social justice essay_cartwright
TRANSCRIPT
![Page 1: Social Justice Essay_Cartwright](https://reader038.vdocument.in/reader038/viewer/2022110220/577ccf371a28ab9e788f2d6e/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Running head: THE AMERICAN INDIAN’S SELF-DETERMINATION STRUGGLE 1
The United States of Assimilation: The American Indian’s Struggle for Self-determination in
U.S. Higher Education
Matthew Cartwright
Loyola University Chicago
![Page 2: Social Justice Essay_Cartwright](https://reader038.vdocument.in/reader038/viewer/2022110220/577ccf371a28ab9e788f2d6e/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
THE AMERICAN INDIAN’S SELF-DETERMINATION STRUGGLE 2
On October 5, 1877, Chief Joseph, the leader of the American Indian tribe the Nez Perce,
famously said, “From where the Sun now stands, I will fight no more forever.” This simple
statement summed up centuries of conflict between Euro-Americans, including the United States
government, and American Indians. Chief Joseph gave the soldiers he confronted in 1877 what
they and many people before them had been seeking from the American Indians – unconditional
surrender. It is rather well known that battles, wars, and genocide permeate history as the
instruments Euro-Americans used to conquest American Indians. There is, however, little
acknowledgement of Euro-Americans’ simultaneous use of education as a domination
mechanism.
From the colonial period to the era of self-determination in the 1960’s and 1970’s, higher
education was systematically used to further dominate American Indians. Wright (1991) noted
how “Euro-Americans… persistently sought to remold Native Americans in the image of the
white man – to ‘civilize’ and assimilate the ‘savage’” (p. 12). Using higher education as a tool
and weapon to defeat American Indians, keeping them from determining their own educational
journey, as well as ridding them of their culture, heritage, and history as opposed to empowering
them for their own intellectual betterment, is a severe injustice. What is more, this use of higher
education against American Indians spanned centuries, reinforcing its significance as a historical
justice issue. Finally, it is worth noting that I have had a continuous interest in American Indians
and their long, rich traditions and history since I was a child. Therefore, my passion for
American Indians makes their difficult journey to self-determination in higher education, as well
as their current educational wellbeing, of considerable interest to me.
To support my assertion that the use of higher education as a mechanism to dominate
American Indians was a justice issue, I will discuss four themes: (a) higher education was used
![Page 3: Social Justice Essay_Cartwright](https://reader038.vdocument.in/reader038/viewer/2022110220/577ccf371a28ab9e788f2d6e/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
THE AMERICAN INDIAN’S SELF-DETERMINATION STRUGGLE 3
to assimilate American Indians and eradicate their culture, (b) the elimination of culturally-
relevant instruction led to cultural conflict and resistance to higher education, (c) the introduction
of a vocationally focused curriculum was utilized to impede academic and social advancement,
and (d) the historically oppressive measures against American Indians continue to have lasting
effects on their ability to educationally succeed today.
To support the four themes, I will reference four historical research articles: (a) “Where
We Have Been: A History of Native American Higher Education” (McClellan, Tippeconni Fox,
& Lowe, 2005), (b) “American Indian and Alaska Native Higher Education: Toward a Century
of Academic Achievement and Cultural Integrity” (Wright, 1991), (c) “American Indians in
Higher Education: A History of Cultural Conflict” (Wright & Tierney, 1991), and (d) “From
Creation to Cultural Resistance and Expansion: Research on American Indian Higher Education”
(González, 2008).
Higher Education to Assimilate
The injustice of using American Indian higher education as a tool of assimilation has
been a part of the American continent since the colonial period. Of the nine original colonial
colleges, three incorporated the education of American Indians into their missions with the
intention of creating schoolmasters and clergymen who would return to their tribes as
missionaries and further the assimilation objectives of the colonists (McClellan et al., 2005;
Wright & Tierney, 1991). However, it is clear that from the beginning the colleges did not
actually prioritize the education of American Indians in their efforts. Carney stressed that the
colleges did not readily adhere to their missions, with only four of forty-seven admitted
American Indian students graduating between the founding of the colleges and the American
Revolution (as cited in McClellan et. al., 2005). Carney also noted that the colonial colleges’
![Page 4: Social Justice Essay_Cartwright](https://reader038.vdocument.in/reader038/viewer/2022110220/577ccf371a28ab9e788f2d6e/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
THE AMERICAN INDIAN’S SELF-DETERMINATION STRUGGLE 4
failure to adequately educate American Indians could be attributed to “the appeal of a mission of
educating Native Americans in fundraising [rather] than … actually advancing the education of
Native American students” (as cited in McClellan et. al., p. 9). Though colonial colleges put
forth little effort, they did espouse an educational philosophy that would remain in effect for
centuries: the Christianizing, the “civilizing,” and the assimilating of American Indians
(González, 2008; Wright, 1991; Wright & Tierney, 1991). In the end, the injustice of the
colonial colleges’ assimilation attempts is best illustrated in how, although they had not perfected
how to educate White pupils, they purposefully sought to use their resources to conquer the
American Indians. A more righteous mission would have been to identify opportunities to
develop a nation in conjunction with their American Indian neighbors.
The colonial colleges’ adoption of American Indian assimilation through higher
education was just the beginning of a multi-century story. With the advent of the United States
of America and its government, the education of American Indians shifted from colonial and
college control to that of the federal government (Wright, 1991). The federal government,
however, continued the colonial colleges’ mission, with federal institutions in the 1870’s most
notably intending to “remake their Native charges in the image of the white man” (Wright, 1991,
p. 2). The federal government’s involvement began a new era of difficulty in American Indians’
receiving a just higher education.
The majority of tribes resisted attempts to “civilize” them, but the federal government,
with ulterior motives abounding, persuaded a number of nations to embrace higher learning
(Wright & Tierney, 1991). During what McClellan et al. (2005) referred to as the Federal Era
(post-American Revolution through approximately 1934), treaties between the United States
government and American Indian nations became normal practice. Within the first 100 years of
![Page 5: Social Justice Essay_Cartwright](https://reader038.vdocument.in/reader038/viewer/2022110220/577ccf371a28ab9e788f2d6e/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
THE AMERICAN INDIAN’S SELF-DETERMINATION STRUGGLE 5
the United States, 97 treaties that addressed education were signed, including a few with specific
higher education provisions (McClellan et al., 2005). In 1830 and 1862, treaties were signed
with the Choctaw and Ottawa nations, respectively, to provide their people with tribally-
controlled higher education (Wright & Tierney, 1991). These nations saw higher education as a
means to effectively engage with Euro-Americans and to survive in a new, White-controlled
world, while maintaining their cultural integrity (González, 2008). Unfortunately, the United
States government’s desire to eradicate the “red man” and his culture led to more control over
American Indian education, ultimately leading to the collapse of the established Choctaw system
and the death of the Ottawa’s university before its actual creation (Wright & Tierney, 1991). At
that time, the assimilation efforts of the United States government became more apparent. To
further eliminate the American Indians’ culture, the U.S. government drove them away from
their native lands and placed them on reservations far away from their original homes.
The government’s efforts to stifle American Indian educational advancement epitomize
the grave injustices inflicted upon the first nations of the continent and the attempts to transform
them. It was not until 1972 and the introduction of the Indian Education Act that the government
began to repair the years of neglect imposed upon American Indians and their lack of
opportunity for education at all levels, including postsecondary (González, 2008). Alas, it took
over 300 years to reach an era of self-determination that would finally permit American Indians
to control how and for what purpose their people were to be educated.
Cultural Conflict
With millennia of culture, heritage, and history at their disposal, American Indians
educationally prospered by creating a milieu devoted to elders passing knowledge down to
younger tribe members. In addition to teaching necessary survival skills, emphasis was also
![Page 6: Social Justice Essay_Cartwright](https://reader038.vdocument.in/reader038/viewer/2022110220/577ccf371a28ab9e788f2d6e/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
THE AMERICAN INDIAN’S SELF-DETERMINATION STRUGGLE 6
placed on cultural survival to guarantee that the past was incorporated into the present and future
(González, 2008). As might be expected, as Euro-Americans entered the continent and
established their right to control American Indians’ education and future, there was a notable
cultural conflict between the two sides: Euro-Americans sought to impose their customs while
American Indians fought to maintain their own rich cultural history.
Many tribes resisted the persistent efforts of the colonies, and later the United States
government, to eliminate their native culture and traditional way of life (Wright, 1991). Tribal
leaders did not see value in the education being offered because the experiences would have
minimized the importance of traditional skills and tribal life (McClellan et al., 2005). In spite of
the resistance and a continued American Indian sentiment that their customs differed too greatly
to allow their youth to experience a White education, a number of American Indians did attend
institutions of higher education (González, 2008; Wright, 1991; Wright & Tierney, 1991).
However, these students encountered a clash of cultures that affected their ability to continue in
these foreign environments. An even greater danger was that some of the students who attended
White institutions died from contact with foreign diseases to which they had built no immunity
(González, 2008; Wright & Tierney, 1991).
In addition to being removed from their homes, families, and tribal influences, American
Indians were forbidden to speak their traditional languages, to dress in their native clothing, to
wear customary hairstyles, and to practice their native religions (González, 2008; Wright &
Tierney, 1991). The cultural conflict experienced by American Indian women was exacerbated
as their traditional roles in the family were annihilated because they “were expected to learn
European American techniques in childrearing, household maintenance, and food preparation”
(González, 2008, p. 305). Further, the American Indian students were taught the same subjects
![Page 7: Social Justice Essay_Cartwright](https://reader038.vdocument.in/reader038/viewer/2022110220/577ccf371a28ab9e788f2d6e/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
THE AMERICAN INDIAN’S SELF-DETERMINATION STRUGGLE 7
as their White peers (Wright, 1991), thus continuing the purpose of using education as a means
to eradicate their native culture by no longer teaching them the ways of their ancestors. What is
more, to maintain the cultural elimination work that had been conducted, many educators
forbade students from returning to their homes during class breaks because they feared they
would revert back to their traditional ways once they were in the presence of their families
(González, 2008). Consequently, the culture struggle and inability to persist are evidenced in
Dartmouth’s low graduation rate of American Indian students. Of 58 American Indians who
attended Dartmouth from 1769 to 1893 only 11 completed degree programs (Wright & Tierney,
1991).
From the beginning, rather than providing American Indians an education with which
they could effectively succeed, White educators eliminated the traditions, culture, and heritage
that could have complemented coursework and created a more beneficial and empowering
learning environment. While the 1928 Meriam Report condemned the assimilating policies of
the United States government and recommended culturally-relevant content be used to teach
American Indians (González, 2008), today many American Indians are still understandably
resistant to Western education and its historically chilly environment (Wright, 1991).
Vocational Training
The United States government’s insatiable desire to dominate American Indians did not
end with strategies to assimilate and annihilate traditional culture. To further the government’s
unjust efforts to subjugate the tribes and to limit their potential social mobility, restrictive
curriculum was introduced that prioritized vocational training over higher learning for most
American Indians (González, 2008; McClellan et al., 2005; Wright, 1991; Wright & Tierney,
1991). The government introduced the idea of vocational training over academic study early,
![Page 8: Social Justice Essay_Cartwright](https://reader038.vdocument.in/reader038/viewer/2022110220/577ccf371a28ab9e788f2d6e/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
THE AMERICAN INDIAN’S SELF-DETERMINATION STRUGGLE 8
with Wright (1991) noting that during George Washington’s tenure policy was discussed that
would limit American Indians to vocation-oriented education. Though its lineage dates back to
the eighteenth century, emphasis on vocational training was not readily adopted by the federal
government until 1870 when it appropriated funds to operate industrial schools (Wright, 1991).
McClellan et al. (2005) noted that the Federal Era was notable for the United States
government’s “lack of activity in the area of Native American higher education” (p. 10).
Unfortunately, the vision of vocational training would remain the focus of postsecondary
education for American Indians up until the 1960s when the era of self-determination began
(McClellan et. al., 2005).
Focusing on vocational training abandoned any governmental effort to provide American
Indians with higher academic study, in turn limiting their obtaining of the necessary education to
become leaders and self-advocates in a White-controlled world. Further, restricting American
Indians’ access to higher academic learning enabled the government to easily continue its unjust
objective of eradicating traditional tribal life. Wright (1991) summarizes the facilities created to
“educate” American Indians by stating that “the range of occupational futures envisioned for
Indian students in these institutions was limited to farmer, mechanic and housewife” (p. 3). It is
painfully regrettable that for too long the only future the United States government envisioned
for American Indians was one of subordination and acceptance of White culture.
Lasting Effects
The history of American Indian higher education has been riddled with oppressive
measures to conquer a noble and proud people. From assimilation, to cultural conflict and to
restrictive curricula, the US government has placed various educational obstacles on American
![Page 9: Social Justice Essay_Cartwright](https://reader038.vdocument.in/reader038/viewer/2022110220/577ccf371a28ab9e788f2d6e/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
THE AMERICAN INDIAN’S SELF-DETERMINATION STRUGGLE 9
Indians that have impeded their potential for social progress and their willingness to embrace
higher education, which consequently have had lasting effects to the present.
Though many of the educational policies and procedures implemented to assimilate and
dominate began to dissipate in the 1930’s, with their full renouncement not taking effect until
1975 with the Indian Self-determination and Education Assistance Act (Wright & Tierney,
1991), many American Indian students still encounter similar challenges faced by their ancestors.
Those attending public, four-year universities and colleges “are a highly invisible
minority, representing only a fragment of student enrollment” (Wright, 1991, p. 5) and typically
have a difficult time persisting to graduation. Due to their limited representation in student body
and in staff and faculty, American Indian students often do not have peers or role models to
which to look, which creates a barrier from effectively participating and succeeding (González,
2008; Wright, 1991). Wright (1991) observed that in an effort “to fully integrate socially and
academically, an American Indian… may be expected to reduce her or his attachment to
traditional culture” (p. 9). Public institutions also often lack cultural facilities and culturally-
relevant coursework for American Indian students, furthering their feeling of isolation and
alienation. Moreover, coming from communities which respect “values, religious traditions,
languages, and other aspects of traditional culture” (Wright, 1991, p. 8), American Indian
students often find themselves at odds with the mainstream culture of a predominantly White
institution, which is apparent in the fact that American Indian college attrition rates are between
75 percent and 95 percent (Larimore & McClellan, as cited in González, 2008). The current
system’s inability to help American Indians persist and prosper in traditional, four-year
institutions necessitates the inclusion of culturally-centric programming and curricula and
dedicated American Indian faculty serving as role models.
![Page 10: Social Justice Essay_Cartwright](https://reader038.vdocument.in/reader038/viewer/2022110220/577ccf371a28ab9e788f2d6e/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
THE AMERICAN INDIAN’S SELF-DETERMINATION STRUGGLE 10
Though many tribe members viewed education suspiciously, which is understandable
given how education was historically used to oppress American Indians, the need to develop an
educated and trained people was recognized by tribal leaders, subsequently leading to the
creation and to the support of tribal colleges and universities (TCUs) (González, 2008).
The introduction of tribally-controlled colleges created an environment dedicated to
preserving native culture and language, while preparing students to contribute to their tribe and
the modern world. Belgrade stated that TCUs “promote the culture of the tribe they serve, work
to strengthen the economies of their Indian communities, and strengthen the social fabric of the
tribal community both internally and in conjunction with outside communities though
empowering individual Indian people” (as cited in McClellan et al., 2005, p. 12). Additionally,
to foster the cultural benefits of TCUs and allow students to remain close to family and tribe
members, most colleges are located on or near reservations. Sadly, TCUs’ access to proper
financing is limited, thereby adversely affecting their ability to pay staff and faculty, to secure
improved technology, and to provide cutting-edge facilities, which ultimately makes fulfilling
their missions a constant struggle (González, 2008).
Although TCUs serve the purpose of empowering American Indians and bridging their
world with that of the White mainstream, attending these institutions is still a dream for many
students. As a population, “American Indian students are among the most underrepresented
groups in academe” (McClellan et. al. 2005, p. 7) and belong to a community with the highest
poverty levels and unemployment in the nation (Wright, 1991). Because federal financial
support has not grown with the increase in demand, many private organizations have attempted
to close the gap by providing scholarships for American Indian students. Nonetheless, the needs
of many students still go unmet. It is frustrating that a population in the greatest need of
![Page 11: Social Justice Essay_Cartwright](https://reader038.vdocument.in/reader038/viewer/2022110220/577ccf371a28ab9e788f2d6e/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
THE AMERICAN INDIAN’S SELF-DETERMINATION STRUGGLE 11
financial aid is unable to adequately attain it. The inaccessibility of proper financing is a modern
day injustice that perpetuates the historical narrative of oppressing and subjugating American
Indians.
Conclusion
American Indians have travelled a long and arduous road toward self-determination in
higher education. Though the tribes of the United States continue to face extreme adversity, the
overt attempts at forced assimilation and cultural eradication are an idea of the past. Further,
vocational training is now an available option in conjunction with higher academic study and
culturally relevant education, delivering an opportunity for self-advancement. While poverty
remains a significant impediment to American Indian academic progress, the issue has gotten
greater visibility by the American Indian Higher Education Consortium and by private
organizations. However, there remains immense opportunity to petition the government to
remember the first nations of our country and the contribution they could make if given the
chance. To better themselves, their families, their tribes, and our society, American Indian
students deserve equal, attainable access to higher education that supports their culture, their
advancement, and their goals.
![Page 12: Social Justice Essay_Cartwright](https://reader038.vdocument.in/reader038/viewer/2022110220/577ccf371a28ab9e788f2d6e/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
THE AMERICAN INDIAN’S SELF-DETERMINATION STRUGGLE 12
References
Chief Joseph. (2012). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/306330/Chief-Joseph
Gonzalez, R. (2008). From creation to cultural resistance and expansion: Research on American
Indian higher education. Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research, 23, 299-
327.
McClellan, G., Tippeconnic Fox, M. J., & Lowe, S. (2005). Where we have been: A history of
Native American higher education. New Directions for Student Services, 109, 7-15.
Wright, B. (1991). American Indian and Alaska Native higher education: Toward a new century
of academic achievement and cultural integrity. Indian Nations at Risk Task Force
Commissioned Papers, 1-16.
Wright, B., & Tierney, W. (1991). American Indians in higher education: A history of cultural
conflict. Change, 23 (2), 11-18.