Social Differentiation The process by which different statuses

develop in any group, organization, or society. In a sports organization, players,

owners, managers, fans, cheerleaders, and sponsors all have a different status within the organization.

Social Stratification A relatively fixed, hierarchical arrangement in

society by which groups have different access to resources, power, and perceived social worth.

In a sports organization: Owners control the resources of the teams. Players earn high salaries, yet do not control

the team resources. Sponsors provide the resources. Fans provide revenue.

Types of Stratification Systems

Estate - Elite owns property and has control over resources.

Caste - rigid hierarchy of classes. Class - status is partially achieved, there

is some potential for movement between classes.

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SOCIAL STRATIFICATION• Social stratification:

Refers to persistent patterns of social inequality in a society

Is perpetuated by the way wealth, power, and prestige are distributed and passed on from one generation to the next

Exists in all societies*

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FEATURES OF SOCIAL HIERARCHIES

• Status: Rank or position in a social hierarchy

• Statuses may be:

i. Ascribed (assigned at birth), or

ii. Achieved (earned by performance)*

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TYPES OF STRATIFICATION SYSTEMS

1. Open stratification system: Stratification system in which merit rather than

inheritance (ascribed characteristics) determines social rank

Allows for social change

• Is reflected in a meritocracy: Positions are achieved, not ascribed Characterized by equal opportunity and high

social mobility (movement up or down a social hierarchy)*

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TYPES OF STRATIFICATION SYSTEMS

2. Closed stratification system Stratification system in which inheritance rather

than merit determines social rank Little social change possible

• Reflected in a caste system: Positions are ascribed, not achieved Characterized by little social mobility

• Although Turkey is in principal a meritocracy, ascribed statuses still play an important role*

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CLASS AND CLASS STRUCTURE

• Class: Position in an economic hierarchy occupied by individuals or families with similar access to, or control over, material resources (e.g., working class, professional class)

• Class structure: Relatively permanent economic hierarchy comprising different social classes

• Socioeconomic status: Person’s general status within an economic hierarchy, based on income, education, and occupation*

Diverse Sources of Stratification Race, class, and gender are overlapping

systems of stratification. Class position is manifested differently,

depending on race and gender. Example: A Black middle-class man who is

stopped by police when driving through a White middle-class neighborhood may feel his racial status is his most outstanding characteristic, but his race, class, and gender always influence his life chances.

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EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

• Several theories or explanations of social stratification

• Accounts offered by Marx, Weber, Davis and Moore, Lenski, Wright, and Parkin

Marx: Class and Capitalism Defined classes in terms of their

relationship to the means of production. Capitalist class owns the means of

production. Working class sells their labor for

wages.

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MARX ON STRATIFICATION

Industrial Revolution: Tremendous increase in level of economic production and degree of inequality

• Key concepts in Marx’s theory:

Mode of production: Overall system of economic activity (e.g., slavery, capitalism)…*

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MARX ON STRATIFICATION

• Mode of production comprises:

i. Means of production: Technology, capital investments, raw materials used in production

ii. Social relations of production: Relationships between main classes involved in production*

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MARX: SOCIAL CLASSES• Two major classes within industrial capitalism:

i. The bourgeoisie: Owners of the means of production

ii. The proletariat: Workers who exchange their labour for a wages

• Secondary class: The petite bourgeoisie: Independent owners/

producers (e.g., farmers) and small business owners*

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MARX: CLASS CONFLICT• Class conflict: Conflict between major classes

within a mode of production Is driving force behind social change Eventually leads to evolution of new mode of

production

• Envisioned capitalism being replaced with socialist mode of production (i.e., no private property with its attendant exploitation and inequality)*

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RESPONSES TO MARX• Criticized for predictions not finding support in:

i. Later capitalist societies, which were characterized by absence of widespread class conflict, growth of the middle class, and relative decline in material inequality in 20th century

Example: Western Europe and North America

ii. Later socialist systems of government, which were characterized by persistent inequality, and new hierarchy that controls political and bureaucratic apparatus

Example: Russia*

Weber: Three Dimensions to Stratification

Class - economic dimension Status - social dimension Party - political dimension

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WEBER ON STRATIFICATION

• Focused on determinants of power: Ability to impose one’s wishes on others

• Structural basis of power: i. Class (power derived from position in economic

hierarchy)ii. Status (power derived from culturally and socially

defined position that person occupies in a group) iii. Party (political power)

• Power depends on one’s location in these three structures*

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WEBER: SOCIAL CLASS AND LIFE CHANCES

• Gave primary emphasis in social stratification to economic underpinnings

• Claimed there was larger variety of class positions than found in Marx’s theory

• Emphasized life chances: Opportunities (or lack thereof) for higher

standard of living and a better quality of life that are available to members of a given class*

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DAVIS AND MOORE:FUNCTIONAL THEORY OF

STRATIFICATION• Inequality exists in all societies Must be

necessary

• All societies have occupational roles that need to be filled, with some roles requiring more training than others (e.g., the more important roles)

• Greater rewards (e.g., money, prestige) necessary to encourage people to undertake extended training and fill these important roles

• Social inequality is therefore necessary and inevitable*

Functional and Conflict Theories of Stratification

Inequality

FunctionalismMotivates people to fill

positions that are needed for the survival of the whole.

Conflict TheoryResults when those with the

most resources exploit others.

Functional and Conflict Theories of Stratification

Class Structure

FunctionalismDifferentiation is essential

for a cohesive society.

Conflict Theory

Different groups struggle over resources and compete for social

advantage.

Functional and Conflict Theories of Stratification

Life chances

FunctionalismThose who work hardest

and succeed have greater life chances.

Conflict TheoryThe most vital jobs in

society are usually the least rewarded.

The Double Diamond Model of Stratification

Social Class in the U.S. Upper class Upper-middle class Middle class Lower-middle class Lower class

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OCCUPATIONS, SOCIAL CLASS, AND INEQUALITY IN TURKEY

• Most prominent occupational shift over 20th century was decline in agricultural occupations

• Also decline (albeit less) in other natural resource-based occupations (e.g., forestry, fishing, mining)

• Increase in white-collar occupations (e.g., managerial, professional, clerical [office jobs], sales, and service categories)

Have come to greatly outnumber blue-collar occupations (e.g., manufacturing, construction, transportation, and resource-based operations)*

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OCCUPATIONS, SOCIAL CLASS, AND INEQUALITY• Increase in proportion of occupations requiring

higher education

• Rise in average incomes

• Occupational shifts suggest: Greater class diversity, not polarization of classes

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OCCUPATIONS, SOCIAL CLASS, AND INEQUALITY

• Gender-based labour market stratification has continued:

Since middle of last century, proportion of women in labour force has risen

But mostly in low-paid, low status “pink-collar” sector (clerical, sales, and service occupations)

• Large class of paid workers differentiated by: Decision-making authority Income status Occupational power*

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OCCUPATIONS, SOCIAL CLASS, AND INEQUALITY

• Dramatic decrease in proportion of self-employed

• Increase in unemployment

• Income growth has stopped

• Increase in income and wealth inequality*

Defining Social Mobility Social mobility is a person’s movement over

time from one class to another. Social mobility can be up or down, although the

American dream emphasizes upward movement.

Mobility can also be either intergenerational, occurring between generations; or intragenerational, occurring within a generation.

Social Mobility Mobility is a collective effort that involves kin

and sometimes community. Upward Mobility

People who are upwardly mobile are often expected to distance themselves from their origins.

Downward Mobility As income distribution is becoming more

skewed toward the top, many in the middle class are experiencing mobility downward.

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OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY AND STATUS

ATTAINMENT• Occupational mobility: Moving up and down

occupational and income ladders

• Intragenerational occupational mobility: Mobility within an individual’s lifetime

• Intergenerational occupational mobility: Process of reaching occupation location higher or lower than location held by parents

• Occupational status attainment: Main determinant of status of a person’s current job is status of first job (dependent on educational attainment)*

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THE DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH

• Limited number of people continue to own or control very large portion of wealth

• Concentration of ownership and wealth inequality continue to increase:

Wealthiest 10% of families holds most of the wealth in the world

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INCOME DISTRIBUTION: HIGH-PAYING AND LOW-PAYING

OCCUPATIONS

• Upper middle class: Those with well-paid managerial and professional occupations (e.g., lawyers, dentists)

• Lower working class: Retail workers and those employed in service occupations (e.g., childcare and home support services)

• Gender differences hidden in occupational earning patterns:

Females earn less than males in all occupations but earnings ratio varies considerably by occupation*

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THE POOR: DEFINING AND MEASURING POVERTY

• Various ways of defining poverty: Absolute poverty: Those with so little income that

survival is difficult

Relative poverty: Those with significantly less income than others in their society

Who are the Homeless? Battered women Elderly Disabled Mentally Ill (20-25%) Veterans AIDS victims

Reasons for Homelessness

Unemployment and/or eviction Reductions in federal support for

affordable housing Eroding work opportunities Inadequate housing for low-income

people

Reasons for Homelessness Reductions in public assistance Inadequate health care Domestic violence Addiction

Explanations of Poverty Culture of poverty - poverty is a way of

life that is transferred from generation to generation.

Structural causes of poverty - poverty is caused by economic and social transformations taking place in the U.S.

Arguments Against “The Culture of Poverty” Fewer than 5% of the poor are chronically

poor. 41% of the able-bodied poor work. The pattern of “welfare cycling” is

promoted by wages too low to support a family.

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WHO ARE THE POOR IN CANADA?

• Proportion of poor Canadians in 2001: 14.4%

• Only minority unemployed or out of labour force

• Working poor (those employed in low wage jobs) make up large proportion of the poor

• Aboriginal Canadians among poorest citizens

• Poverty rate for single-parent families and seniors (aged 65+) living alone: Both 42% in 2001

• Poverty not a static status: Sizable number move in and out of poverty each year*

Inequality in the United States

Nearly 1 in 6 children in the U.S. live poverty: 30% of African American children

29% of Hispanic children 12% of Asian American children

9.4% of White non-Hispanic children

Inequality in the United States

15% of the U.S. population has no health insurance.

The average cost of a day’s stay in the hospital is $1, 217—two weeks’ pay for the average worker

Inequality in the United States 1% of the U.S. population controls 38% of the

total wealth in the nation. The bottom 20% owe more than they own. CEOs of major companies earn an average of

$13.1 million dollars per year. Workers earning the minimum wage make

$10,712 per year, if they work 40 hours a week for 52 weeks per year and hold only one job.

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MATERIAL INEQUALITY IN TURKEY: A SUMMARY

• We have witnessed increases in: Corporate concentration Wealth inequality Income inequality Number of working poor Unemployment rates (long-term trend) Part-time and temporary employment Inequality in earnings (re: polarization in hours

worked)*

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MATERIAL INEQUALITY: A SUMMARY

• Reduction in employment opportunities

• More competitive economic environment (due to globalization)

• Routine layoffs and downsizing

• Replacement of full-time permanent jobs with part-time and temporary positions

• Weakened labour movement

• Decrease in state efforts to reduce material inequalities*

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CONSEQUENCES OF MATERIAL INEQUALITY

• Position in class structure has effect on belief systems, behaviours, voting patterns, lifestyles, and, most importantly, life chances (e.g., health, longevity, educational attainment, criminality)

• Increasing inequality may mean more social unrest among the poor

But more opposition today from better-organized, better-funded middle class*

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RESPONDING TO INEQUALITY

• Two views:

1. Inequality is inevitable and need not be addressed (tends to be espoused by the well-off)

2. Inequality is unjust and needs to be addressed (tends to be espoused by the poor):

i. Socialist response: Overthrow capitalism

ii. Reformist response: Government redistribution of wealth to the poor (e.g., through pensions, minimum-wage legislation, unemployment insurance, etc.)*

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RESPONDING TO INEQUALITY

• “liberal” welfare policies espouse faith in power of free market to produce wealth and improve condition of poor (despite little evidence of success)

Priority today given to deficit-reducing initiatives rather than reduction of material inequality

• Responding to inequality effectively will require willingness on part of many to accept less so that others can have more**