage
( the area near a p(n 1unction on both sides that has no ma1ority carriers.
4. Depletion region
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5. Drain
( one of the three terminals of a !5T analogous to the collector of a B>T.
6. Channel
( the conductive path between the source and the drain.
( one of the three terminals of a !5T analogous to the base of a B>T.
7. Gate
8. Source
( one of the three terminals of a !5T analogous to the emitter of a B>T.
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N @ c!annel 5+ET Construction
+igure - s!o(s t!e cross section o% a 5unction +ET 35+ET4
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I% 1GS and 10S are 'ot! /ero )olts t!e transistor is not
conducting. 3 o%% 4
+or normal o"eration t!e 10S is a'out 6.8 to 6.= )olts
1GS control t!e %lo( o% drain current
5unction +ield E%%ect Transistor 35+ET 4 O"eration
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'or a gi(en (alue of the
current is (ery nearly constant. no chan,e / o(er a wide range of(oltages ) &
DS *.
+ary from let say 0v to 1v
-ate volta,e2 0& . &
drain currentID Source)to)Drain%
ID 3 no chan,e
4& 5& 1&
$4& set at ;4 ? 4: is varied from ;4 to * 4%
5+ET CH-R-CTERISTIC
C?R1E
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/hen the is made morenegati(e ) - * suppose draincurrent ) 0 * for a gi(en (alue of
(oltage )&DS
*.
Su66ose &DS set at 4&
-ate volta,e 0&to )4&
Source)to )Drain
4&
ID ,oes
do7n
ID
$4& varied from ;4 to (=4? 4ds set at =4%
5+ET CH-R-CTERISTIC C?R1E
5?NCTION +IEL0 E++ECT TR-NSISTOR
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5+ET O"eration Belo( ;2inc! O%%;
5?NCTION +IEL0 E++ECT TR-NSISTOR
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5+ET O"eration -'o)e ;2inc! O%%;
5?NCTION +IEL0 E++ECT TR-NSISTOR
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(PPL)C(T)& 9
6. ?sed in LC0 tec!nology
one "i*el
$ET
one pixel
Optical Micrograph of TFT Array
#i8uid cr*stal cell
.emits li,ht /
Note9 There are millions of pixel inan
Circuit o%
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:igh Po$er %ETs
+ETs used in !ig! "o(er out"ut stages are o%ten seen re%erred to as
1AOS& 0AOS or TAOS.
T!ese transistors are 'asically t!e same as ot!er IG+ETs 'ut !a)es"eciali/ed constructions t!at allo( t!em to "ass currents as large as
6>-.
T!ey are also a'le to s(itc! on and o%% )ery uic,ly 3in nano
seconds4 (!ic! allo(s t!em to 'e used in suc! circuits as s(itc!
mode "o(er su""lies (!ere )ery %ast s(itc!ing is essential.
(PPL)C(T)& S9
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En!ancement Aode AOS+ET
T!e Insulated Gate +ET 3IG+ET4
T!e Aetal O*ide Silicon +ET 3AOS+ET4 or Aetal O*ide Silicon
Transistor 3A.O.S.T.4 !as an e)en !ig!er in"ut resistance 3ty"ically
6>69 to 6>6 o!ms4 t!an t!at o% t!e 5+ET.
Gate is com"letely insulated %rom t!e rest o% t!e transistor 'y a )ery
t!in layer o% metal o*ide 3Silicon dio*ide SiO9
4. Hence called IG+ET or
Insulated Gate +ET.
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Construction of a Channel Enhancement ;ode ;&S%ET
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Enhancement ;ode &peration
T!e gate !as a )oltage a""lied to it t!at ma,es it "ositi)e (it! res"ect tot!e source.
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0e"letion mode AOS+ET
Reducing T!e Conduction C!annel
The depletion mode '/!5T shown as a 0 channel device $ channel is
also available% in fig below is more usually made as a discrete
component, i.e. a single transistor rather than I8 form.
De6letion Mode N Channel MOS$ET
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&peration of a Depletion ;ode ;&S%ET
In the 0 channel device, gate is made negative with respect to the
source, which has the effect creating a depletion area free from charge
carriers, beneath the gate. This restricts the depth of the conducting channel, so increasing
channel resistance and reducing current flow through the device.
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AOS+ET #Terminal
The 'etal /ide emiconductor !ield 5ffect Transistor $'/!5T%
builds upon the basic !5T by adding a layer of silicon dioide
It achieves etremely high input impedance, in the range =;@
to =;= ohms.
E#ECTRONIC CIRCUITS
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Diode (pplications
6ectification
8lamper
A' detection
8lipper
!' detection
4oltage :oubler
0IO0E AO0ELS
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2ROBLEA NO. 6
+IG?RE 6 #
0IO0E AO0ELS
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SO#UTION 9
0IO0E AO0ELS
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H%#$ : %&E RECTI$IER
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64 Recti%iert!e a'ility o% a diode to con)ert alternating current 3-C 4
to "ulsating direct current 30C4.
Sc!ematic diagram o% Hal%#a)e Recti%ier
DIODE %PP#IC%TION
E#ECTRONIC CIRCUITS
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Hal%#a)e Recti%ier
E#ECTRONIC CIRCUITS
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Center#Ta" +ull#a)e Recti%ier
E#ECTRONIC CIRCUITS
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Bridge Recti%ier
E#ECTRONIC CIRCUITS
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Current +lo( in t!e Bridge Recti%ier
E#ECTRONIC CIRCUITS
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"ipple for "C %ilter
T!e rms ri""le )oltage %or an RC %ilter can 'e
a""ro*imated 'y
and t!e 0C out"ut le)el 'y
RC $I#TER
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"ipple for "C %ilter
E#ECTRONIC CIRCUITS
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";S "ipple Voltage
0IO0ES
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T2IC-L 0IO0E 2-CD-GES
+ORA?L-S RECTI+IERS
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+ORA?L-S RECTI+IERS
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RECTI+IERS
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RECTI+IERS
2ROBLEA NO. 9
!igure * ( =
RECTI+IERS
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RECTI+IERS
SOL?TION
RECTI+IERS
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RECTI+IERS
2ROBLEA NO.
+igure 9 # >
RECTI+IERS
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RECTI+IERS
SOL?TION
>.>= or .= F
LIAITERS
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- circuit (!ic! remo)es t!e "ea, o% a (a)e%orm is ,no(n
as a clipper .
LIAITERS
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2ROBLEA NO. 8
SO#UTION 9
LIAITERS
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O?T2?T -1E+ORA
LIAITERS
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LIAITERS
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2ROBLEA NO.
LIAITERS
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SO#UTION
+IG?RE 9 # 86
CL-A2ERS OR 0C RESTORERS
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clamp a peak of a waveform to a specific :8 level compared with a
capacitively coupled signal which swings about its average :8 level $usually
;4%.
If the diode is removed from the clamper, it defaults to a simple coupling
capacitor3 no clamping.
CL-A2ERS OR 0C RESTORERS
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CL-A2ERS OR 0C RESTORERS
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2ROBLEA NO.
CL-A2ERS OR 0C RESTORERS
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SO#UTION
ENER 0IO0E
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2ROBLEA NO.
SOL?TION :
'igure 3
ENER 0IO0E
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2ROBLEA NO.
SOL?TION :
ENER 0IO0E
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2ROBLEA NO. =
SOL?TION :
E#ECTRONIC CIRCUITS
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*ener "egulator Design
One a""roac! to ener regulator design is to consider
t!e desired load current and t!e amount o% ri""le "resent in
t!e a)aila'le unregulated su""ly.
E#ECTRONIC CIRCUITS
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T!e "o(er rating o% t!e load resistor must 'e at least
and t!e "o(er rating o% t!e /ener diode must 'e
Note: ou may su'stitute )alues %or t!e /ener )oltage& t!e in"ut
)oltage& t!e ri""le )oltage or ri""le %actor& and t!e load resistor.
1OLT-GE A?LTI2LIER
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A voltage multiplier is a specialized rectifier circuit producing an output which istheoretically an integer times the A8 peak input.
$for eample, +, *, or times the A8 peak input.%
To get +;; 4:8 from a =;; 4peak A8 source using a doubler, ;; 4:8 from a
#uadrupler.
1OLT-GE A?LTI2LIER
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1OLT-GE A?LTI2LIER
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H-L+ -1E 1OLT-GE 0O?BLER
1OLT-GE A?LTI2LIER
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but
"* (&#
Therefore
1OLT-GE A?LTI2LIER
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1OLT-GE TRI2LER
1OLT-GE <?-0R?2LER
TR-NSISTOR BI-SING
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Transistor C!aracteristic Cur)es
3-""ro*imate %or 9N99994
TR-NSISTOR BI-SING
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Transistor Load Line
3-""ro*imate %or 9N99994
Transistor Load Line determination
TR-NSISTOR BI-SING
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Transistor Load Line determination
TR-NSISTOR BI-SING
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P T"(S)ST&" (;PL)%)E" B)(S)G
TR-NSISTOR BI-SING
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2ROBLEA NO. 7
'igure 4 -5
TR-NSISTOR BI-SING
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TR-NSISTOR BI-SING
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etermine the bias parameters for the (oltage di(ider circuit shown.
2ROBLEA NO. 6>
TR-NSISTOR BI-SING
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0C eui)alent
TR-NSISTOR BI-SING
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1oltage 0i)ider 'ias Emitter sta'ili/ed 'ias
TR-NSISTOR BI-SING
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Collector %eed'ac, 'ias Base 'ias
TR-NSISTOR BI-SING
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Emitter %eed'ac, 'ias
0C LO-0 LINE
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0C O2ER-TING 2OINT
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< 2OINT IS TOO CLOSE TO
THE S-T?R-TION 2OINT
< 2OINT IS TOO CLOSE TO
THE C?T O++ 2OINT
0C O2ER-TING 2OINT
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TR-NSISTOR -C -N-LSIS
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The tas6 of an audio ampli7er is to ta6e a small signal and ma6e itbigger without ma6ing any other changes in it.
a musical sound usually contains se(eral fre8uencies, all of whichmust be ampli7ed by the same factor to a(oid changing thewa(eform and hence the 8uality of the sound.
An ampli7er which multiplies the amplitudes of all fre8uencies bythe same factor is said to be linear.
epartures from linearity lead to (arious types of distortions.
TR-NSISTOR -C -N-LSIS
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Harmonic 0istortion
It can arise if any component in the amplifier clips the peaks of the
waveform.
TR-NSISTOR -C -N-LSIS
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Intermodulation Distortion
0on(linearity in amplifier components causes miing of fre#uency
components to form components at sum and difference fre#uencies.
articularly troublesome in the reproduction of music because it
generates fre#uencies which were not present in the original musicand are thus very noticeable.
TR-NSISTOR -C -N-LSIS
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A E9:%+AE;T &' T<E %;!:T =T.
TR-NSISTOR -C -N-LSIS
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TR-NSISTOR -C -N-LSIS
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r @ "arameter model 3s!aded
'loc,4 connected to e*ternal
circuit
TR-NSISTOR -C -N-LSIS
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>odel circuit forobtaining ac (oltage gain
! # "arameters
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S?AA-R O+ +ORA?L-S +OR B5T
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COAAON EAITTER
S?AA-R O+ +ORA?L-S +OR B5T
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COAAON EAITTER
S?AA-R O+ +ORA?L-S +OR B5T
COAAON EAITTER
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COAAON EAITTER
S?AA-R O+ +ORA?L-S +OR B5T
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COAAON COLLECTOR
S?AA-R O+ +ORA?L-S +OR B5T
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COAAON COLLECTOR
S?AA-R O+ +ORA?L-S +OR B5T
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COAAON B-SE
COA2-RISON O+ -C and 0C Load Line
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CL-SS B -A2LI+IER
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CL-SS B -A2LI+IER
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Transformer coupled push 3 pull amplifiers C= conducts during the
positive half cycle ? C+ conducts during the negative half cycle. The
two halves are combined by the output transformer.
CL-SS B 2?SH # 2?LL -A2LI+IER
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CL-SS C -A2LI+IER
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CL-SS C -A2LI+IER
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0-RLINGTON 2-IR
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SIDL-I 2-IR
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0-RLINGTON 2-IR
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Darlin,ton Com6lementar* Darlin,ton
Class %" %m6li<er
?@i6lai pair
A?LTI ST-GE -A2LI+IER G-INS
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AvT D Av= Av+ Av* E.Avn
in dB, AvdB D +; log AvT
Av $dB% D Av$=dB % F A v$+dB % F E. Avn$dB%
G''A69 /! :I!!5650T A'7I!I56 8/0!I&G6ATI/0
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!unction %ield Effect Transistor
$IE#D E$$ECT TR%NSISTOR
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$IE#D E$$ECT TR%NSISTOR
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OP ) %MP
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O"erational -m"li%iers
The term operational amplifier or "op(amp" refers to a class of
high(gain :8 coupled amplifiers with two inputs and a single output.
The Ideal O6)am6
=. Infinite voltage gain
+. Infinite input impedance
*. Hero output impedance
. Infinite bandwidth
). Hero input offset voltage $i.e., eactly
zero out if zero in%.
OP ) %MP
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Real )s Ideal O"#am"
Rationale for Ne,ative $eed+ac=
OP ) %MP
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Rationale for Ne,ative $eed+ac=
It helps to overcome distortion and nonlinearity.
It flattens fre#uency response or allows you to tailor it to a desired fre#uency
response curve.
It makes properties predictable, less dependent on temperature
manufacturing differences or other internal properties of the active device
. 8ircuit properties are dependent upon the eternal feedback network and
are thus easily controlled by eternal circuit elements.
8ircuit design can concentrate on function and not the details of operating
point selection, biasing, and the other details characteristic of discrete transistor
amplifier design.
Practical "ene<ts of Ne,ative $eed+ac=
OP ) %MP
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Sta+ili>ation of &olta,e -ain
gain with negative feedback is
This stabilization increases the
effective bandwidth.
where is the fraction of theoutput which feeds bac6 as anegati(e (oltage at the input.
OP ) %MP
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Increasin, In6ut Im6edance
in>
Decreasin, Out6ut Im6edance
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0ecreasing 0istortion (it! +eed'ac,
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:istortion reduction takes the form below for this amplifier,showing that distortion within the feedback loop is
discriminated against, with more reduction of distortion which
arises near the output.
Increasing t!e Band(idt!
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In)erting -m"li%ier
OP ) %MP
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!or an ideal op(amp, the inverting amplifier gain is given simply by
Non#in)erting -m"li%ier
OP ) %MP
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!or an ideal op(amp, the non(inverting amplifier gain is given by
Summing -m"li%ier
OP ) %MP
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g "
Aore t!an t(o in"uts can 'e used& %or e*am"le in an audio
mi*er circuit.
T!e in"ut resistors can 'e uneual& gi)ing a (eig!ted
sum.
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OP ) %MP
-n o"#am" )oltage %ollo(er can ser)e as a 'u%%er.
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-n o" am" )oltage %ollo(er can ser)e as a 'u%%er.
The basic emitter follower
can be used as a buffer.
Buffer used for impedance matching and for isolation of the inputand output.
OP ) %MP
Integrator
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Integrator
OP ) %MP
0i%%erentiator
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1 t i th t f h f th t t lt i
OP ) %MP
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1. etermine the rate of change of the output (oltage in
response to the 7rst input pulse in a pulse wa(eform asshown for the integrator in the 7gure . The output (oltage isinitially @ero.
B +
c C .1u '
D C 1 =ohm
d& dt 3 ) &in R i C
OP ) %MP
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&ne input is grounded and the and the signal (oltage isapplied to the other input.
OP ) %MP
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+ o
Two opposite polarity ) out of phase * are applied to the inputs.
OP ) %MP
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Two signals of the same phase fre8uency and amplitudeare applied at the inputs.
OP ) %MPCARR
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The measure of amplifier ability to re1ect common
mode signals.
In dB
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?&:T%&;F
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OP ) %MP
IN2?T IA2E0-NCE
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rential input impedance - input resistance between in(erting and non in(ertin
ommon mode input impedance - resistance between each inputand the ground.
OP ) %MP
INPUT : O$$SET CURRENT
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OP ) %MP
?E/ DATE G the maximum rate of change of the outputl i i l
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(oltage in response to input (oltage.
/hereF
OP ) %MP
!roblem F
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OP ) %MP
?&:T%&;F
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?&:T%&;F
OP ) %MP
!D&E>F
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2hen a pulse is applied to an op 3 amp , the output goes from
3 4 to F 4 in ;.) us. 2hat is the slew rateJ
OP ) %MP
In6ut O?set volta,e )
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- small dc (oltage appear at the output when nodierential (oltage is applied.
OP ) %MP
OPEN #OOP -%IN +elo7 critical fre8uenc*.-%IN &S@ $REAUENC!/
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A
OP ) %MP
!roblemF
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OP ) %MP
?&:T%&;F
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1. The phase shift around the loop must eecti(ely .
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Desonant fre8uency aectedby loading
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'igure 13 - 21
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SO#UTION9
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=. A certain regulator has a =+ 4 output when there is no load . $ I7 D ;A% 2hen
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regulation as a percentage change from no ( load to full load and also as a
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he load regulation can also be expressed as a percentage change per milliamp
/here 1 mA is change in current from no load to full load.
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R$# smallest rated load resistance
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