THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING By Dr Ian Ellis-Jones

BA, LLB (Syd), LLM, PhD (UTS), DD, Dip Relig Stud (LCIS), Adv Mgmt Cert (Syd Tech Col)

Lawyer ~ Educator ~ Trainer and Facilitator ~ Minister of Religion ~ Consultant

Solicitor of the Supreme Court of New South Wales and the High Court of Australia Lecturer and Legal Adviser, New South Wales Institute of Psychiatry

Former Senior Lecturer-in-Law, Faculty of Law, University of Technology, Sydney Founder, Minister and Convener, Sydney Unitarian Chalice Circle

Dr Ian Ellis-Jones is an experienced public speaker and high-level debater

who has spoken before audiences in their thousands. A public speaking coach

to lawyers and other professionals, Ian first studied elocution in Sydney

NSW with Lucille Bruntnell (late Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, London)

before going on to study voice production for speech and drama

with Sydney’s original and very eminent voice and radio coach Bryson Taylor.

Copyright © 2013 Ian Ellis-Jones All Rights Reserved

1

THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

Dedicated to the Memory and Spirit

of Norman Vincent Peale.

“Think of your speech as food for your audience. As a speaker you

must fill people up!”

– Dottie Waters,

President, Walters International Speakers Bureau.

Introduction

“In the beginning was the word …”.1

Words are so important. Words are things. Words create reality. Powerful stuff!

A good public speaker needs to be a good wordsmith. Without that, no one can be an

effective public speaker. In order to be a good wordsmith, you must love words,

love books, and love reading … and be a good and well-informed reader as well. You

also need to be able to speak well, have a certain “presence”,2 and say what the

audience wants to hear.

However, being a good wordsmith is not all that is required. That’s only the start.

Norman Vincent Peale3 was one of the greatest public speakers of all time. It has

been estimated that, in his thousands of addresses and talks throughout his

1 John 1:1.

2 Or “power” image, being “whatever makes you feel like a presenter who can move and motivate an

audience” (Walters 1993:106). 3 Dr Norman Vincent Peale (1898-1993) was a distinguished minister of religion and writer. His most

popular book, The Power of Positive Thinking, has sold more than 20 million copies in 41 languages and

is the greatest inspirational best-seller of all time. He visited Australia on 4 different occasions for

speaking engagements.

2

lifetime, he spoke to more than 30 million people. Dr Peale gave this most helpful

advice to those who engage in public speaking:

1. Be INTERESTING.

2. Be ENTHUSIASTIC.

3. DON’T TALK TOO MUCH.4

He gave other helpful advice to would-be public speakers, and much of that advice

is set out in this document.

Why is public speaking so important?

Public speaking is both an art and a skill, or rather a combination of skills.

Public speaking is important …

PERSONALLY … … … … … … because sooner or later each one of us will be

called upon to make a speech in public

… … … also, being an effective public speaker can be a

source of real and lasting joy and contentment.

PROFESSIONALLY … … … because, if you own or are working in a business,

by public speaking you hope to gain not lose

clients or customers.

4 See foreword by Dr Peale in Walters (1993:xxiv). Actor, singer and public speaking coach Dorothy

Sarnoff (born 1917) has written that effective public speakers have energy, enthusiasm, intensity,

conviction, animation, clarity, colour, expression, confidence, ease and humour.

3

Yes, business, professional, social and personal satisfaction and development depend

heavily upon your ability to communicate well, and that extends to speaking in

public.

However, public speaking does not appear to come naturally to most people. It is,

for the most part, an ACQUIRED SKILL. Most people seem to have an aversion to

public speaking. Indeed, it has been said that our 3 greatest fears are as follows:

1. DEATH.

2. BEING ASKED FOR MONEY.

3. SPEAKING IN PUBLIC.5

So, the more PRACTICE you get at speaking in public …

Analyze your audience

Before you speak … indeed, before you start preparing your speech … you must

ANALYZE YOUR AUDIENCE.

Who will be listening to you? An audience, especially one whose members come from

a distinct group, profession, etc, has a “corporate personality” of its own. That

personality could be intent, sophisticated, and aware of everything, or it could be

dull or apathetic. You need to tailor your speech, and its content, as well as your

delivery, to your particular audience.

5 At least this is the view of AdSchool AFA lecturer Tim Matthews: see S Robertson, “The Skill of Public

Speaking”, viewed 13 June 2007, <http://www.bandt.com.au/blog/blogposts.asp?postid=215>. According to

Project Management Source public speaking is rated as the number one fear by over 40 per cent of people in

the world: see “How to Improve Your Public Speaking: 27 Tips, Tricks, and Tutorials”, viewed 13 June 2007,

<http://www.projectmanagementsource.com/2007/03/how_to_improve_.html>.

4

To be persuasive you must have a keen understanding of HUMAN PSYCHOLOGY.

People want to be built up. Never begin a talk without feeling a strong sense of

affection and regard for your audience. Dr Peale wrote, “The human being

personality demands love and it also demands respect.”

The essence of good communication

Effective communication begins during the PREPARATION STAGE.

Your every communication, whether oral or written, consists of:

the CONTENT of the ideas communicated, and

the FEELING you covey with it.

You communicate your ideas and feelings through:

WORDS

VOCAL NOISE (pitch, tone, pace), and

BODY LANGUAGE (non-verbal).

Although we tend to focus most of our attention on the words, rather than on vocal

noise and body language, research suggests that the total impact of a

communication is as follows:

7 per cent WORDS

38 per cent VOCAL NOISE, and

55 per cent NON-VERBAL … including your body language, the way you

dress, the time allowed for your communication, the seating arrangements,

the physical environment, etc.

5

When you speak, you ENCODE your ideas and feelings you want to communicate into

words, vocal noises and body language that mean, at least according you genetic

makeup, learning, personality style and life experience, what you want, and hope, to

communicate. You send your “message” to your listeners who then, irrespective of

whether or not they are listening and otherwise paying attention to what you’re

saying, must DECODE the “message” they receive according to their respective

genetic makeup, learning, personality styles and life experiences.

So, your APPEARANCE is so very important. That means you must:

look as personable as possible

be neat and tidy

not slouch

avoid stiffness.

The really important thing is …

DON’T TRY TO IMITATE OTHERS. BE YOURSELF, NOT SOMEONE ELSE.

Yes, be yourself, and make use of all of your positive personality traits. It is only by

being yourself that you will ever be … ORIGINAL.

Learn from others, but don’t copy them. They are not you.

Attention lasts no more than 10 minutes

According to some studies, the average person has a MAXIMUM ATTENTION

SPAN of 10 minutes. However, a Swedish study found it was only 7 minutes … at the

6

maximum! More recent studies have concluded that average attention span is now

down to 1.5 minutes among younger people (ie Generation X’ers and Y’ers)!

This 10, or 7, or 1.5 minute “limit” need not limit the length of your speech but you

must keep it in mind and ensure that you carefully change your pace, mode of

delivery, expression and your subject-matter throughout your speech.

You must also bear in mind that PEOPLE TEND TO HEAR WHAT THEY EXPECT TO

HEAR, which may well be something altogether different from what you said or

intended. Prejudices, predilections, beliefs, expectations and past experience on

the part of the listener will have an impact on what they hear. Some of this

“distortion” is beyond your control, but you must telegraph your main points in an

effective manner and otherwise hold your audience.

Your listeners will LISTEN IN SPURTS. They concentrate for a minute or so, then

let up, and then concentrate again for a minute or so. Yes, most listeners only pay

attention to what is said for about a minute at a time. Part of the problem is that

we think at about 600 words per minute, but, on average, we talk at about 140

words per minute. Once you start to speak, by the time you’ve said a few words your

listeners’ minds have already raced ahead of you to something else.

The end result of all of the above is this … YOUR LISTENERS WILL REMEMBER

VERY LITTLE OF WHAT THEY HAVE HEARD.

Tell 'em, tell 'em again, and tell 'em what you've told them

This is the good advice often given to persons training to be ministers of religion …

or salespersons of any kind!

7

First, tell ’em

Yes, every speech must have

a BEGINNING,

a MIDDLE, and

an END.

Having said that, from a STRUCTURAL point of view, your speech should have 2

distinct parts:

an INTRODUCTION (the “beginning”), and

the MAIN BODY of the speech (which will encompass and embrace both

the “middle” and the “end”).

First, your speech must have an INTRODUCTION. In many ways, it’s the most

important part of your entire speech. Indeed, you MUST grab the attention of your

audience in the FIRST MINUTE.

After, maybe, one or 2 icebreakers (eg a question or an anecdote, humorous or

otherwise), start confidently, even boldly, in your INTRODUCTION by telling your

listeners:

WHAT your subject is,

WHAT you are going to cover, and

WHY it is important to THEM.

This enables you to state your “thesis” (main idea) upfront, in order to carefully

steer your audience in the direction that you want to take them. Use your

introduction to make some personal reference to the subject-matter of your talk,

8

the audience, and the purpose of the meeting. America’s greatest philosopher and

psychologist Professor William James (1842-1910) gave this advice to teachers …

ONE CAN ONLY MAKE ONE POINT IN A LECTURE …

… and the lecture he referred to lasted one hour!

In short, use your introduction to develop INTEREST and ATTENTION FACTORS.

However, keep your introduction brief. Get quickly to the point. Present the

“problem”, “challenge” or whatever quickly. The MAIN BODY of your speech is

where you address and answer the problem, meet the challenge, and so forth.

At all times, TALK to your audience, not at them. Smile at them. Make them feel

that you are genuinely interested in them.

Then, tell 'em again … and tell 'em what you've told them

If you intend speaking on a distinct theme and discrete topic area, then the MAIN

BODY of your speech should contain no more than 3 main sub-heads or main points,

all of which:

are illustrations, expositions or “proofs” of your theme or topic area,6

support your thesis or main idea, and

take the form of advice, opinion or recommendation, or guides or

methods for solving the “problem” or facing the “challenge”, or whatever.

If you can cover your material with only 2 sub-heads or main points, that is even

better.

6 Dr Peale (in White and Henderlider 1954) says that “the true example is the finest method I know to

make an idea clear, interesting, and persuasive. Usually, I use several examples to support each major

point.” These stories, whether about you or others, are sometimes known as “signature stories”. They

add both authenticity and interest to your speech.

9

So, never give a 15-30 minute speech as such, but rather a series of 2 or 3 short

stories that make a single point.

There need not be a formal CONCLUSION as such at the end of your speech.

Instead, at the end of each sub-head or main point, in order to assist recall:

SUMMARISE what you’ve said,

REPEAT the main point, and

STRESS key points, listing them progressively, even repetitively.

Your summary at the end of each sub-head or main point should be more-or-less the

same for every other sub-head or main point. Thus, the summary and conclusion for

the last sub-head can serve as a conclusion for the entire speech. This is especially

helpful if you find yourself running out of time. You can then discard your final sub-

head or point and simply rely upon your most recent summary as the CLOSE of the

entire speech.

If, however, your speech covers a number of different themes or topic areas, then

you may need a formal CONCLUSION to bring everything together and summarise

your entire speech.

In any event, concluding remarks, as such, should be short and to the point … but

end your speech on a STRONG note (eg by asking a question or telling a humorous

anecdote).

SUMMARISE as you go along. SUMMARISE, SUMMARISE, and SUMMARISE.

So, never forget …

TELL 'EM, TELL 'EM AGAIN, AND TELL 'EM WHAT YOU'VE TOLD THEM!

But you must know when to stop speaking. Dorothy Sarnoff has written:

10

Make sure you have finished speaking before your audience has finished listening.

Let’s take a look at how all this might work in practice.

EXAMPLE7

You are asked to give an address on whether the present legal definition of

religion in Australia (as enunciated by the High Court of Australia in the

Scientology case)8 is appropriate.

You happen to believe that the present definition is inappropriate. Thus, you

decide to structure your talk as follows:

I. INTRODUCTION

You will start by saying that the definition of what constitutes a

religion is of enormous legal importance having regard to such

matters as rating and taxing exemptions, the law of trusts (in

particular, the law relating to charitable trusts for the advancement

of religion), separation of church and state, clergy and communicant

privilege, and so forth.

You will then go on to explain what the High Court actually said about

the matter in the Scientology case, namely, that according to 2 of

the 5 justices belief in a supernatural Being, Thing or Principle is

essential for a religion. Two other justices considered that belief in

a supernatural Being, Thing or Principle was one of the more

important indicia of a religion and, if it were absent, it was unlikely

that one has a religion.

II. BODY OF SPEECH

You will make the following 3 main points. (NOTE. These 3 points are

really illustrations or “proofs” of your main idea or thesis.9)

7 This example is based on the thesis hypothesis of Beyond the Scientology Case: Towards a Better Definition of What Constitutes a Religion for Legal Purposes in Australia Having Regard to Salient Judicial Authorities from the United States of America as well as Important Non-Judicial Authorities, a thesis submitted by Ian Ellis-Jones in fulfilment of the requirements of the

postgraduate degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Law (C02028), Faculty of Law, University of

Technology, Sydney. Year of Submission of Thesis on Completion of Examination: 2007. Year of

Submission of Thesis for Examination: 2006. Copyright © Ian Ellis-Jones 2007. All Rights Reserved. 8 Church of the New Faith v Commissioner of Pay-roll Tax (Vic) (1983) 154 CLR 120. 9 Or, in the case of a thesis, your thesis hypothesis consequent upon its investigation and testing.

11

1. The present definition of religion is inappropriate in that it

does not readily accommodate a number of important belief

systems that are generally regarded as being religious belief

systems, even though they do not involve any notion of the

supernatural in the sense in which that word is ordinarily

understood. Examples of such belief systems include

Confucianism, many forms of Buddhism and modern day Judaism

and Christianity, and Christian Science.

Conclusion: The definition is inadequate.

2. The present definition of religion is inappropriate in that the

High Court has provided little or no meaningful guidance as to

how one determines whether a particular belief system involves a

“supernatural” view of reality. In that regard, the High Court saw

the “supernatural” as the “belief that reality extends beyond

that which is capable of perception by the senses”. However,

that is not supernaturalism but parapsychology which is the

scientific study of supernormal phenomena by experimental or

other systematic means.

Conclusion: The definition is inadequate.

3. The present definition of religion is inappropriate in that it is

philosophically impossible to postulate a meaningful distinction

between the “natural” and the supposedly “supernatural” in a way

that would enable the courts and other decision makers to

meaningfully apply the test enunciated by the High Court in the

Scientology case. Why? Because it is not possible to validate

supernaturalism either empirically or philosophically. There is an

inherent meaninglessness in calling things “supernatural” as it is

impossible to conceive of there being, let alone describe, any

existence, or other order or level of reality, other than "natural"

existence.

Conclusion: The definition is inadequate.

NOTE. The summary and conclusion for the third sub-head can serve as a conclusion

for the entire speech. However, if you wish there can be a formal conclusion as such

at the end of your speech.

12

Speech delivery

What makes an effective public speaker?

Basically, it’s a combination of genetic predisposition and makeup, conditioning,

personality style … and good ELOCUTION particularly in the second sense

described below:

Main Entry: el·o·cu·tion

Pronunciation: "e-l&-'kyü-sh&n

Function: noun

Etymology: Middle English elocucioun, from Latin elocution-, elocutio, from eloqui 1 : a style of speaking especially in public

2 : the art of effective public speaking

- el·o·cu·tion·ary /-sh&-"ner-E/ adjective

- el·o·cu·tion·ist /-sh(&-)nist/ noun10

An emphasis on some basic elocution does not mean the abandonment of Australian

English which, at its best, is an altogether acceptable form of good English speech.

The true foundation of good speech is proper DIAPHRAGMATIC BREATHING11 as

opposed to chest breathing, which most people engage in.12

DIAPHRAGMATIC BREATHING involves expanding the lungs downwards as well, so

the diaphragm needs to move downwards.

10 Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, viewed 7 June 2007, <http://www.m-w.com/cgi-

bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&va=elocution>. An emphasis on some basic elocution does not mean the

abandonment of Australian English which, at its best, is an altogether acceptable form of good English

speech. 11 In addition to diaphragm breathing, correct posture is very important to voice projection. Hold your

body upright when you speak. If your body sags, your voice sags. 12 There is also what is known as “abdominal breathing”.

13

EXERCISE

DIAPHRAGMATIC BREATHING

The floor of the chest cavity which contains the lungs is made up of the

diaphragm, which is a great dome of flattish muscle at the bottom of the

chest between the lungs and the stomach.

The diaphragm has the capacity to move upwards and downwards changing

the volume of the chest cavity and of its passive occupants, the lungs.

All good stuff, but it is a very sad fact that most people hardly use their

diaphragm when breathing.

Now, the diaphragm is a muscle you can't see, so you have to concentrate on

the muscles in front. One way of doing that is as follows.

If somebody is about to hit you in the abdomen, what do you ordinarily do?

You tense your abdominal muscles. Do so now. Slightly tense your abdominal

muscles and, at the same time, push your abdomen outwards as you breathe in. The diaphragm descends (lowers) and the ribs move upwards and

outwards, making the chest cavity longer and larger.

The diaphragm and intercostal muscles (the muscles between the ribs)

should be used to take the in-breath to the middle and lower parts of the

lungs.

The diaphragm is also the principal muscle used for breathing out; the

diaphragm rises as you exhale, making the chest cavity shorter again.

Use your abdominal muscles in this way to control your breathing. Diaphragm

breathing gives the voice depth and also conveys a sense of assurance and

authority which is extremely important for a public speaker.

In addition to:

Having a WELL-ORGANIZED and TIGHTLY STRUCTURED SPEECH, and

being one’s own PERSONALITY,

an effective public speaker has the following SPEAKING SKILLS which collectively

produce a high STANDARD OF SPEECH:

14

a PLEASING, HIGH QUALITY VOICE with GOOD ARTICULATION, as

follows:

o solid PROJECTION in the form of:

good, strong VOCAL PRODUCTION, and

VOLUME,

o good TONE placement, with:

appropriate controlled PITCH (good MODULATION and

INFLECTION),

good RESONANCE, and

expressive INTONATION,

o VARIANCE IN VOCAL ELEMENTS (pitch, volume and speed) when

necessary for effect, to avoid monotony and to otherwise generate

and maintain audience interest in the subject-matter of your

speech,13

o CLARITY in the forms of proper PRONUNCIATION,

ARTICULATION and DICTION, avoiding carelessness in the form of

such things as gross assimilation and gross elision,

o good RHYTHM, PACE and mode of delivery, with appropriate use of

PAUSES, and

o FLUENCY in the form of fluid dialogue14 with appropriate speed and

intensity, and

a direct but not confronting MANNER OF SPEECH, with:

o an appropriate use of formal and informal speech (but avoiding slang)

13 Change your pitch, volume, and speed at least once every 30 seconds or so, if only for just one

word. 14 Avoiding “ums” and “uhs”.

15

o good use, but not overuse, of rhetorical questions15 and declarative

sentences,

o varied VOCABULARY,

o good GESTICULATION and good POSTURE/BODY MOVEMENT (as

regards the latter, your neck must be well-positioned to optimize

your voice box – see the drawing on the next page),

o effective EYE CONTACT with the audience, and

o an appropriate use of HUMOUR (but avoiding sarcasm and bad

language unless it be a bucks party or something similar).16

THE MAIN ORGANS OF SPEECH

15 Good public speakers like Norman Vincent Peale and Fulton Sheen never left any of their own

rhetorical questions unanswered. 16 The best, and most innocuous, way of using humour wisely is to play yourself down. Most of the jokes

should be at your own expense. In addition, don’t be sarcastic. Witty, yes; sarcastic, no. Also, don’t

forget to smile a lot throughout your speech.

16

Before speaking:

WARM UP your voice.

BREATHE DEEPLY. Deep breathing, of the kind described earlier, is not

only good for the voice, it also helps to relax your whole body as well as

your mind.

STRETCH AND GENTLY MASSAGE your shoulders, chest, neck, jaw and

face.

When using a LECTERN:

DON’T lean on the lectern, and

DON’T just stand behind the lectern, but move around (but not like a

caged lion).

Ensure CORRECT POSTURE in the

standing position (see drawing

opposite). As mentioned above, the

NECK must be well-positioned to

optimize the VOICE BOX.

Develop APPROPRIATE GESTURES of

the hands, arms, body and face. Good

speakers are animated.

17

As regards effective EYE CONTACT with your audience, you must speak to and look

directly at your audience, but don’t “eye surf”. Although the eyes should be in

action almost constantly, don’t “picture” your audience, that is, don’t let your eyes

dart quickly across the room. Focus on one person in the audience at a time, then

another, as if having a one-on-one conversation with each person in the audience.

Avoid window gazing, floor gazing, etc. Effective public speakers play off their

audience with both gestures and eye contact.

Don’t worry about FEELING NERVOUS. That’s a good feeling; it’s the effect of

adrenalin. Use that rush of adrenalin to your best advantage. Transform it into

enthusiasm and passion for your subject-matter and your audience.

If you want to improve your speech start by observing others … and yourself.

SHOULD YOU SPEAK EXTEMPORANEOUSLY? Ideally, yes. However, that will not

always be possible for a variety of reasons including but not limited to the

complexity of the subject-matter, the time available to prepare for the speech, and

so forth. Even extemporaneous public speaking requires careful advance preparation

and, in that regard, Dr Peale’s advice is that you should still “carefully prepare a

pattern or sequence of ideas but leave the exact expression of those ideas to the

inspiration of the moment” (Broadhurst 1964:45).17

Using visual aids

Visual aids should be SIMPLE and NON-OBTRUSIVE … but large enough to be seen!

Avoid visual information overload and overkill. Recent research from UNSW

17 World’s Work edn, 1964.

18

indicates that it is more difficult to process information when it is coming at us in

both the written and spoken forms at the same time (cf PowerPoint presentations).

The UNSW research “shows the human brain processes and retains more

information if it is digested in either its verbal or written form, but not both at the

same time” (Patty 2007).

Some of the most effective public speakers of all time have used either no visual

aids at all or only the most simple types. For example, the popular American bishop

and TV personality Fulton Sheen, in his Life is Worth Living program, made very

effective use of a simple chalkboard. So, DON’T BE TRENDY AND FADDISH just

for the sake of it. The weight of evidence is now very much the other way.

Don’t be too hard on yourself

Good public speaking takes PRACTICE … lots of it. Learn from mistakes and, most

importantly, don’t take yourself too seriously. Indeed, you will be a better public

speaker if you don’t.

Dale Carnegie, an expert on public speaking, once wrote:

There are always three speeches, for every one you actually gave:

The one you practiced … the one you gave … the one you wish you gave!

19

GLOSSARY

Abdominal breathing, also known as lower-chest breathing, is when the front

abdominal wall is thrust outwards during inspiration, which occurs when the

intercostal muscles (the muscles between the ribs) are not used sufficiently. See

also chest breathing and diaphragmatic breathing.

Articulation refers to both the total process of the production of speech sounds as

well as enunciation (qv). More specifically, articulation refers to the degree of clearness with which the sounds are produced, and involves the proper

understanding and use of the moveable organs of speech which form our consonants

and vowels. Articulation is said to be “good” when sounds are uttered distinctly.

Chest breathing, also known as clavicular breathing, which most people engage in,

involves expanding the rib cage outwards so the lungs are also forced to expand

outwards. See also abdominal breathing and diaphragmatic breathing.

Diaphragmatic breathing involves expanding the lungs downwards as well, so the

diaphragm needs to move downwards. See also abdominal breathing and chest breathing.

Diction refers not just to your distinctive vocabulary but also to good enunciation (qv), meaning that speech sounds are distinct and clear. The consonants are more

important than the vowels in clarity of speech.

Enthusiasm, in relation to public speaking, means that you, the speaker, must have

and display great excitement for and interest in your subject-matter together with

a strong passion to communicate that enthusiasm to your audience. The origin of

the English word “enthusiasm” can be traced to the Greek en theos (“in the god”,

“of the god”, “a god within” or, more accurately, “to be possessed by the god”). All

good public speaking comes from enthusiasm or, if you wish, divine inspiration.

Enunciation refers to the act of combining speech sounds into words as well as and

the degree of clearness of utterance.

Gesticulation refers to appropriate gestures of the hands, arms, body and face.

Gross assimilation occurs when different sounds are run together.

Gross elision occurs when sounds are dropped.

20

Inflection refers to the sliding of the voice from one pitch to another, being a

change of pitch within a key, whereas modulation (qv) refers to a change in the

voice from one key to another.

Intonation means clear and varied inflection (qv) and modulation (qv) in the voice,

with consequent changes in pitch or tone or voice.

Modulation is the process of changing the voice from one range of pitch (“key”) to

another, effected by the tightening and slackening of the vocal cords. See also

inflection.

Nasality refers to a quality of the voice that is produced by the nasal resonators

(the small bones and cavities directly above, behind and beside the nose). Excessive

nasality most frequently occurs as a result of a lazy soft palate, tense jaw and

tongue, and a mouth that is not open wide enough. Ensure that your teeth are

parted a little when you talk.

Pace, or speed, is the rate at which words are spoken. The normal English speaking

rate of most people is 150 to 170 words per minute, with overall speaking rate

ranges being between approximately 130 to 200 words per minute. A rate of 140

words per minute is ordinarily too slow for normal speaking but is generally OK for

most types of formal public speaking. All things considered, a rate of 140-160

words per minute is a good pace for a persuasive speech.

Pause, also known as caesura, means an audible pause, break or interruption in

speaking. American comedian Jack Benny said, “It’s not so much knowing when to

speak, as when to pause.” Pause before and after each important point, but don’t

overdo it. A couple of seconds of silence can be very effective, but no more.

Pitch refers to the highs and lows of a speaker’s voice. The speaker’s total range of

pitch consists of the highest and lowest pitches which the speaker can utter

comfortably together with all the pitches in between. Most people these days

prefer to hear “low” tones as opposed to squeaky, high-pitched voices, but avoid a

boring, monotone voice. A controlled, well-pitched voice is a distinct advantage.

Pronunciation refers to the choice of sounds and the manner of accentuation of

those sounds when words are produced. A good speaker avoids mispronunciations.

Resonance refers to a sound quality or timbre enriched by overtones (harmonics)

without over-nasality which enables us to recognize and distinguish individual voices.

The proper use of your resonance cavities ensures that sounds produced by the

vocal cords are amplified and reinforced.

21

Speaking rate. See pace.

Speech is simply voice modified by changes in the pharynx (being the part of the

throat that begins from behind the nose to the beginning of the voice box and the

oesophagus), mouth and nose.

Speed. See pace.

Tone refers to the quality or character (“timbre”) of the sound of a particular

person’s voice. The expression can also refer to the particular or relative pitch (qv)

of a word, phrase or sentence. The “secret” of good speech is quality of tone. The

original sound made by the vocal cords is thin and requires resonance for beauty

and fullness.

Voice refers to the sound produced by the vocal organs, specifically through the

expiration of air through vibrating vocal cords. The expression also refers to the

ability to produce such sounds. The mechanism of voice involves the following

structures: the lungs, the larynx, and the resonance cavities (especially the larynx,

pharynx, nose and mouth).

Voice quality refers to the net calibre of the voice in terms of its character and

attributes. Although not the same thing as speech, voice quality nevertheless

modifies speech considerably.

Volume is the “intensity” or “fullness” of vocal tone (that is, the relative loudness or

softness with which the words are spoken). For speech to be good and intelligible

frequencies of 500 to 4,000 are necessary, and it must be of adequate intensity.

Project your voice out over the entire audience.

22

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, S J 1947. Australian Pronunciation: A Guide to Good Speech. Sydney: Angus

and Robertson.

Baker, S J 1966. The Australian Language, 2nd ed. Sydney: Currawong Publishing.

Belson, D 1955. What to Say and How to Say It For All Occasions. Secaucus NJ:

The Citadel Press.

Bennett R 1941. Practical Speech Training for Schools. London: University of

London Press.

Blair, D and Collins, P (eds) 2001. English in Australia. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Broadhurst, A R 1963. He Speaks the Word of God: A Study of the Sermons of

Norman Vincent Peale. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Carnegie, D 1962. The Quick and Easy Way to Effective Speaking: A Revision by

Dorothy Carnegie of Public Speaking and Influencing Men in Business by Dale

Carnegie. New York: Association Press.

Fullilove, M (ed) 2005. “Men and Women of Australia!”: Our Greatest Speeches.

Sydney NSW: Vintage Books (Random House Australia).

Krummel, D 1951. The Art of Speech, 3rd ed. Kemp Place, Valley, Qld: W R Smith &

Paterson.

Le Clair, M and Fortune, P 1986. A Lazy Man’s Guide to Public Speaking. Strawberry

Hills NSW: Peter Fortune.

Leitner, G 2004. Australia's Many Voices: Australian English - The National

Language. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

Mitchell, A G 1946. The Pronunciation of English in Australia. Sydney: Angus and

Robertson.

23

Patty, A 2007. “Research points the finger at PowerPoint”, The Sydney Morning

Herald, 4 April 2007, [Online edition] viewed 7 June 2007,

<http://www.smh.com.au/news/technology/powerpoint-presentations-a-

disaster/2007/04/03/1175366240499.html>.

Peale, N V 1952. The Power of Positive Thinking. New York: Prentice-Hall.

Prochnow, H (V) 1955. Speaker’s Handbook of Epigrams and Witticisms. New York:

Harper & Row.

Prochnow, H 1991. It Gives Me Great Pleasure: The Complete After-Dinner

Speaker’s Handbook. London: Piatkus.

Robertson, R. “The Skill of Public Speaking”, viewed 13 June 2007,

<http://www.bandt.com.au/blog/blogposts.asp?postid=215>.

Rozakis, L 1999. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Public Speaking, 2nd ed. Indianapolis:

Alpha Books.

Sarnoff, D 1970. Speech Can Change Your Life: Tips on Speech, Conversation, and

Speechmaking. New York: Doubleday.

Sarnoff, D 1989. Never Be Nervous Again: Time-Tested Techniques for the

Foolproof Control of Nervousness in Communicating Situations. New York:

Ballantine Publishing Group.

Speeches that Changed the World: The Stories and Transcripts of the Moments

that Made History 2005. Intro by S S Montefiore. Sydney NSW: Murdock

Books (Pier 9).

Walters, L 1993. Secrets of Successful Speakers: How You Can Motivate,

Captivate , and Persuade. New York: McGraw-Hill.

White, E and Henderlider, C 1954. “What Norman Vincent Peale Told us About His

Speaking”, The Quarterly Journal of Speech, XL (December).