the drumbeats of war
DESCRIPTION
A research paper on the music of the Mexican-American War, 1846-1848.TRANSCRIPT
The Drumbeats of War:Music of the Mexican-American War, 1846-1848
Intro To Historical Research 3300
Section 2 Harrison King
Professor Saxon November 11, 2012
This paper will examine U.S. music during the Mexican-American War during the years
1846-1848. It will describe the function that music played during the war, both culturally on the
home front, and the martial function on the battlefields. I will be looking at its composers and
publishers as well, and deciphering the messages in the music they were publishing. Art, and
especially music, offer excellent windows into the souls and sub-consciousness of any culture,
but this is particularly true of 19th-century America.1 The ballads and piano battle “fantasies”
were steeped in Romanticism, and were specifically designed to evoke strong emotions, whether
pride in country, sadness for the lost ones, or the terror of the battlefield.2 America by this point
had developed a sense of nationality for the most part unrivaled in the world, and the music
definitely reflected that idealism.3 Robert Johannsen expresses this well in his book, To the Halls
of the Montezumas: The Mexican War in the American Imagination, “Patriotism was instilled
through the keyboard, and great national events were celebrated musically.”4 Songs of the war
immortalized war heroes and glorified martial actions. Even the religious, poorer socio-economic
classes, who typically demonized music as “of the devil,” approved of martial and patriotic
songs.5 Now, while the music did portray positive messages of American nationalism and
idealism, there was a darker side to these Romantic ideals. The music and lyrics also reflected
and promoted negative ideals of imperialism and Anglo-Saxon racial superiority. The purpose of
this paper will be to look past the immediate Romanticism of the intense patriotism of the music,
and dig deep to discover those negative ideals, while at the same time attempting to understand
some of these thought patterns in context of cultural psyche.
As I have stated above, cultural context is crucial when looking at an era’s art forms. The
overwhelming patriotism and warlike attitudes that were prevalent in both the music and other
forms of entertainment stemmed from many sources. The Mexican War was an extremely
1
personal war for the American populace, being a war that touched many if not most Americans
with its propinquity both geographically and with the war’s heavy use of volunteers from many
of the states.6 It was a minority of American citizens who did not have either family or close
friends involved in the conflict.7 It was the first U.S. conflict “…to rest on a truly popular base,
the first that grasped the interest of the population, and the first people were exposed to on an
almost daily basis.”8
This war was important in cementing the self-identity of the U.S. The country was still
relatively young, and there was conflict between the new ideas and advances in commerce and
society, and the old ideals of patriotism and nationalism that the country was founded on, which
seemed to be waning.9 The war infused new life and purpose into American chauvinism,
reaffirmed American republicanism, and provided an arena for new American heroes to gallop
onto the scene.10 It was during this contest that American symbols, such as the flag design we
know today and the eagle, were not only reminders of the past, but solidified as true national
symbols and “lent impetus to the patriotism of…the soldiers….”11 This was the first American
war that the soldiers fought underneath the “Stars and Stripes”, and marched to battle to the tune
of the Star-Spangled Banner.12
Foremost among these symbols though, was the song Yankee Doodle. For the American
soldiers, it was far and away the most loved melody.13 Its tune was reproduced and refitted to
many different songs and forms; marches, songsters, and published sheet music all held
renditions of this air. A couple of reasons for its popularity could include the youthful, carefree
attitude of the music or it could be that it was another link to the Revolutionary War, which
seemed to be a reoccurring theme in the popular culture of the time.14 An interesting note, late in
the war when some American soldiers were attending a theater in Mexico City, a call was made
2
for Yankee Doodle, and the Mexican musicians obliged, and one Mexican audience member after
hearing the song remarked, “It is no longer a source of surprise to me that we have been so easily
conquered.”15 The American soldiers held strong emotional ties to their national symbols,
showing the wave of patriotism and nostalgia for the American Revolution’s ideals that had
swept the country in a flood torrent.
These ties to the Revolution and its heroes were important for the culture from the
perspective that the public and the soldiers believed that the military success in the Mexican War
would accomplish forging a link to the founders and fulfill their ideals for the nation.16 So strong
was this concept planted in the soldiers’ psyche, that at the battle of Buena Vista, General
Zachary Taylor used George Washington’s birthday to inspire his heavily outnumbered troops to
a valorous victory over a Mexican force over five times greater than themselves.17 One can find
an excellent example of this spirit in the Rough and Ready Songster. Songsters were small books
filled with war songs that soldiers carried with them. The Rough and Ready Songster itself
included 142 patriotic and martial songs.18 In this songster, one of the songs, The American’s
Battle Prayer, invoked:
Oh, Washington, our sainted sire,Pour in our souls thy patriot fire,Against the foul conspiring foe,Arouse each patriot heart below19
The volunteers regarded themselves to be virtual reincarnations of the volunteers who
had first stepped up to fight for the country in 1776. In fact, in the music of the war,
“identification of the ‘boys of ‘46’ with the ‘boys of ‘76’ was forcefully drawn.”20 They wanted
to prove to themselves and the world that they could step up to the expectations from back home
and around the world and carry the flag of democracy to foreign lands.21
3
Another very important concept to keep in mind when considering the context of the
music was the idea of “Manifest Destiny.” The Mexican War was powered in its core by this
idea. One could make the argument that the reason that this is somewhat of a “forgotten war” in
American history is because of the aggressive expansionism that was exhibited by the U.S.22 The
patriotism of the Americans was linked hand in hand with Providentially blessed expansion. The
expression “Manifest Destiny” was both a legitimate, if not Romantic ideal, while it also was
merely a justification for territorial expansion.23 Manifest Destiny was the belief that God had
ordained that Americans were entitled to all of North America, and it “provoked the first
widespread embrace of the Anglo-Saxon race as prototypical of the U.S. national identity.”24 In
the very first sermon preached in Mexico to the American troops, the preacher pronounced that
“God intended the Anglo-Saxon race not only to take possession of all North America but also
‘influence and modify’ the character of the entire world.”25 Referring again to the Rough and
Ready Songster, a great example of this expansionist attitude can be found in the song, Empire in
the West.
There came a voice! it spake of wealth, and of the cheering rays,Of science, and religion pure, which soon will brighter blaze:That voice!-it was the mingled tone of free-
men, nobly blest:The founders of that mighty power-the empire of the west.26
This promotion of Anglo-Saxon imperialism led to a degraded view of the Mexicans. One
“humorist” Thomas B. Thorpe proclaimed Mexican soldiers as a mutt of all races “where the evil
qualities of each…[are] alone retained.”27 Even a Cincinnati phrenologist affirmed after
examining skulls of Mexican soldiers a “very coarse organization, rather animal than
4
intellectual.”28 Evidence of these mentalities can be found by examining the cover lithographs of
some of the popular pieces of sheet music at the time, such as Santa Anna’s Retreat from Cerro
Gordo, with a lampooning of the Mexican general running from battle losing his hat and wooden
leg in his scamper to safety. Interestingly enough though, the Americans held great respect for
the Mexican women, and the song The Maid of Monterey became one of the most famous songs
of that time period.29 This beautiful song told the tale of a Mexican maid who after the battle of
Monterey came to help the wounded and comfort the dying on the American side. Its last verse is
very touching.
For, tho’ she loved her nation, and prayed that it might live,yet for the dying foemen she had a tear to give.Then here’s to that bright beauty who drove death’s pang away,the meek-eyed Senorita, the maid of Monterey.30
These cultural notes help set the background for the production of the music, but there are
several other key aspects to consider when looking at the music.
To appraise sheet music of a time period can offer a window into the inner life of an
American family much differently than perhaps a newspaper article or a general’s journal. Music
and song are the life-blood of a culture, and when we access the music it “transports us to that
place and time for a moment.”31 Sheet music was not very cheap to produce until the 1840s,
when new technologies in lithography made it more feasible to produce sheet music in large
quantities.32 To give a brief definition of sheet music for those not familiar, it can be described as
a “single sheet of paper printed on one or both sides with musical scores and possibly lyrics.”33
By the mid 19th century, it was increasingly common to find sheet music in households, mainly
due to increases in income to purchase instruments, leisure time to actually earn and practice
instruments, and increased demand for recreational music.34
5
For the cultivated middle class family, it was a sign of cultural achievement to have
instruments, mainly the piano, and to have family members who could play. The piano was the
most popular household instrument of the time, with its “…versatility and value both as a
cultural symbol and a source of entertainment.”35 A typical evening of family entertainment
during the war might include an after dinner concert in the parlor from one of the more musically
talented children of the family. They would play the latest quickstep or march fresh off the
publisher’s presses, and transport the family away to the exotic land of Mexico and the heroic
deeds of the conquering soldiers. An excellent piece showing this very scene can be found in J.C.
Viereck’s Parlor Duets, with a cover image of the typical family gathered in the parlor eagerly
listening to the daughter and son tickle the ivories.
The lithographic illustrations on the covers of the sheet music were also a window to the
world of war, often showing intense battle scenes. These images were usually stylized and
romanticized to help stir up the proud, patriotic heart of the listener of these often dramatic
pieces of music, and the combination of auditory and visual stimulation made a powerful impact.
Excellent examples of these action-packed lithographs can be found on such pieces as J.G.
Osbourn’s Buena Vista Grand Triumphal March, with American soldiers firing into the open
gate of the Black Castle, General Zachary Taylor signaling the charge, and the Stars and Stripes
proudly flying above the fray. Another good sample would be Thomas H. Chambers’ Palo Alto
Grand March, with the dauntless Major Ringgold regally posing on his stallion, with four
separate images of cavalry in fierce battle action surrounding his image. Patriotism was running
at fever pitch in America during this war, and the music publishers definitely capitalized on the
high emotions. The majority of these publishers were from the Northeast; New York, Boston,
Philadelphia, and Baltimore all housed major publishers, though smaller companies were to be
6
found in cities such as Cincinnati and New Orleans. The market was flooded with music, as “…
almost anyone, it seems, could gain publication in that era of a seller’s market for parlor piano
music.”36 War song after war song was cranked off the publishers’ presses, often imitating, if not
downright copying each other’s work. The concepts of plagiarism and copyrights were not
exactly major issues at that time. A perfect case is found in three different songs with the title
Santa Anna’s March, produced by George Willig of Philadelphia, F.D. Benteen of Baltimore,
and W.C. Peters of Baltimore. The tunes had almost note for note the same melody. The
consumers must have been fine with these practices, as the virtuosity and ability of the song
performers to improvise were valued more than the originality of the song itself.37
Now the music styles that were made were almost homogenously martial, with few
exceptions being funeral marches and dirges. Three major styles dominated the market,
quicksteps, marches, and piano “fantasies.” Quicksteps were set at a tempo of a quick 108 steps
per minute, and were very popular for the military bands to play.38 Marches were also extremely
popular; with their stately pomposo tempos, they were the quintessential military tunes. The
funeral tunes were often marches as well, as they well suited the respectful, structured tempo of
those occasions. Both the quicksteps and the marches musically were not extremely complicated
compositions, mainly using three chords, all in major keys. They often borrowed from
Revolutionary War tunes such as Yankee Doodle and Hail, Columbia and revised the music or
changed the lyrics to match the current conflict. The tune of Yankee Doodle, as discussed earlier,
was hugely popular with the 19th-century American public. It was the most repeatedly played
tune on the actual battlefield, the favorite of the army bands. It served as a battle hymn
triumphantly celebrating American victories, and was a great concert piece back at the camp.39
One song in particular to note that carried the Yankee Doodle tune was Uncle Sam’s Song to
7
Miss Texas, straight out of the Rough and Ready Songster. It is a good example of what
Americans threatened to all who stood in their way, going back to those imperialistic strains.
If Mexy, back’d by secret foes,Still talks of taken you, gal.
Why we can lick ‘em all, you know,An’ then annex ‘em too, gal.40
These quicksteps and marches were usually first played on the battlefield by either the field
musicians or the “band of music.” The field music consisted of the drummers, fifers and
trumpeters that were included in any army unit. The band of music was usually a larger group,
sometimes up to 16 brass instrumentalists, and was paid for by a specific regiment’s officers.
Music was extremely important to the soldiers of the Mexican War. It refreshed the weary men’s
souls, reviving spirits and easing tensions that ran high before battles.41
The U.S. soldiers loved dancing to the Mexican tunes as well. 42 They would attend the
local Mexican dances, or fandangos, and show the locals the steps of home.43 The mixing of
American and Mexican music can be seen in a couple of other instances. One example would be
the American song Green Grow the Lilacs. This was “so universally sung by the U.S. troops, the
term gringo is thought to originate from this.”44 Another great case would be Santa Anna’s
March by William Ratel. On the cover of this song, it explains, “This beautiful air was brought
on by some Kentucky Volunteers having heard it played by the Mexican bands at Buena Vista
while on sentry duty.” This song also could be used as an example of the importance of the battle
of Buena Vista in the populace’s mind as the most dramatic and heroic encounter of the entire
war.45
Besides the marches and quicksteps, the third popular music form came in the battle
fantasies. These were far and away the most elaborate, original compositions of the war.
8
Sweeping in both scale and vision, these songs recounted entire battles in their music. Prolific
composers, such as Charles Grobe with his song The Battle of Buena Vista, brought the audience
of his music right into the battle scenes. The artillery opens fire, played with loud, staccato notes
on the piano. The theme switches to a rolling swell as the American forces give a mighty cheer
and charge. The theme switches again later in the piece to a slow minor key, honoring the fallen
in battle. These songs were almost the epic movie soundtrack predecessors. They were often
accompanied with narratives of the action, possibly read aloud as the music played along.
Composer Francis Buck wrote arguably his best piece in this form, The Fall of Vera Cruz.
Another grandiose piece, it various themes and tempos were exemplary in their intricate
descriptions of the emotions of battle. These fantasies were also unique in that they were written
only for piano, as opposed to the marches and quicksteps, which were first written for and played
by the military brass bands, then arranged for the piano.
The Mexican-American War was a war of heroes, as can be well seen through the
majority of the song titles published. And rising above them all stood General Zachary Taylor.
General Taylor, through his stunning victories at the beginning of the war, “sprang into fame ‘as
a fabled personage of mythology…the instant creation of a perfect hero.’”46 His victories were
celebrated in countless songs and dedications. In a sample of seventy-one songs from the war,
over a quarter of them were dedicated to General Taylor. His death in 1850 was achingly
mourned by the nation. The Death of Taylor, by John Ordway laments,
He’s breath’d his last no more we’ll seeHis honest and manly formChant the sad strain with melodyAnd bear the sacred notes along. America has lost a friend, on whom her fondest hopes were castO’er land and sea the tidings send, Brave Taylor’s gone! He’s breath’d his last.47
9
The other legendary hero of the war was Major Ringgold, who fell in the battle of Palo Alto
early in the war. At least three funeral marches and six compositions honored this man and
inspired a nation to avenge his untimely death.48
Music played a huge role in the war effort during this terrible conflict. It was during this
time period that “America burst into melody.”49 The Romantic Movement in the arts, and
especially music, found its voice, as the slew of music composers and publishers “sought to
oblige a public that saw in music a reflection of itself, its values, aspirations, and national
character.”50 It was a time for the U.S. to fully realize her uniqueness and nationality. It was a
time for the American people to come together emotionally and patriotically to celebrate and
glorify war and American conquests. It was a time to promote the superiority of the Anglo-Saxon
ideals of expansionism and imperialism that Americans held so dear. Music is an excellent gauge
of the populace’s psyche, both in their response to the war and their emotions that were
expressed in the music.51 The drumbeats of the war were used for the first time in a major
American conflict to inspire the nation to martial glory, and forever solidified patriotic
archetypes that Americans still hold dear to this day.
10
1 Robert W. Johannsen, To the Halls of the Montezumas: The Mexican War in the American Imagination (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 231.2
Ibid.3
Ibid.4
Ibid.5
Lotta Spell, Music In Texas (Austin: n.p., 1936), 24.6
Johannsen, 16.7
Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer, "Mexican-American War." American History Through Literature. Vol. 2. Gale Cengage, 2006, http://www.enotes.com/mexican-american-war-reference/ (accessed November 14, 2012).8
Johannsen, 16.
9 Johannsen, viii.10
Ibid.11
Ibid, 55.12
Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer.13
Johannsen, 54.14
Ibid.15
Ibid.16
Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer.17
Ibid.18
An American Officer, The Rough and Ready Songster: Embellished with Twenty-Five Splendid Engravings, Illustrative of the American Victories in Mexico (New York: Nafis & Cornish, 1848), 29.19
Ibid, 19. 20
Johannsen, 58.21
Ibid, 57.22
Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer.23
David Pletcher, “An Ideal or a Justification? A Conversation With David M. Pletcher Indiana University,” KERA, Denton, Texas, United States. http://www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar/prelude/md_an_ideal_or_a_justification.html (Accessed
November 14, 2012).24
Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer.25
Johannsen, 50.26
An American Officer, 51. 27
Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer.28
Johannsen, 22.29
Spell, 50.30
John H. Hewitt, The Maid of Monterey. (Baltimore: F.D. Benteen, 1851). 31
Duke University, Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library, Durham, North Carolina, United States “Historic American Sheet Music”, n.d., http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/hasm/about/ (Accessed November 14, 2012).32
Ibid.33
Lea Worcester, Music from the Attic: Texas History in Sheet Music, (Unpublished), 1.
34 Ibid. 35
H. Wiley Hitchcock, Music in the United States: A Historical Introduction (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1988), 79.36
Ibid.
37 Ibid, 59.38
Elise K. Kirk, Sheet Music Related to the United States War with Mexico (1846-1848) in the Jenkins Garrett Library, University of Texas at Arlington. Notes, Second Series, Vol. 37, No. 1. (N.p.: Music Library Association, 1980), 16.
39 Johannsen, 237.40 An American Officer, 54.41
Johansen, 238.42
Donald S. Frazier, The United States and Mexico at War: Nineteenth Century Expansionism and Conflict (New York: Macmillian Reference Center, 1998), 298.43
Ibid.44
Ibid. 45
Johannsen, 234. 46
Ibid, 115.
47
John P. Ordway, The Death of Taylor Sung by Ossian E. Dodge Esq. Poetry and Music Composed and Respectfully Inscribed to the Family of the Beloved and Lamented President. Arranged for the Piano Forte by W.C. Peters. (Cincinnati: W.C. Peters & Sons, 1847).48
Johannsen, 233.49
Ibid, 231.50
Ibid. 51
Ibid, 240.
BibliographyPrimary Sources
An American Officer. The Rough and Ready Songster: Embellished with Twenty-Five Splendid Engravings, Illustrative of the American victories in Mexico. New York: Nafis & Cornish, 1848.
Andrews, John C. The Rio Grande Quick March: Composed and Respectfully Dedicated to Major Genl. Z. Taylor Commander Of The Army Of Occupation. New York: Firth & Hall, 1846.
Austin Phillips and J.W. Watson. Monterey, A National Song. The Words by J.W. Watson. The Music Composed by Austin Phillips. Respectfully dedicated to Genl. Zachary Taylor. New York: Firth, Hall, & Pond, 1847.
Babcock, W.J. Col. May’s Quick Step. New York: Firth & Hall, 1847.
Barili, Antonio. Buena Vista Polka. Philadelphia: A. Fiot, 1848.
Beck, J.N. The Churubusco March to the Officers of the American Army. Philadelphia: Klemm and Brother, 1847.
Bellak, James. The Rough and Ready Polka Respectfully Dedicated to Gen. Zachary Taylor. Philadelphia: Lee & Walker, 1848.
Bellman, Henry. Camp Taylor March Composed & Dedicated to Genl. Taylor And The Officers and Soldiers under his Command. Baltimore: F.D. Benteen, 1846.
Bissell, T. Genl. Worth’s Quick Step Music Composed and Respectfully Dedicated to the Gallant Maj Genl. Worth, U.S.A. Boston: Wm. H. Oakes, 1846.
Brieter, A.R. General Scott’s Victory Quick Step. Philadelphia: Klemm and Brother, 1847.
Browne, Augusta. The Warlike Dead in Mexico. Poetry by Mrs. Balmanno. Music Composed and Dedicated (By Special Permission) to the Hon. Henry Clay. New York: C. Holt Jr., 1848.
Buck, Francis. Blue Ridge Quick Step Respectfully Dedicated to James A. Cowardin Esq. Richmond: P.H. Taylor, 1847.
Buck, Francis. Fall of Vera Cruz and the Surrender of the City and Castle of St. Juan D’Ulloa. To the American Forces under Major Gen. Scott. Descriptive Piece, Composed and Respectfully Dedicated to the Officers and Men of the U.S. Army and Navy Engaged in that Glorious Achievement. Baltimore: Frederick D. Benteen, 1847.
Buck, Francis. Storming of Monterey. A Descriptive Military Waltz. Composed and Dedicated to Genl. Z. Taylor and Officers of the American Army in Mexico. Baltimore: F. D. Benteen, 1846.
Buck, Francis. The Vera Cruz Grand March Composed and Respectfully Dedicated to Maj. Genl. Winfield Scott, Commander of the Forces of the U.S. at the Surrender of the City & Castle of Vera Cruz. Baltimore: F.D. Benteen, 1847.
Chambers, Thomas H. Palo Alto Grand March, Composed and Respectfully Dedicated to the Memory of Major Ringgold. New York: Wm. Vanderbeck, 1846.
Ciofii, F. Texas Annexation March and Quickstep, Composed and Arranged by F. Cioffi (Instructor of the 2nd Dragoons Band) at the Request of General Taylor and Performed with Great Affect on the March of the Regiment through the Principal Towns in Texas. Respectfully Dedicated to the Volunteers of Louisiana. New Orleans: Wm. T. Mayo, n.d.
Converse, Charlie C. Cockade City Quickstep. New York: Horace Waters, 1854.
Dodworth, Allen. State Fencible’s Quickstep. As Played by Dodworth’s Cornet Band. Composed and Respectfully Dedicated to the First Company, N.Y. State Fencbles, Capt: Geo: Lyons. New York: Firth, Hall, & Pond, 1847.
Ehrlich, S. Co’l Corney’s Quickstep. Philadelphia: E.R. Johnston & Co., 1848.
Ehrlich, S. National Grey’s March, Composed for the Piano Forte and Dedicated to Major Peter Fritz. Philadelphia: E.R. Johnston & Co., 1848.
Ehrlich, S. Promenade Grand March. Philadelphia: E.R. Johnston & Co., 1848.
Fitzgerald, Riter. Major Biddle’s Grand March. Philadelphia: Edward Walker, 1851.
George, Signor G. Lieut. Geo. H. Tompkin’s Quick Step. Boston: Oliver Ditson, 1846.
George, Signor G. The Grey’s Quick Step as Performed by the Grey’s Band, Composed and Arranged for the Piano Forte and Respectfully Dedicated to Lieut. A. Morris of the Richmond Grey’s. Philadelphia: George Willig, 1847.
Getze, J.A. General Winfield Scott’s Grand March. Philadelphia: George Willig, 1842.
Grafulla, C.S. Captain Shepherd’s Quickstep. Philadelphia: C.F. Hupfeld & Son, 1850.
Grobe, Charles. General Taylor’s Grand March. Philadelphia: Lee & Walker, 1846.
Grobe, Charles. Matamoras Waltz Sur une Polka Favorite par Charles Grobe. Philadelphia: Lee & Walker, 1846.
Grobe, Charles. Old Rough and Ready Quick Step. Philadelphia: George Willig, 1846.
Grobe, Charles. The Battles of Palo Alto & Reasca de la Palma. Baltimore: F.D. Benteen, 1846.
Grobe, Charles. Veni, Vidi, Vici. The Battle of Buena Vista, a Descriptive Fantasie for the Piano. Composed and Respectfully Dedicated to General Z. Taylor, the Hero who Never Lost a Battle. Opus 101. Baltimore: G. Willig, 1847
Herman, J. Wex. Montezuma Grand March. Baltimore, F.D. Benteen, n.d.
Hess, Charles. The Volunteer’s Return Quickstep. New York: William Hall & Son, 1846.
Hewitt, John H. On To The Charge! Inscribed to the Memory of Major Ringgold, Late of the U.S. Light Artillery. Baltimore, F.D. Benteen, 1846.
Hewitt, John H. The Maid of Monterey. Baltimore: F.D. Benteen, 1851.
Holtzerman, H.J.M. Gen. Scott’s Entry into Mexico. Boston: Oliver Ditson, 1848.
Holtzerman, H.J.M. Missouri Volunteers Quick Step. Boston: Oliver Ditson, 1848.
Joseph W. Turner and Edward Davis. The Death of Ringgold, A Quartette, Poetry by Edward Davis, Music Composed by Joseph W. Turner and Respectfully Dedicated to Lieut. Cadwallader Ringgold, U.S. Navy. Boston: H. Prentiss, 1846.
Keller, Matthias. Funeral March to the Memory of Major Ringgold. Philadelphia: A. Fiot, 1846.
Keller, Matthias. General Taylor’s Quick Step. Philadelphia: Lee & Walker, 1846.
Knaebel, S. Rough and Ready Quickstep, Air from Strauss. Boston: Keith’s Music Publishing House, 1846.
Kurs, A. General Taylor’s Grand March. New York: Firth, Hall, & Pond, 1846.
La Hache, Theod. V. General Taylor’s Victory & Genl. Worth’s Quick Step. New York: Firth, Hall & Pond, 1846.
Lady of South Carolina. The Volunteer March Dedicated to the Palmetto Regiment. New York: Firth, Hall, & Pond, 1847.
Lemon, Wm. J. A Little More Grape Captain Bragg. A National song Composed and Respectfully Dedicated to General Zachary Taylor. Philadelphia: Lee & Walker, 1847.
Lucchesi, F. Palo Alto Quick Step. Baltimore: F.D. Benteen, 1846.
Martin, J.T. Gen’l Persifor F. Smith. Baltimore: F.D. Benteen, 1848.
Martin, J.T. Smith’s March. Baltimore: Miller & Beacham, 1848.
Morris, George P. The Soldier’s Return, A Song for the People. Arrgd. By S.O. Dyer. New York: Firth, Hall, & Pond, 1848.
Muller, John B. Buena Vista Quick Step. Philadelphia: George Willig, 1847.
Muller, J. B. General Hand’s Quick Step. Philadelphia: George Willig, 1846
Nathan, E. Buena Vista Grand March. New York: Firth, Hall, & Pond, 1847.
Norton, J.T. Free Soil Quick Step. Philadelphia: E.R. Johnston & Co., 1848.
Ordway, John P. The Death of Taylor, Sung by Ossian E. Dodge Esq. Poetry and Music Composed and Respectfully Inscribed to the Family of the Beloved and Lamented President. Boston: A & J.P. Ordway, 1850.
Peters, W.C. General Scott’s Artillery March at the Battle of Churubusco as Performed by the Brass Bands. Arranged for the piano forte by W.C. Peters. Cincinnati: W.C. Peters & Sons, 1847.
Peters, W.C. Santa Anna’s March to Which is Added a Popular Melody Composed on the Battlefield of Buena Vista by an American Officer. Arranged for the Piano Forte and Inscribed to Miss Fitzgerald. Baltimore: W.C. Peters, 1847.
Peters, W.C. The Matamoras Grand March as Performed by the Brass Bands. Arranged and Partly Composed for the Piano Forte and Most Respectfully Dedicated to Major Gen. L. Taylor. Cincinnati: W.C. Peters, 1846.
Power, Thomas. ‘Tis A Nation’s Jubilee, A Patriotic Song Written and Dedicated to Gen. Zach. Taylor. Adapted to a Favorite Melody. Boston: Oliver Ditson, 1848.
Prof. James Bellak and John W. Watson. Welcome Home, The Celebrated Song Sung by Miss Fanny Heron & Messrs. Guibilei & Johnston with Great Applause at the Banquet in Honor of the Return of the Pennsylvania Volunteers. Philadelphia: E.R. Johnston, 1848.
Ratel, William. Santa Anna’s March as Played by the Bands of the Mexican Army on the Field of Buena Vista, the Night Previous to the Battle. Arranged for Piano Forte. Philadelphia: George Willig, 1847.
Striby, William. The Battle of Buena Vista, Composed and Arranged for the Piano Forte and Respectfully Dedicated to the Major General Zachary Taylor. New York: Firth, Hall, & Pond, n.d.
Sullivan, M. Dix. The Field of Monterey Ballad Affectionately Dedicated to Mrs. Virginia Q.S. (of Virginia). Boston: Oliver Ditson, 1846.
Turner, J.W. Fire Fire Away Song of Ringold’s Artillerists Dedicated to the Heroes of Reasca de la Palma. Boston: Keith’s Music Publishing House, 1846.
Underner, C.L. General Townsend’s Grand Cavalry March Composed & Arranged for the Piano Forte by C.L. Underner and Respectfully Dedicated to Maj. Genl. John F. Townsend, Commanding 4th Div. Cavalry of the State of New York. Boston: Geo. P. Reed, 1846.
Unknown Author. Santa Anna’s March as Heard on the Battlefield of Buena Vista.
Unknown Author. Santa Anna’s Retreat from Cerro Gordo. The Subject Taken from a Celebrated Scotch Melody as Performed by the American Bands of that Occasion. Cincinnati: W.C. Peters & Sons, 1847.
Viereck, J.C. The Parlour Duets For Two Performers On One Piano, Arranged with Fingering by J.C. Viereck in 6 numbers. Philadelphia: J.E. Gould, 1846.
Weiland, F. Buena Vista Grand Triumphal March Composed in Honor of Major General Taylor’s Victory in Mexico. Philadelphia: J.G. Osbourn, 1847.
White, Edward L. Grand Triumphal Quick Step Partly Composed & Dedicated to Gen. Zachary Taylor by Edward L. White. Boston: Oliver Ditson, 1847.
Secondary Sources
Duke University, Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library, Durham, North Carolina, United States. “Historic American Sheet Music.” http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/hasm/about/ (Accessed November 14, 2012).
Frazier, Donald S. The United States and Mexico at War: Nineteenth Century Expansionism and Conflict. New York: Macmillian Reference USA, 1998.
Hitchcock, H. Wiley. Music in the United States: A Historical Introduction. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1988.
Janet Gabler-Hover and Robert Sattelmeyer. "Mexican-American War." American History Through Literature. Vol. 2. Gale Cengage 2006. http://www.enotes.com/mexican-american-war-reference/ (accessed November 14, 2012).
Jenkins, John H. Patriotic Songs & Poems of Early Texas, 1836-1848. Austin: Pemberton Press, 1966.
Johannsen, Robert W. To the Halls of the Montezumas: The Mexican War in American Imagination. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.
Kirk, Elise K. Sheet Music Related to the United States War with Mexico (1846-1848) in the Jenkins Garrett Library, University of Texas at Arlington. Notes, Second Series, Vol. 37, No. 1. N.p.: Music Library Association, 1980.
Pletcher D. “An Ideal or a Justification? A Conversation With David M. Pletcher Indiana University.” KERA, Denton, Texas, United States. http://www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar/prelude/md_an_ideal_or_a_justification.html.
Spell, Lota. Music in Texas. Austin: N.p., 1936.
Worcester, Lea. Music from the Attic: Texas History in Sheet Music. Unpublished.