t.catappa tropical almond

8/13/2019 T.catappa Tropical Almond

1/20

IN BRIEF

Distribution Naturally widespread in sub-

tropical and tropical zones of Indian and PacificOceans and planted extensively throughout thetropics.

Size Large tree m ( ft) tall.

Habitat Subtropical and tropical maritimeclimates with annual rainfall generally mm ( in); elevations below m ( ft).

VegetationAssociated with coastal vegetation,especially strandline communities and beachforests including rocky shores and edges of man-

grove swamps.Soils Adapted to a wide range of lighter tex-tured soil types.

Growth rate Fast in early years, about m/yr(. ft/yr).

Main agroforestry uses Soil stabilization, coas-tal protection.

Main productsNuts, timber.

Yields Kernel yield is estimated to be about kg( lb) per tree per year; timber yields can reach m/ha/yr ( ft/ac/yr) (estimate).

Intercropping Short term crops can beinterplanted during the first years after es-tablishment.

Invasive potentialHas moderate potential forinvasiveness into disturbed seaside habitats.

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestrywww.traditionaltree.org

April ver. .

:.
http://www.traditionaltree.org/http://www.traditionaltree.org/


2/20

2 Terminalia catappa(tropical almond)

INTRODUCTION

ropical almond(erminalia catappa) is a large, spreadingtree now distributed throughout the tropics in coastal en-

vironments. Te tree is tolerant of strong winds, salt spray,and moderately high salinity in the root zone. It growsprincipally in f reely drained, well aerated, sandy soils.

Te species has traditionally been very important for coastalcommunities, providing a wide range of non-wood prod-ucts and services. It has a spreading, fibrous root systemand plays a vital role in coastline stabilization. It is widelyplanted throughout the tropics, especially along sandy sea-shores, for shade, ornamental purposes, and edible nuts.

Te timber makes a useful and decorative general-purposehardwood and is well suited for conversion into furnitureand interior building timbers. Fruits are produced fromabout years of age, and the nutritious, tasty seed kernelsmay be eaten immediately after extraction.

ropical almond is easily propagated from seed, and is fast

growing and flourishes with minimal maintenance in suit-able environments. Selected cultivars of the species warrant

wider commercial planting for joint production of timberand nuts. Te tree has a demonstrated potential to natu-ralize in coastal plant communities, but not to adverselydominate such communities.

Te productivity and marketing of cultivars with large and/or soft-shelled nuts needs to be assessed. Tere is also aneed for experimental work to develop vegetative propa-gation techniques and more efficient techniques for pro-cessing fully mature fruits including drying, storage, andcracking of nuts.

DISTRIBUTION

Native range

ropical almond has a vast natural distribution in near-coastal areas of the Indian Ocean, through tropical Asia,and into the Pacific Ocean. Te extent to which its rangehas been increased through movement and dispersal byhumans is difficult to determine. It extends from the Sey-chelles through India, the Andamans and adjacent islands,

and throughout Southeast Asia (Myanmar, Tailand, theMalay Peninsula, Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia) toPapua New Guinea and northern Australia as far southas the ropic of Capricorn. Te species is found through-out the South Pacific region, including the Solomon Is-lands, Vanuatu, and Fiji. It is present on nearly all the higharchipelagos of Polynesia and Micronesia but may be anaboriginal introduction to the eastern parts of its currentrange (including all of eastern Polynesia).

Current distribution

ropical almond has been introduced, and frequently natu-ralized, in many tropical parts of the world including Brazil,the Caribbean, and East Africa. It is naturalized in Floridaand Puerto Rico. In Hawaii, the species was introduced

very early, probably before , and is now naturalized atlow altitudes, mainly near beach shores.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION

Preferred scientific name

erminalia catappa L.

Family

Combretaceae (combretum family)

Non-preferred scientific names

PhytolaccajavanicaOsbeckerminaliamauritianaBlancoerminaliamoluccanaLamk.erminaliaproceraRoxb.

Common names

alite(Solomon Islands pidgin)autaraa, aua, auarii, auariiroa(Societies)kamani haole, kamani ula, false kamani(Hawaii)kauariki, kaukauariki, taraire(Cooks: Mangaia)maii, koaii, kouaii, taie(Marquesas)natapoa(Vanuatu: Bislama)

tropical, beach, or Indian almond (English)talie(Samoa)talise(Papua New Guinea: ok Pisin)tavola, tivi(Fiji)telie(onga, Uvea, Futuna, okelau, uvalu)

Size

ropical almond is a medium to large tree to m( ft) in height and with a similar crown spread inopen situations. At maturity the trunk attains a diameterat breast height (dbh) of cm ( in).

ypical form

Younger trees display a characteristic pagoda form, with asingle bole and monopodial horizontal branching in regu-lar false whorls of branches. Along each lateral, newbranches are formed in a characteristic, bifurcating pattern.

Te tiered crown becomes flatter with widespread branchesin older specimens. Te bole is usually straight and reason-ably cylindrical, but in exposed coastal situations it may be


3/20

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 3

crooked and/or leaning. Buttresses, when present, are upto m ( ft) in height, variable, straight to curved, thickto thin, sometimes branching. Large trees may develop big,occasionally branching buttresses and often have twisted,leaning trunks.

Flowers

Te flowers are small ( mm [.. in] across), whiteor cream-colored, five-lobed, arranged on long ( cm(. in) axillary spikes, with a mildly unpleasant smell.

Within a spike the majority of the flowers are male, withonly a few bisexual flowers positioned toward the base.Plants usually commence flowering and fruiting from ayoung age, e.g., within years of outplanting, but thisvaries with site and genotype. On highly fertile sites maturefruits have been collected from -month-old plants. reesmay refoliate and flower very soon (e.g., within weeks)after being completely defoliated by cyclonic winds.

In Hawaii, Fiji, Vanuatu, and onga flowering and fruitingoccur sporadically throughout much of the year. Floweringand fruiting of cultivated trees appears to be more syn-chronous in Vanuatu, where flowering peaks around Oc-tober to January and is followed by fruiting around Marchto June.

Leaves

Te leaves are arranged in close spirals, often crowded to-ward the ends of the upturned branchlets. Te leaf blade issimple, broadly obovate, () x () cm ([] x [] in), with () pairs of secondary veins. Teleaf tip is rounded and blunt, gradually tapering to a nar-rowly subcordate base (the latter being a useful diagnos-tic feature). New leaves have a covering of soft, appressed,brown hairs. Mature leaves are mostly glabrous (shiny),leathery, and dark green, turning bright yellow then vividto dark red before falling. Te trees are briefly deciduous

op left: Close-up of flowers and buds. : . Right: Fruits on tree. : . Bottom left: Horizontal

branching of young trees.: .


4/20


during the dry season, or in some environments they maylose their leaves twice in a year.

Fruit

ypically one to five fruits develop on the basal part ofthe flower spike. Te fruit is a sessile, laterally compressed,ovoid to ovate, smooth-skinned drupe. During maturation,

it changes color from green through yellow to bright redor dark purplish-red at full maturity. Fruit size varies con-siderably, e.g., . x . cm (.. x .. in), withextremes in length from . to cm ( in). Te kernelconsists of two delicate and intricately entwined cotyle-dons enclosed in an inconspicuous cream-colored, rarelyred, testa.

In the South Pacific tropical almond growing at lowerlatitudes may produce fruit sporadically throughout the

year, with heavier crops toward the end of the year on treesgrowing at higher latitudes. In New Guinea the productiveperiod is between November and March, especially De-cemberFebruary. In Vanuatu the main crop is around themiddle of the year (MayJune), with a smaller crop aroundDecember. In Samoa fruiting occurs in JuneJuly and Feb-ruaryMarch. In onga the reported fruiting season variesbetween island groups, e.g., SeptemberDecember in thesouth (ongatapu and Eua) and FebruaryMay furthernorth (Haapai and Vavau).

Seeds

In the Pacific islands trees exhibit large variations in thesize and shape of fruits, nuts, and kernels, but it is diffi-

cult to classify this variation. For example, in Vanuatu, thenuts can be .. long by .. cm across (. x .in) and weigh g (.. oz). Kernels are in the sizerange of .. x . cm (.. x .. in) and weigh.. g (.. oz). Te percentage kernel contentvaries from to .

Te rind of the fruit is a light, pithy, or corky tissue thatenables the fruit to float and be dispersed by sea currents.

rees are also found away from coasts due to fruits beingcarried inland and dropped by frugivorous birds and bats,and as a result of deliberate planting by humans.

BarkTe bark is gray to dark gray-brown and shallowly fissured.Continuous vertical fissuring and discontinuous horizon-tal cracks produce a grid appearance; the somewhat flakybark peels off in curved or straight scales along these lines.

Rooting habit

Te trees usually have a spreading, fibrous, near-surface

op: Buttress of large tree, Hilo, Hawaii.: . . Bottom: Te extensive surface root system is exposed on thissandy, coastal slope.: .


5/20


lateral root system, although the species is nor-mally deep rooted in sand (Francis ). Shal-low lateral root systems can develop in responseto high water tables, making such trees suscep-tible to windthrow (Wood ).

Similar or look-a-like species

Te genuserminalia comprises about tropical tree species. Closely related species inthe South Pacific include . glabrata Forst. f.and . littoralisSeem.

How to distinguish from similarspecies/look-a-likes

ropical almond is distinguished from mosterminaliaspp. by its subcordate (heart-shaped)leaf base. . catappahas larger, glossy, dark greenleaves, thicker branchlets, longer flower spikes,and larger fruits than . littoralis(typically >.

cm [>. in] compared with . cm [ in]long). . catappais distinguished from the east-ern Polynesian . glabrataby its shorter, thickerleaf petioles typically . cm (. in) compared

with .. cm (. in) long; heart-shapedleaf base compared with cuneate to acute; and

winged, typically larger f ruits >. cm (>.in) compared with . cm ( in) long andmore strongly angled fruits. Some authors con-sider . glabratato be a wild form of . catappa,and more taxonomic studies, including using

molecular markers, may be needed to deter-mine the classification status of . glabrata.

GENETICS

Variability of species

Major variation exists in a range of economi-cally important nut characteristics, mainly as aresult of traditional selection for trees with de-sirable traits and their propagation by peoplesin various parts of its range in Melanesia. Selection has

occurred for large fruits and/or kernels and ease of crack-ing. In Vanuatu the variability in the species is high; varia-tions occur mainly in fruit size, color, and shape (Walterand Sam ). Tere is little variation within the speciesin most parts of the Solomon Islands, except for the SantaCruz Islands (emotu Province) where selection has pro-duced some large-fruited forms. wo fruit types have beenreported from the Mussau Islands, Bismarck Archipelago,Papua New Guinea (Lepofsky ). One type has a soft

endocarp that can easily be broken with the teeth, whilethe other has a hard endocarp that must be hit with a

stone or cut with a knife to extract the nut; it is uncertainwhether the soft-shelled trees breed true to type. Te is-land of Iwa, in the Marshall Bennett Group (PNG), is alsorenowned for its soft-shelled nuts. In onga two forms aredistinguished: those with red fruits (telie kula) found alongbeaches and those with light green fruits (telie hina) foundinland. In a Rapid Rural Appraisal study, four folklore va-rieties were identified for Haapai (onga), i.e., amanu, laulalahi, lalike,and kai (upoulahi-Fusimalohi ). In Sa-

op: Comparison of flowering twigs of T. littoralis (left) and T. catappa(right). : . Bottom: T. littoralis, Upolu, Samoa. : .


6/20


moa there is modern introduction of . catappawith largeredible fruits.

In India several forms differing in leaf shape and fruitcharacteristics have been recognized. One type has an ed-ible, sweet flesh (mesocarp) and is cultivated in gardens.Variation has also been reported in kernel taste and sizefrom planted trees in the Caribbean and the southern

United States.

Known varieties

While many variants are reported (see above), the speciesis invariably propagated from seed, which gives rise to

variation in the offspring. Accordingly there is continuousvariation with intermediate forms for various characters.

Te species should be highly amenable to improvementthrough a breeding program given

the high level of variation in nut characteristics short intergeneration times, i.e., the young age, about

34 years, at which plants flower and f ruit, and ready access to flowers in low lateral branches for con-

trolled pollination (although the flowers are small andcrowded).

ASSOCIATED PLANT SPECIES

ropical almond is a characteristic species of tropical beachforests, especially raised sandy beaches above high tide. Itis also found along rocky shores, and sometimes on the

edges of mangrove swamps. It may also grow as a pioneeron denuded or disturbed lands up to m ( ft) el-evation. In Vanuatu occasional seemingly wild trees in theforest are likely to be remnants of former settlements orgardens. In French Polynesia, it appears to have partly re-placed the indigenous . glabrata.

Associated species commonly found in nativehabitats

Associated species includeAcacia simplex, beach heliotrope

(ournefortia argentea), Barringtonia asiatica, Calophylluminophyllum, beach she-oak (Casuarina equisetifolia), coco-nut (Cocos nucifera), Cordia subcordata,Excoecaria agallocha,Hernandia nymphaeifolia, beach hibiscus (Hibiscus tiliaceus),

Intsia bijuga, noni (Morinda citrifolia), Scaevola tacca-da, Schleinitzia insularum, erminalia littoralis, Tespesiapopulnea, and Vitex trifoliata.

ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES

AND TOLERANCES

Climateropical almond is well adapted to maritime subtropicaland tropical climates where rainfall is usually in the rangeof mm ( in) per annum, distributed rath-er uniformly throughout the year or with a summer maxi-mum. It is invariably found near the coast, at elevations ofless than m ( ft), where there is littleseasonal and diurnal variation in temperatures. Te entirerange is frost-free.

Elevation range

m ( ft).

Mean annual rainfall

() mm ( [] in).

Rainfall pattern

Te tree prefers climates with summer or uniform rainfallpatterns.

Dry season duration (consecutive months with


7/20


mm [1.6 in] rainfall)

Up to months.

Mean annual temperature

C (F)

Mean maximum temperature of hottest month

C (F)

Mean minimum temperature of coldest month

C (F)

Minimum temperature tolerated

C (F) (estimated)

Soils

ropical almond naturally occurs on various coastal soils,especially raised sandy and rocky beaches. It is adapted to a

wide range of lighter-textured soil types, including brack-

ish/saline and alkaline sands over limestone, but requiresgood drainage when grown on heavier, clayey soils.

Soil texture

It prefers light to medium soils (sands, sandy loams, loams,and sandy clay loams).

Soil drainage

It requires freely draining soils.

Soil acidity

Acid to neutral/mildly alkaline soils (pH ..).

Special soil tolerances

ropical almond tolerates shallow soils and slightly salinesoils.

olerances

Drought

It is likely to be tolerant of droughts of less than months duration and may shed leaves/canopy to withstandlong dry spells.

Full sunTe tree grows most rapidly in full sun and regeneratesmainly in open, well lit situations.

Shade

ropical almond tolerates shade. Seedlings andsaplings tolerate moderate shade levels but require highlight levels to grow satisfactorily, and mature trees preferfull sunlight.

Fire

It is resistant to low- to medium-intensity fires, with treesobserved to regrow after burning during clearing opera-tions.

Frost

Te entire natural range is frost free. Te tree is likely to

be damaged at low temperatures (e.g., less than C [F]).

Waterlogging

Te species is not well adapted to waterlogged conditions.

Salt spray

Te species typically grows within a short distance (


8/20


tropical cyclones over large parts of its range. While thespecies has overall good wind-firmness, some individualssuffer stem breakage and/or uprooting during tropical cy-clones. ropical almond may be partially defoliated by verystrong winds, and this may aid its wind-firmness duringcyclones.

AbilitiesRegenerate rapidly

Te species regenerates abundantly on its preferred litto-ral sites, notably in beds of washedup debris and sand instrandline communities.

Self-prune

ropical almond produce tiers of four or five branches;as new tiers are produced by the leader apex, some of thelower branch tiers die back. Te extent of self-pruning is

variable, depending on genotype, density of surrounding

vegetation, and light levels.

Coppice

Seedlings and saplings coppice strongly, although the extentof regrowth after severe pruning or damage is unknown inmature trees. Te main leader may be cut out of the top,sometimes more than once, to create a very wide-spread-ing shade or specimen tree. Excessive pruning by wind orman may cause weakening or death of mature trees.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Growth rate

Under favorable conditions tropical almond is moderatelyfast to fast growing, with height growth in early years aver-aging around . m ( ft) per year. Very fast early heightgrowth of m ( ft) per year has been observed onfertile sites on Santo, Vanuatu. Diameter growth is about cm/yr (. in/yr) over the life of the tree, up to cm/yr (.in/yr) for widely spaced trees growing in fertile sites.

Reaction to competition

On favorable sitesthe tree is able to quickly gain site con-trol and shade out most weeds. It may be necessary toprune the lower one or two tiers of branches to reduceaccess for climbing weeds. Tis will also improve amenityas a shade tree.

PROPAGATION

Te species is readily propagated from seed. Mass vegeta-tive propagation by rooted cuttings is also feasible.

Propagation by seed

Seed collection

Te timing of fruit maturation varies among regions andmay be sporadic or occur more than once per year (seeabove under Fruit). Fruits are ready for collection whenthey are full size (which varies among trees) and have be-gun to show some color change (i.e., become red-purpleor yellow, or brownish in the case of green-fruited forms).Mature fruits are harvested from the tree by hand and/orwith the aid of long-handled pole pruners. Recently fallenfruits may be collected from the ground.

Seed processing

Tere are about fresh fruits/kg ( fruits/lb). Te

fleshy outer covering should be removed from the seed/nutas soon as possible after collection (within days), e.g.,by careful hammering between two flat stones. After re-moval of the fleshy outer covering, there are about nuts (nut-in-shell) per kg ( nuts/lb).

Seed storage

Te seed storage behavior is unknown, but seeds appearto lose viability fairly rapidly under storage. Until effec-tive medium-term seed storage procedures are developedit is recommended that seeds be sown within weeks ofcollection.

Pre-planting treatments

Seeds may be sown without any pretreatment.

Growing area

Seeds are germinated in a freely draining potting mix ingermination trays in a protected, rat-free area under cover,such as a shade house. Seedlings should be transplantedinto containers as soon as is practicable after germinationand emergence. Plants grow rapidly and require largercontainers than many forest tree species: suitable contain-ers include cm ( in) polybags or tapering, rigid plastic

tubes (e.g., cm [ in] deep by . cm [. in] square attop).

Seedlings are progressively moved to higher light levels,e.g., shade for weeks after transplanting, then shade for month, then full sun for months prior tooutplanting.


9/20


Germination

Germination typically commences in weeks,with a germination rate of greater than forfreshly harvested fully mature fruit.

Media

Seedlings should be grown in a standard potting

mixture or fertile, freely draining sandy loamor loam, preferably with good levels of organicmatter. Incorporation of a controlled-release,complete fertilizer into the potting mixture willensure rapid, healthy seedling growth.

Time to outplanting

Te time from germination to outplanting isabout months.

Approximate size

Plants should be about cm ( in) (max.

cm [ in]) tall at outplanting. Smaller seed-lings about cm ( in) high may alsobe used.

Guidelines for outplanting

Seedlings should be outplanted at the onset of the wet sea-son, typically early December in the South Pacific. A typi-cal sequence for seedling production in Vanuatu would be

June, seed collection; JulyAugust, germination; Septem-berNovember, nursery phase; DecemberJanuary, fieldplanting.

Propagation by cuttingFor vegetative propagation for selected nut types, seedlinghedges of better nut types can be planted. Tese trees canbe regularly cut back to a height of about cm (in) or, preferably, by laying seedlings flat, pinning, and cut-ting back new shoots. Multinode, semi-hardwood cuttingsshould be treated with rooting hormone (. IBA pow-der), set in washed river sand, and rooted under mist.

DISADVANTAGES

Te species has no major drawbacks. Te tree is alreadynaturally very widespread in the Asia-Pacific region andhas multiple uses, including providing important environ-mental services such as coastal protection. Te nuts are of-ten not utilized or highly regarded as food because of thesmall size of the kernels and the difficulty of extractingthem, but use of selected genetic material can greatly im-prove the utility of tropical almond nuts as human food.

Potential for invasiveness

Te species naturalizes readily in suitable littoral habitats,and may be regarded as a potential weed threat to nativeplant communities. However, the tree is usually not con-sidered a weed problem.

Diseases and pests

Plants are susceptible to termite attack, and damage mayoccur in some parts of its range. Te leaves may be at-

tacked and eaten by various insects and larvae, includingrose beetles, but the plant generally recovers well frominsect damage and defoliation.Te Secretariat of PacificCommunity Plant Protection Service has developed a listof pests and diseases that have been reported on tropicalalmond in different countries, including insects, fungi, nematodes, and mites (J. Wright pers. comm. ).Pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor), a fungal stem canker,was recorded on tropical almond in India.

Host to crop pests/pathogens

Te fruits are hosts for f ruit fly species including Carib-

bean fruit fly (Anastrepha suspensa) in Florida, and of theMediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata) in Costa Rica,as well as a fruit piercing moth (Ophiusa coronata)

Propagation of seedlings of better nut morphotypes for distribution to

farmers, Santo, Vanuatu. : .


10/20


AGROFORESTRY/ENVIRONMENTAL

PRACTICES

Mulch/organic matter

Annual/bi-annual leaf drop results in a good buildup oforganic matter under the trees.

Soil stabilizationTe well developed lateral root system helps to bind fragilesandy soils and maintain coastal shores, especially duringstorm surges and extreme high tides. It has been specifi-cally planted for soil conservation in India and anzania.

Crop shade/overstory

Mature trees cast a heavy, wide shade, when not in theirbrief deciduous phase. ropical almond is only suitable forproviding crop shade to the most shade tolerant crops suchas cocoa (Teobroma cacao).

Alley croppingropical almond may be used in intercropping systemswhile the trees are still young (up to about years old) andwith comparatively wide-spaced alleys, e.g., m (ft) apart. During the final years of the gardening phase ina rotational gardening or shifting cultivation, rows of trop-ical almond can be grown together with the crops, prior toconversion to a forest plantation (and serving as improvedfallow).

Homegardens

It is a good species for inclusion in homegardens at the

rate of one to three trees per garden, providing nuts forlocal consumption from an early age, coupled with reason-ably good stability during strong winds and cyclones.

Improved fallows

Te tree makes an excellent species for inclusion in mixed-species improved fallow plantings with a duration of atleast years to allow for production of timber.

Windbreaks

ropical almond is an excellent species for inclusion as anupper to midstory layer in windbreaks.

Animal fodder

Te foliage is suitable for feeding tasar or katkura silk-worms. In the Caribbean, the fruit is an important foodfor birds and many wild mammals, and it is also consumedby various livestock, including pigs.

WoodlotTe tree is a good species for inclusion in a mixed or single-species woodlot for provision of timber and/or nuts.

Native animal/bird food

Te fruits are consumed by birds and bats.

Wildlife habitat

Te trees provide good wildlife habitat, being among thetallest trees in beach forests. Small birds sometimes nest inthe lower branches.

Bee forageTe flowers yield nectar that is attractive to honeybees.

Coastal protection

Tis a species of choice for coastal protection and soil sta-bilization, including beach stabilization just above the levelof spring high tides. Key attributes for these roles includehigh salt tolerance (both foliar and soil), good cyclone

Windbreak of tropical almond and beach she-oak (Casuarinaequisetifolia). : .


11/20


resistance, surface rooting habit, and regular shedding ofleaves that provide a moderately long-lasting mulch layerunder the tree.

Ornamental

It is an attractive, long-lived tree well suited to ornamentaland amenity plantings where space permits. It is especially

suited to provision of shade in coastal open spaces, publicparks, and along roadside verges.

USES AND PRODUCTS

Te tasty kernels or nuts of tropical almond have tradition-ally been incorporated, albeit in modest quantities, intothe diet of peoples in coastal areas throughout much ofthe Asia-Pacific region. Te nuts may be consumed freshshortly after extraction from the shell or else preserved bysmoking and consumed up to a year later. In some areasthe nuts are mainly a snack food consumed by children,

with the fleshy fruit also sometimes being consumed. Inother areas tropical almond nuts were highly regarded asa human food source. ypes with larger kernels and soft-er shells were selected and preferentially propagated andmaintained in parts of Melanesia. Localities noted forgood nut types include South-West Bay, Malekula (Vanu-atu); Santa Cruz Islands (Solomon Islands); and MussauIslands, Bismarck Archipelago, and Iwa Island, MarshallBennett Group (Papua New Guinea).

In coastal areas the timber is often used in local buildingbut is not well suited to high-decay situations (such ascontact with the ground). Te timber is traditionally usedto make various items including canoes and drums, and asa fuelwood. Te tree also has a wide range of traditionalnon-wood product uses. annin is extracted from the bark,leaves, roots, and fruit shell. Te large leaves are used as

wrapping material. A black dye is obtained from the bark,fruit, and foliage. Its leaves and bark have a wide range ofmedicinal uses.

At present the main planting of the species is for amenityplantings for coastal protection and shade, with smallerplantings of selected types for nut production. Te nuts ofthe species remain an important local food source, and it is

highly regarded as a building timber in parts of the Pacific,including Vanuatu and Samoa.

Fruit

Children sometimes consume the outer flesh of agreeablefruit types. In the Philippines a wine is made by ferment-ing mature fruits.

Superior nut morphotypes selected in Solomon Islands andintroduced to onga in . : .


12/20


Nut/seed

Te nuts may be consumed fresh after extraction from theshell or preserved by drying or smoking and consumed upto a year later. In some local markets in Melanesia the f reshkernels are sold in bundles or skewered on sticks (palmfrond spines). Kernels are easily damaged during extrac-tion and start to mold within days at ambient tempera-

tures. Te sun-dried kernels yield of a bland, yellowoil that is edible but becomes turbid on standing.

Medicinal

Te leaves have many medicinal uses including diapho-retic, anti-indigestion, and anti-dysentery. An infusion ofthe young leaves or scraped bark is occasionally taken as apotion for treating mouth infections in onga and Samoaand is used in the Cook Islands to bathe fractures. Youngleaves are used in the Philippines to cure headache andcolic. Te bark is used as an astringent in dysentery andthrush.

Timber

Te sawn timber has a wide range of end-uses includinggeneral building construction, especially interior purposessuch as flooring and furniture. Larger sound logs are suit-able for veneer and plywood manufacture. Te wood is notsuitable for long-term ground contact.

Fuelwood

Te wood is suitable for use as fuelwood.

Craft wood/tools

raditional wood uses in the South Pacific include kavabowls, tool handles, clubs, walking sticks, and drums.

Canoe/boat/raft making

Te wood is traditionally used to make canoe hulls andpaddles in the South Pacific. Te wood is also used in boat-building.

Wrapping/parcelization

Te leaves are infrequently used to wrap and carry food.

Tannin/dye

Te bark and leaves (as well as fruit shells and roots) arerich in tannins and may be used for staining/coloring fab-rics including tapa, tanning leather, and ink-making.

Oil/lubricant

rials have been conducted to admix kernel oil into dieselfuel.

URBAN AND COMMUNITY

FORESTRY (By Craig R. Elevitch)

ropical almond is a popular ornamental and shade treethroughout the tropics. Te trees has a beautiful, broad, pa-goda-like canopy and attractive leaves. Part of the appealof the species as an ornamental is the bright red-orange-

yellow color of the leaves before each annual defoliation.In addition to its amenity services, the tree produces tastynuts, traditional medicines, dye, and timber, all of whichcan be utilized from trees growing in urban areas. It with-stands coastal conditions, including heavy salt spray andstrong winds, and therefore is most commonly found incoastal urban areas. It is widely adaptable to various soils,including infertile sandy soils.

Size in an urban environment

In urban environments, the tree typically reaches m( ft) tall with a broad canopy similar in diameter to

the height of the tree. Te trunk can grow to . m ( ft) indiameter at breast height. For urban environments, this isa large tree, which needs to be pruned regularly to controlits size in more confined areas.

Rate of growth in a landscape

With care and in favored environments, trees can grow upto m/yr (. ft/yr) for the first few years, althoughgrowth rates closer to m/yr (. ft/yr) are more typical.

Root system

Te root system is deep in sandy substrates. In soils withshallow water table, it can develop an extensive surfaceroot system that could interfere with maintenance activi-ties, such as mowing. Te formation of a buttressed trunkcan lift sidewalks, foundations, curbs, pipes, etc., making itinadvisable to plant the tropical almond near such struc-tures.

Products commonly used in a Pacific islandhousehold

Te nuts are edible both raw and cooked, although eat-ing quality and kernel size are variable. Te nuts are an

important food when in season in Vanuatu. In other areassuch as Samoa, onga, New Guinea, and the Solomon Is-lands, they are eaten rarely or just nibbled on by children.In Hawaii, few people are aware that the kernel is edible.

Te difficulty of extracting the kernel, variable eating qual-ity, and absence of large-kernelled varieties may explainthe lack of use of the nut in many areas. Te outer fleshof the seed is also edible, although it is usually fibrous andnot tasty. Fruits are cracked open to extract the kernel by a


13/20


sharp blow to the edge or by hitting the pointed apex witha hammer.

Te leaves, bark, and fruit skin are used medicinally and arealso used to make a black dye.

Te wood is used for construction, crafts, and canoes. Itis an attractive, moderately durable timber well suited tointerior uses, such as framing, paneling, flooring, and fur-

niture. It also makes good firewood.

Light requirements

Its seedlings tolerate light shade (), although thetree performs best in full sun.

Water/soil requirements

ropical almond grows best in sands and loamy sands, butit can grow very well in silts, loams, and clays. It is alsoknown to grow in the poor-quality fill that is often foundin urban areas (Francis ).

Life span

As an ornamental, tropical almond is expected to live about years (Francis ) and up to years in suitable en-vironments.

Varieties favored for use in homegardens or publicareas

Tere are many forms found regionally (see Variabilityabove). Tere has been long-term domestication and se-lection of large-kernelled forms in parts of PNG, SolomonIslands, and Vanuatu. Tese nut morphotypes are favoredfor home and village gardens.

Seasonality of leaf flush, flowering, fruiting

rees lose their leaves once or twice a year during dry pe-riods. rees generally flower and fruit once annually, al-though in many areas such as Hawaii, Fiji, and onga,flowering and fruiting take place continuously throughout

the year.

Clockwise from top left: horizontal form of pruned tree, Apia, Samoa; pollarded tree, North Kohala, Hawaii; tree in homegar-den alongside mango, breadfruit, and rain tree, Apia, Samoa.: .


14/20


Exceptional ornamental values

Te large, dark green leaves are attractive and showy, espe-cially prior to seasonal shedding. As new leaves appear, thebright green new growth is also conspicuous and attractive.In its preferred seaside environments, the deep shade castby the tree is often very welcome to beachgoers. Te broadcanopy is readily identifiable and appreciated as shade.

Large trees with buttressed trunks m (. ft) in diameteror more can make spectacular community landmarks andgathering places.

Use as living fence, hedge or visual/noise barrier

Te form of the tree, with a single dominant trunk andhorizontal spreading branches, does not lend itself tohedges or barriers.

Birds/wildlife

Birds and bats consume the fruit.

Maintenance requirements

In urban environments requiring a tidy appearance, theseasonal leaf and fruit drop necessitates regular removal ofdebris from underneath trees. Where the size of the treemust be controlled, such as in a small homegarden, the treecan be shaped at an early age to a desirable size. In thiscase the main stem can be cut at a desired height, favoringhorizontal branches. In Samoa and elsewhere, the lowerbranches of the trees are sometimes weighted down so thatthe tree will be a more attractive or effective shade tree.

Te tree can also be pollarded to control the height andcanopy diameter. In pollarding, a framework of severalstems is formed at a desired height by pruning the treeduring its early development. Tese stems are then prunedback heavily every years.

ropical almond does not require fertilizer except in themost infertile soils. It tolerates drought, but performs bet-ter in consistently moist conditions.

Nuisance issues

In urban areas the loss of leaves once or twice a year maybe considered messy, but the preceding change of leaf

color before dropping can be spectacular. Te flowers havea slightly fetid odor, although the smell is rarely strongenough to be considered a nuisance. Te trees also tend togrow rather large for urban environments.

Hazards

Although the tree is a coastal species and adapted to with-stand storm winds, branches can snap in high winds (Wal-

ter and Sam ). Terefore trees should be planted wellclear of building structures.

Common pest problems

Many insects and larvae feed on the leaves, including rosebeetles, but trees usually recover well from periodic infes-tations.

COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS

Te main commercial products oftropical almondare sawntimber for local use, especially in house and building con-struction, and kernels for human consumption.

Timber

Te heartwood of tropical almond is variable in color, oftenbrown to reddish-brown, with a wide, rather indistinct bandof lighter colored sapwood. Te timber is smooth, lustrous,elastic, tough, moderately hard, and medium-coarse in tex-

ture, often with an irregular or twisted grain. Te wood ismoderately dense, e.g., kg/m( lb/ft) at moisture content. Te timber has been variously reportedas seasoning rapidly with a moderate level of degrade orelse as not easily seasoned. Te timber is readily sawn, butinterlocked grain tends to pick up during planing. Othermachining characteristics are as follows: shaping, boring,and mortising are fair; turning is poor; sanding, resistanceto screw splitting, and nailing properties are good.

Nuts

In Vanuatu one local company purchases tropical al-

mond kernels from around the country for US per kg(US../lb). Te kernels are checked for quality, dried,and retailed in g (. oz) jars in Port Vila supermarketsfor more than US per kg (US/lb). Demand is high,and the company would like to purchase kg (lb) of kernels per year (equivalent to mt [ t] offruits). In Port Vila and Loganville markets, fresh tropicalalmond kernels are sold in bundles or skewered on sticks(palm frond spines/midribs) for the equivalent of USper kg (US../lb).

Spacing

Timber

An appropriate initial spacing for commercial produc-tion of timber in monocultural plantings is x m ( x ft) (equivalent to stems/ha [ stems/ac]). Widerinter-row spacing could be used to reduce weeding costs.Intercropping with short-term crops could be done witha tree spacing of x m ( x ft) (i.e., stems/ha


15/20


[ stems/ac]). Te final density for sawlog production isabout stems/ha ( stems/ac). A suitable areafor commercial production would be (or more) hectares(+ ac), but even small woodlot areas of about ha (. ac)could be grown on a commercial basis by groups of small-holders to supply local saw mills.

Nuts

A wide spacing is recommended, coupled with pruning outthe lead shoot to encourage low, wide-spreading lateralbranching. Te suggested spacing is x m ( x ft), i.e., trees per ha ( trees/ac).

Both nuts and timber

Suggested spacing is close within rows (e.g., m [. ft])and wide between rows (e.g., m [ ft]). Tis gives an

initial spacing of trees/ha ( trees/ac), which is even-tually thinned down to a final spacing of about trees/ha( trees/ac) by removal of poorer formed individuals inone or two non-commercial thinning operations at age

years.

Management objectives

Te aim of management for timber production is to pro-duce high-quality sawlogs within an economically feasibleand attractive time frame; e.g., a rotation period of

years. Tis will include use of selected genetic material, reg-ular maintenance in early years including frequent removalof creepers, and one or more thinnings to maintain sitecontrol and concentrate wood increment on better-formedstems. Progressive pruning of lower whorls of branches upto a height of about m ( ft) may be required to produce

Left: Nuts skewered onto palm leaflet midribs and sold in Port Vila market, Vanuatu; pictured: author Lex Tomson.:. Right: Te late Justin West standing among -year-old tropical almond trees he planted in a small plantation outsidePort Vila, Efate, Vanuatu.: .


16/20


less knotty sawlogs of higher value. Such prun-ing should be done in several steps, to maintainat least two-thirds of the canopy leaf area at anyone pruning.

Design considerations

For production of nuts, it is recommended that

plantings be located in areas with good accessto major marketplaces, so that extracted kernelscan reach the market quickly without risk ofspoiling.

Advantages and disadvantages of grow-ing in polycultures

ropical almond has the potential to be wellsuited to growing in polycultures with other fast-growing timber species such as Endospermummedullosum. Te fast-growing but smallerFlueggea flexuosacould be interplanted and har-vested after years to provide durable poles.

Yields

Timber

Tere is no data available concerning growth rate over theprojected rotation length of about years. It is likelythat good-quality, well maintained plantations on fertilesites grow at about m/ha/yr ( ft/ac/yr).

Nuts

Significant amounts of fruits are produced years afterplanting, with regular fruiting once or twice a year depend-ing upon latitude, location, and health of the tree. Kernel

yield is estimated to be about kg ( lb) per tree per year(or about . to mt/ha/yr [.. t/ac/yr]), but yieldsmight be double that for selected genetic stock grown onhigh-quality sites.

Processing required

Te greatest obstacle to the commercial marketing of thenut is its low kernel content and the lack of on-farm com-mercial storage technologies that would allow fruits to

be processed in villages and the high value kernels to betransported to central processing units. For nut production,the flesh should be removed manually from fruits on-farm,and the nuts should be at least partly dried to remove sur-face moisture. Tis will considerably reduce the bulk andweight of material to be transported without spoilage tomarket and reduce the risk of spoilage. Drying and smok-ing of nuts on-farm would add considerable value and pro-

duce a more durable product with a considerably extendedshelf life.

Market

Timber

Markets for planted tropical almondtimber are the localtimber markets for general-purpose timbers.

Nuts

Te size of the international market for nuts is likely lim-ited. However, tropical almond nuts (along with Canariumindicumnuts) have the potential to behave as under-sup-plied niche commodities with a highly inelastic demand,commanding a price equivalent to macadamia nuts (cur-rently more than US/kg [US./lb]) wholesale, i.e.,. times the price of mainstream nuts such as almonds,providing packaging and quality are similar. High-valueniche markets and value could be secured and enhancedby organic certification, promotion of tropical almond as

an exotic commodity, and direct internet-based marketing.Marketing opportunities and constraints for Pacific treenuts depend on quality control, packaging, continuity ofsupply, and targeting marketing toward specific groups,such as tourists.

Intercopping with cassava and other crops on Santo, Vanuatu. : .


17/20


INTERPLANTING/FARM

APPLICATIONS

Example system

Location

emotu raditional ree-based Agriculture

(Santa Cruz Islands, Solomon Islands).

Description

ropical almond is planted as an outer bound-ary tree on the windward side of multi-species,multistory agroforestry plots to protect morevulnerable species against sea spray and wind.

Yields/benefits

Fuelwood, timber, and kernels.

Spacing

About m ( ft) within rows.

Example system

Location

Shark Bay, Santo, Vanuatu.

Description

Newly developed, experimental system startedin January, . Tere are no data available on

yields. Te benefit of intercropping is that whilefarmers receive early returns, while waiting for

the trees to start bearing nuts. Good weedingensures high survival and rapid early growth oftrees.

Crop/tree interactions

During the first years, various traditional rootand leaf crops are grown as intercrops with sim-ilar production to pure cropping systems.

Spacing

Spacing is x m ( x ft) or trees perhectare ( trees/ac).

PUBLIC ASSISTANCE

See general extension links at:http://www.traditionaltree.org/extension.html

op: .-year-old tropical almond trial planting at Shark Bay, Santo, Vanu-atu.: . Bottom: same Shark Bay planting as above at years old;this tree has reached m ( ft) in height.: .
http://www.traditionaltree.org/http://www.traditionaltree.org/extension.htmlhttp://www.traditionaltree.org/http://www.traditionaltree.org/extension.html


18/20


BIBLIOGRAPHY

(indicates recommended reading)

Addison, G.H., and M.R. Henderson. . Notes on theplanting of ornamental and shade trees in Malaya, withadditional notes on palms and hedges. Te Malayan For-ester : .

Benthall, A.P. . rees of Calcutta and its Neighbour-hood. Tacker, Spink, Calcutta.

Bolza, E. . Properties and Uses of imber Speciesfrom Papua New Guinea and West Irian. Report . Divi-sion of Building Research, CSIRO, Australia.

Bolza, E., and N.H. Kloot. . Te Mechanical Propertiesof Fijian imbers. echnical Paper . Division of For-est Products, CSIRO, Australia.

Bourke, R.W. . Edible indigenous nuts in Papua NewGuinea. In: Stevens, Bourke, and Evans, op. cit.

CAB International. (revised). Forestry CompendiumGlobal Module. CAB International, Oxon, UK.

Cambie, R.C., and J. Ash. . Fijian Medicinal Plants.Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Or-ganisation (CSIRO). Australia.

Coode, M.J.E. . Manual of the Forest rees of PapuaNew Guinea: Combretaceae, Part (revised). Division ofBotany, Department of Forests, Lae, Papua New Guinea.

Coode, M.J.E. . Notes on erminaliaL. (Combretaceae)in Papuasia. Contributions from Herbarium Australiense: .

Coode, M.J.E. . Combretaceae. In: J.S. Womersley (ed.).Handbooks of the Flora of Papua New Guinea, Vol. .Melbourne University Press, Melbourne.

Degener, O. . Flora Hawaiiensis (new illustrated Flo-ra of the Hawaiian Islands). Books , nd ed. Author,Riverdale, New York.

Dixon, R.G. . Species rials and Investigations for For-estry Department. Silvicultural Circular No. . Depart-ment of Forestry, Apia, Western Samoa.

Drury, H., . Te Useful Plants of India, nd ed. Allen,London.

Evans, B.R. . Overview of resource potential for indig-enous nut production in the South Pacific. In: Stevens,Bourke, and Evans, op. cit.

Evans, B.R. a. Natapoa (erminalia catappa) Seed Col-

lection, Vanuatu. Unpublished report to SPRIG Phase Project, CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Yarralumla,AC, Australia.Evans, B.R. b. Edible nut trees in Solomon Is-

lands: A variety collection of Canarium, erminalia andBarringtonia. ACIAR echnical Report . AustralianCentre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra,

Australia.Evans, B.R. . Marketing Opportunities for ree Prod-

ucts, Especially Non-imber Forest Products (NFPs)from Haapai Conservation Area, Kingdom of onga.Unpublished report to SPRIG Phase Project, CSIROForestry and Forest Products, Yarralumla, AC, Australia.

Exell, A.W. . Combretaceae. In: C.G. Van Steenis (ed.).Flora Malesiana, series , vol (): -.

Fenton, R., R.E. Roper, and G.R. Watt. . Lowland rop-ical Hardwoods; An Annotated Bibliography of SelectedSpecies with Plantation Potential. External Aid Division,Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Wellington, New Zealand.

Fisher, J.B., and D.E. Hibbs. . Plasticity of tree archi-tecture: specific and ecological variations found in Aubre-

villes model. American Journal of Botany (): .Foliga, ., and H. Blaffart. . wenty Western Samoa

Species. Government of Western Samoa, United NationsDevelopment Programme, Food and Agriculture Organi-sation of the United Nations, Apia, Samoa.

Fosberg, F.R., and M.H. Sachet. . erminaliaL. (Com-bretaceae) in eastern Polynesia. Smithsonian Contr. Bot.: .

Francis, J.K. . erminalia catappaL. Forestry Note SO-IF-SM-. U.S. Forest Service, Puerto Rico.

Gupta, R.K. . Multipurpose rees for Agroforestry andWasteland Utilization. WinrockOxford & IBH Series.International Science Publishers, New York.

Hearne, D.A. . rees for Darwin and Northern Aus-tralia. Department of Agriculture, Forestry and imberBureau. Australian Government Publishing Service, Can-berra, Australia.

Henderson, C.P., and I.R. Hancock. . A Guide to theUseful Plants of Solomon Islands. Research Dpt/Minis-try of Agriculture and Lands, Honiara, Solomon Islands.

Jensen, M. . rees Commonly Cultivated in SoutheastAsiaAn Illustrated Field Guide. FAO Regional Officefor Asia and the Pacific (RAP), Bangkok, Tailand.

Kadambi, K. . erminalia catappa Linn., its silvicultureand management. Indian Forester (): .

Keating, W.G., and E. Bolza. . Characteristics, Prop-erties and Uses of imbers. Volume . South-east Asia,Northern Australia and the Pacific. Inkata Press, Mel-bourne, Australia.

Kininmonth, J.A. . Indigenous Hardwoods: Propertiesand Uses of the imbers of Western Samoa. Forest Re-search Institute, Rotorua, New Zealand.

Lemmens, R.H.M.J., I. Soerianegara, and W.C. Wong (eds.).. imber trees: Minor commercial timbers. Plant Re-sources of South-East Asia. No. (). Backhuys Publishers,Leiden, Netherlands.

Lepofsky, D. . Arboriculture in the Mussau Islands, Bis-mark Archipelago. Economic Botany (): .

Little, E.L., and R.G. Skolmen. . Common Forest reesof Hawaii (Native and Introduced). Agriculture Hand-book No. . USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC.


19/20


Maximo, V., and J.R. Lanting. . Germination of talisai(erminalia catappaLinn.) seeds. Sylvatrop the Philippineforest research journal (): .

Mbuya, L.P,. H.P. Nsanga, C.K. Ruffo, A. Birnie, and B.engnas, . Useful rees and Shrubs for anzania:Identification, Propagation and Management for Agri-cultural and Pastoral Communities. echnical Handbook. Regional Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU), SwedishInternational Development Authority (SIDA), Dar-es-Salam and Nairobi.

McGregor, A. . Land Use Profile: ree Nuts. VanuatuLand Use Planning Project. Vanuatu Government and

AusAID.Mitchell, B.A. . Ornamental, roadside and shade trees.

Te Malayan Forester : .Morton, J.L. . Indian almond (erminalia catappa),

salt-tolerant, useful, tropical tree with nuts worthy ofimprovement. Economic Botany (): .

Neal, M.C. . In Gardens of Hawaii. Special Publication. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

Paschoal, M., and M. Galetti. . Seasonal food use by theneotropical squirrel Sciurus ingramiin southeastern Brasil.Biotropica (): .

Pedley, L. . erminalia. In: Flora of Australia. Volume. Podostemaceae to Combretaceae. Bureau of Flora andFauna/Australian Government Publishing Service, Can-berra, Australia.

Prins, H., and J.A. Maghembe. . Germination stud-ies on seed of fruit trees indigenous to Malawi. ForestryEcology and Management : .

Sankaran, K.V., and J.K. Sharma. . Tree new hosts ofpink disease caused by Corticium salmonicolor in Kerala.Indian Journal of Forestry (): .

Sen, R., A.C. Halder, and D.C. Pal. . Botany andethnobotany of Indian almond. Journal of Economic and

axonomic Botany (): .Siwatibau, S., C. Bani, and J. Kaloptap. . SPRIG Rapid

Rural Appraisal Survey of Selected ree Species in Vanu-atu. Report by Island Consulting to CSIRO Division ofForestry/SPRIG Project.

Smith, A.C. . Studies of Pacific island plants XXIV. Tegenus erminalia (Combretaceae) in Fiji, Samoa and

onga. Brittonia : .Smith, A.C. . Flora Vitiensis Nova. A New Flora of Fiji

(Spermatophytes only). Vol. . Pacific ropical BotanicalGarden, Lwai, Kauai, Hawaii.

Sosef, M.S.M., E. Boer, W.G. Keating, S. Sudo, and L. Ph-uphathanaphong. . erminaliaL. In: Lemmens, Soeri-anegara, and Wong, op. cit.

Stevens, M.L., R.W. Bourke, and B.R. Evans (eds.). SouthPacific Indigenous Nuts. ACIAR Proceedings . Pro-ceedings of a workshop October November , LeLagon Resort, Port Vila, Vanuatu. Australian Centre for

International Agricultural Research, Canberra, Australia.Streets, R.J. . Exotic Forest rees in the British Com-

monwealth. Clarendon Press. Oxford, UK.Taman, R.R., and W.A. Whistler. . A Review of Uses

and Status of rees and Forests in Land-use Systems inSamoa, onga, Kiribati, and uvalu with Recommenda-tions for Future Action. South Pacific. Forestry Develop-ment Programme. Suva, Fiji.Tomson, L., and A. Uwamariya. .erminalia catappa

Linn. In: CAB International. Te Forestry Compendium:A Silvicultural Reference ool. Module . computer laseroptical disk. CABI, Wallingford, UK.

upoulahi-Fusimalohi, C. . Rapid Rural Appraisal ofonga ree Species. Report to SPRIG/CSIRO Forestryand Forest Products, Yarralumla, Australia.

van Valkenburg, J.L.C.H., and E.B. Waluyo. .erminaliacatappa L. In: R.H.M.J. Lemmens and N. Wulijarni-Soetjipto. Plant Resources of South-East Asia no. :Dye and tannin-producing plants. Backhuys Publishers,Leiden, Netherlands.

Walter, A., and C. Sam. . A Variety Collection of Nutrees and Fruit rees in Vanuatu. Note echnique No. (Unpublished). Port-Vila, Vanuatu.

Walter, A., and C. Sam. . Indigenous nut trees in Vanu-atu: ethnobotany and variability. In: Stevens, Bourke, andEvans, op. cit.Walter, A., and C. Sam. . Fruits of Oceania. [trans.,

P. Ferrar from Fruits dOcanie.] ACIAR Monograph No. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Re-search, Canberra, Australia.

Walter, A. . Fruit et Noix de Vanuatu. ORSOM,Montpellier, France.

Wheatley, J.I. . A Guide to the Common rees of Vanu-atu. Department of Forestry, Vanuatu.

Whistler, W.A. a. ongan Herbal Medicine. IsleBotanica, Honolulu.

Whistler, W.A. b. Flowers of the Pacific Island Seashore.A guide to the littoral plants of Hawaii, ahiti, Samoa,onga, Cook Islands, Fiji and Micronesia. Isle Botanica,Honolulu.

Whistler, W.A. . Samoan Herbal Medicine. IsleBotanica, Honolulu.

Whistler, W.A. . Plants in Samoan Culture: TeEthnobotany of Samoa. Isle Botanica, Honolulu.

Whistler, W.A. . Rainforest rees of Samoa. IsleBotanica, Honolulu.

Whitmore, .C. . Guide to the Forests of the BritishSolomon Islands. British Solomon islands Protectorate.Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

Wood, .W.W. . Wind damage in the forest of WesternSamoa. Te Malayan Forester (): .

Yen, D.E. . Arboriculture in the subsistence of SantaCruz, Solomon Islands. Economic Botany : .


20/20

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)

Terminalia catappa(tropical almond)

Authors:Lex A.J. Tomsonand Barry Evans

. South Pacific Regional Initiative of Forest Genetic Resources (SPRIG) Project, SPC Forestry Program, Suva, Fiji (current contactinfo: IPGRI, Via dei re Denari /a, Maccarese (Fiumicino), Rome, Italy; E-mail: [email protected]).

. SPRIG Marketing Specialist, Berry St, Sherwood, QLD , Australia; E-mail: [email protected]:Te authors and publisher thank Dale Evans, John Francis, Heidi Johansen, Diane Ragone, Secretariat of the

Pacific Community-Plant Protection Service, and Art Whistler for their input. Photo contributions by Kron Aken and J. B. Fridayare greatly appreciated.

Recommended citation:Tomson, L.A.J., and B. Evans. . erminalia catappa(tropical almond), ver. .. In: Elevitch, C.R. (ed.).Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry. Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), Hlualoa, Hawaii. .

Sponsors:Publication was made possible by generous support of the United States Department of Agriculture Western Region Sus-tainable Agriculture Research and Education (USDA-WSARE)Program; SPC/GZ Pacific-German Regional Forestry Project;USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA NRCS); USDA Forest Service Forest Lands Enhancement Program;State of Hawaii Department of Land & Natural Resources Division of Forestry & Wildlife; Kaulunani, an Urban Forestry Pro-gram of the DLNR Division of Forestry and Wildlife and the USDA Forest Service; and Muriel and Kent Lighter. Tis material isbased upon work supported by the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,and Agricultural Experiment Station, Utah State University, under Cooperative Agreement --.

Series editor:Craig R. Elevitch

Publisher:Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), PO Box , Hlualoa, Hawaii , USA; el: --; Fax: --; E-mail: [email protected];Web: . Tis institution is an equal opportunity provider.

Reproduction:Copies of this publication can be downloaded from . Tis publication may be repro-duced for noncommercial educational purposes only, with credit given to the source. Permanent Agriculture Resources. Allrights reserved.
http://www.traditionaltree.org/mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]://www.agroforestry.net/http://www.traditionaltree.org/http://www.traditionaltree.org/http://www.agroforestry.net/mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]://www.traditionaltree.org/

t.catappa tropical almond

Documents