Teaching and Research: bridging the abyss for effective practice

Dr John Benseman

 Copies of this presentation will be available

 Also an article in Fine Print based on this presentation

Outline

 What factors influenced us as teachers?  How do we actually teach?  What is the value of research for us as teachers?  How can research improve our teaching?  Where can we go for help?  How do I go about becoming a research-informed

teacher?

How many of you are:

 Currently teachers?  Administrators or managers?  Policy-makers?  Researchers?  Teach others how to teach?

 Have been teachers at some point in your careers?

The bottom line of education:

 Teachers teaching are at the core of what we do – and the main factor that brings about change in learners

 We all know this

 We all feel this

 There is strong research to back this claim – what teachers do (and don’t do) matters in making learning happen compared with non-teaching factors (Hattie, 2009, 2012, 2016)

Who/what has influenced you most as a teacher?

 Formal teacher training programme  PD programmes  Colleagues  Mentor  General educational writer (e.g. bell hooks, Skinner)  Adult education writer (e.g. Newman, Knowles,

Brookfield)  Adult literacy writer (e.g. Freire, Campbell)  Researcher  Policy or research report

Other influences?  Hearsay  Suggestions or advice from colleagues  Observing other teachers  ‘Common sense’  Cumulative personal experience  ‘Gut feeling’  Tradition -‘We’ve always done it like this’

 McGuirk’s study of 252 Australian adult literacy managers and teachers:   few had any familiarity with major thinkers, writers or

researchers in the field   “The results are somewhat disturbing as they reveal that

many supposedly well-known authors and researchers are unknown or have had little impact on many respondents. Many respondents ticked ‘Not known’ to the entire list” (p. 59).

 US study of 208 adult literacy teachers also found low levels of knowledge of research about the teaching of reading based on the Knowledge of Teaching Adult Reading Skills test

 The UK inspectorate Ofsted reports highly variable practices, often inconsistent with adult teaching principles or relevant research findings

The slip ‘twixt cup and lip  There are often significant discrepancies between what

teachers say they do and how they actually teach   Although teachers’ responses in their interviews

suggested they wanted to be learner-centered, our classroom observations quite clearly showed that instruction was highly teacher-directed (Beder and Medina, 2001, p. 110).

How do we teach?

 Not a lot of research about how LN teachers teach – it is a fairly private activity

 A small number of observational studies of adult LN teachers:   Interactions are predominantly teacher-initiated  Questions and responses are dominated by factual information (i.e. low-

level thinking)   Predominantly teacher-initiated ‘question and answer’ format  Not a lot of variation in teaching strategies (even when aware of them)   Interaction with different students highly variable

 One US study of LN teachers concluded that by and large, the teachers taught how they themselves were taught as learners, “with the assumption that what worked for them will work for anyone”

Observational research  Benseman, J., Lander, J., & Sutton, A. (2005). Pedagogy in

practice: an observational study of literacy, numeracy and language teachers. Auckland: The University of Auckland & UniServices Ltd.

 15 LN teachers observed for approx. 2000 minutes plus in-depth interviews

 Detailed observation grids to record teacher’s activities

 Dominance of generic teaching practices  Few ‘deliberate acts of teaching’ focused on learners’ needs  Wide variation in interaction patterns (in group of

3, one generated >70% of responses, one <20% and one <10%)

 Teachers talked 50-65% of talk  teachers generated 4 lines of text, learners

less than one – so who is doing the work?  Most questions required yes/no answers  Very short wait time with questions

  answers not used for learning

 Little use of ‘teaching moments’  Teachers chose adult-appropriate content, but little learner choice  Reading: predominant strategy was learners

reading a piece of text (either silently or aloud) and the teacher asking questions about the content (usually about vocabulary rather than broader comprehension) or supplying additional information about the subject content.

 Little explicit teaching of alphabetics, comprehension or reading fluency

 Few could name their teaching methods/origins  Strong on support, weak on challenge (Daloz)

High

Low High

SUPPORT

• C

HA

LL

EN

GE

Retreat Stasis

Growth Confirmation

Low

The role of research in what we do

Scenario 1  Me: Doctor, I have this problem with my tongue and cheek that

has been steadily getting worse since last week. Google says that it’s dyspepsia

 Doctor: Hmm, I’m not sure that Dr. Google has got it right, but from what you say, I think you should take five of these pills twice a day. I’ve heard that they are quite good for this sort of condition

 Me: Don’t you want to examine me? Who told you that they work?

 Doctor: No, I think that you are the best judge of what’s going on. A couple of my colleagues told me that they seem to work quite well. Now, what colour pills would you like? Green is quite popular

Scenario 2  Engineer 1: So what do you think of my latest bridge design?  Engineer 2: It’s certainly a looker although you think it will

hold up in rough weather?  Engineer 1: I think so. I made a balsa wood model in my bath and it seemed to work OK. I think I should be a contender for a major award with this one. I’ve had great feedback on the plans

Scenario 3

 Teacher 1: Hey, I think that we should use that new grant to give all our students iPads so that they can become independent learners

 Teacher 2: Sounds great. Do you think it will work?

 Teacher 1: I think so. The students love anything technological and it’s the way the world’s going. They play with their phones all the time and they tell me that prefer it to being in a classroom

How can we become a research-informed profession?

RIT – possible paths 1.  Using our own research to review and reform our

practice in order to identify discrepancies between agreed criteria and what we actually do – e.g. videoing and use of assessment results

2.  Using others’ (high quality) research to inform our practice – my primary focus today

3.  Combo of 1 and 2

The gulf between research and practice   “Education has long struggled with the gap between the

methods that are best supported by systematic research and those that are most widely used” (Spencer, Detrich, & Slocum, 2012, p. 127).

 Researchers argue that practitioners aren’t aware of research findings or don’t understand them

 Practitioners retort that researchers don’t understand their everyday realities or that their findings are not readily available and when they are, are cloaked in mystique and obtuseness

Teaching Research

Teaching Research

Research Teaching

Clarifying terminology 1.  Research-led: curriculum content is based on the research

interests of teachers

2.  Research-oriented: the process of learning content is seen as important as the content itself and hence, an emphasis on learning inquiry skills

3.  Research-based: curriculum is based on inquiry-based activities rather than acquisition of content

4.  Research-informed teaching: draws on systematic inquiry into the teaching and learning process itself Krokfors et al. (2011, p. 2) . Also known as evidence-based teaching

 Be careful to distinguish between ‘opinion pieces’, philosophical writing and original research

 Always look for sampling and details of methodology

Malcolm Knowles – the andragogical saint of teaching adults  Pioneered adult teaching principles in the 1960s and 1970s  Many adult teachers were inspired by him and endeavoured

to follow his principles  But is andragogy more effective than pedagogy?

 Rachal’s study Andragogical and pedagogical methods compared: a review of the experimental literature

 Found only 18 comparative studies  Most found no difference between the two groups; 2

‘traditional’ groups performed better   “the trend of the available empirical literature runs counter to

many of the anecdotal claims for andragogy superiority over pedagogical methods.”

Sacred cow research

 Dyslexia  Rice, M. & G. Brooks (2004). Developmental dyslexia in adults: a

research review. London, NRDC

 Learning styles  Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E., & Ecclestone, K. (2004).

Learning styles and pedagogy in post 16 learning. A systematic and critical review. London Learning and Skills Research Centre

 Coffield, F., Moseley, D., Hall, E., & Ecclestone, K. (2004). Should we be using learning styles? What research has to say to practice. London: Learning and Skills Research Centre

How do we identify effective teaching practices?

 Ask learners

 Ask expert teachers

 Practitioner wisdom

 Relevant, rigorous research – as in other professions such as health, engineering

John Hattie - Visible Learning  Based on the findings from:

  800 meta-analyses   50,000 individual studies   250 million+ kids

Schools and RIT

 RIT is integral to improving school performance

  ‘Systems that learn: creating an education evidence ecosystem’ Social Ventures Australia Quarterly, June 28, 2016

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sng4p3Vsu7Y  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lS_AackYwEo  Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning. A synthesis of over 800 meta-

analyses relating to achievement. London: Routledge  Hattie, J. (2012). Visible learning for teachers. Maximising impact on

learning. Abingdon, England: Routledge  Hattie, J., Masters, D., & Birch, K. (Eds.). (2016). Visible learning

into action. International case studies of impact. New York: Routledge

Caveats about RIT   Identifying causation is always problematic (e.g. smoking and cancer)

  Even within the apparent clinical, ‘laboratory-driven’ environment of medicine, considerable challenges about sampling, drug company sponsorship and the exclusion of non-conforming results (Goldacre, 2012).

  Ideally we look for strong, cumulative correlational evidence –   ‘stronger vs. weaker findings’   Kruidenier’s ‘principles’ (2+ experimental studies), ‘trends’ (< 2 experimental),

‘ideas’ (strong findings from K-12 research) & ‘comments’ (less conclusive from K-112)

  In many cases, there may be no research rather than positive or negative findings

 Many factors have an impact on learning – but some have much more than others (Hattie)

Important points  Generalisability of findings

  “Science progresses by convergence upon conclusions. The outcomes of one study can only be interpreted in the context of the present state of the convergence on the particular issue in question” Stanovich and Stanovich (2003, p. 18)

 The design quality, number of studies and the rigour of the process

 Qualitative research has an important role, esp. in exploring topics/issues and understanding why interventions do or don’t work

Hierarchy of research studies

•  Experimental: two identical groups of participants randomly assigned to treatment and control groups.

•  Quasi-experimental: employing treatment and comparison groups that are not randomly assigned but appear identical, though they may have unseen differences. Statistical controls allow researchers to compensate for the differences between the treatment and comparison groups.

•  Correlational with statistical controls: employs treatment and comparison groups that are not identical, but researchers use statistical controls to compensate for differences that may be important.

•  Correlational without statistical controls: employs treatment and comparison groups that are different, but researchers assume that the differences may not be important, since the sample is usually large.

•  Case studies: may employ only a treatment group and assumes that differences among participants are not important or are obvious, since the sample is usually small.

Prior to the OECD IALS studies

 Very few adult LN researchers  Very little research; highly variable quality  Research driven by individual researchers’ interests  Few formal LN qualifications that included research

 Studies like ‘No single measure’ and IALS had considerable impact:  On politicians and policy-makers  The broader public  The LN sector

Adult literacy and numeracy research  1990-2015 emergence of strong research bodies and

research studies :  NRDC in Britain  NCSALL in US  NALA in Ireland  Center for Literacy in Canada   VOX in Norway  Government-sponsored reviews

 Effective dissemination of research in ways that practitioners can use

Becoming an Research-informed teacher

 Learn how to read and critique research  Access the substantial body of relevant research

available – both LN-specific and generic studies  Ask national advisory bodies for help

 Assemble the research   ‘translate’ it into practice notes

 Make the most of meta-analyses:  You don’t have to do the research  You don’t have to find the research  Someone else has assembled and critiqued the findings

Learn to read research  Wolf & Evans (2009) findings on 567 learners in 53

workplaces:   they had little impact on workplace practices  no programmes continued after the research  poor retention of learners  showed a very small average gain in reading skills

between testing

But, reading the methodology…

  ‘…most were the result of the ‘provider’ contacting the employer and offering a free course, typically for 30 hours’ (i.e. a passive model of recruitment)

 Employers organised facilities but only a few also offered paid study time, usually through government grants

 Most of the courses were ‘pre-packaged’, not contextualised to the context or learners

 Were predominantly IT courses

 Other workplace programmes had much more effect – e.g. Measures of Success, Upskilling

Becoming RI-teachers  Is an ideal focus for PD programmes

 Can be done as an individual, a group of colleagues or as a whole organisation

 Can inform current teaching and programmes or new ones

 Can be done incrementally; you don’t have to have a perfect repertoire of strategies in order to become an RIT

Teaching as an art vs. a science

 Don’t dichotomise your position – Dead Poets Society vs B F Skinner?

 There are probably some aspects of teaching we will never fully understand – but there is much that we can

Remember what research is  It involves the systematic collection of evidence in order

to better understand topics or issues that we want to improve

 Don’t be intimidated by the white coat syndrome  You may never fully come to grips with all the research

on a topic  But using research as a basis for deciding how to teach

or develop programmes is inherently better than intuition, guesswork or hearsay

 Use research as your guide in decision-making

Some examples  Meta-analyses of findings:

 Reading   Brooks, G., et al. (2007). Effective teaching and learning: reading.

London, NRDC   McShane, S. (2005). Applying research in reading instruction for adults.

First steps for teachers. Washington DC: National Institute of Literacy, The Partnership for Reading

  Kruidenier, J. (2002). Research-based principles for adult basic education reading instruction. Portsmouth, NH, RMC Research Corporation

  Kruidenier, J., et al. (2010). Adult education literacy instruction: a review of the research. Washington DC, National Institute for Literacy

  Formative assessment   Wiliam, D. (2011). Embedded formative assessment. Bloomington IN:

Solution Tree Press   Looney, J. (2008). Teaching, learning and assessment for adults.

Improving foundation skills. Paris: CERI/OECD

Teaching writing  Very little research available

 Excellent resources:

 Nielsen, K. (2015). Teaching writing in adult literacy. Practices to foster motivation and persistence and improve learning outcomes. Adult Learning, XX, No. X, 1-8. [DOI: 10.1177/1045159515594178]

 Kelly, S., et al. (2004). Teaching and learning writing: a review of research and practice. London, NRDC.

  Benseman, J. (2016). Effective workplace literacy and numeracy programmes: a research-based reader. [DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.29062.78408 – also other reports & articles at researchgate.net ]

  Benseman, J. (2013). Recruiting and retaining learners in workplace literacy programs in New Zealand. Australian Journal of Adult Education. 53/1 : 7-25 [http://hdl.handle.net/10652/2613]

  Benseman, J., & Sutton, A. (2011). Understanding the needs of adult literacy, language and numeracy learners with very low skills: Insights from the research. Journal of Adult Learning in Aotearoa New Zealand, 39(1), 7-18 [http://hdl.handle.net/10652/2050]

  Benseman, J. (2010). Transferring literacy skills in the workplace. Reflect, 13 (Summer), 9-11 [http://hdl.handle.net/10652/2055]

 Ways to develop learners’ vocabulary include:

  Pre-teach words in the text being taught. Teaching the meaning of those words before the learners read the text improves comprehension of the material and builds vocabulary.

  Ensure multiple exposures to new words. To be sure learners encounter new words frequently, teach vocabulary they will use.

  Keep learners actively engaged. Be sure they use the new words they are learning.

  Teach word-learning strategies. Give learners tools for discovering the meanings of words they encounter during independent reading.   Introduce common prefixes and suffixes (e.g., un, post, ful, ly) and

demonstrate how they alter the meaning and function of base words.   Teach specific strategies for using context clues to derive the meaning of

unknown words (e.g., noticing a definition or explanation following the word and set off by commas).

  Teach learners how to use a dictionary.

  Benseman, J. (2012). Teaching research-based literacy skills in training courses. Training and Development, 39(5), 24-27 [http://hdl.handle.net/10652/2399]

Carlton Neighbourhood Learning Centre Resource Hub

Early in the 17th century, two astronomers competed to describe the nature of our solar system. Galileo built a telescope and found new planets and moons.

Francesco Sizi ridiculed Galileo’s findings. There must be only seven planets, Sizi said. After all, there are seven windows in the head—two nostrils, two ears, two eyes, and a mouth. There are seven known metals. There are seven days in a week, and they are already named after the seven known planets. If we increase the number of planets, he said, the whole system falls apart.

Finally, Sizi claimed, these so-called satellites being discovered by Galileo were invisible to the eye. He concluded they must have no influence on the Earth and, therefore, do not exist (National Institute for

Literacy, 2010, p. 2).

Sub-titles:

 Why do this, rather than that?

 On what basis do we decide to teach the way we do?

Practitioners’ views of research 1. Research is not useful. Researchers don’t

understand my teaching context, and the only way to improve my teaching is through my own experience with students.

2. Research can be useful, if it is presented in the form of specific and practical strategies, techniques, and approaches I can readily use in the classroom.

3. Research is useful, but I don’t need it to give me practical strategies. I want it to challenge my assumptions and help me build my theories about teaching. Zeuli (1991)