The (First) Industrial RevolutionThe (First) Industrial RevolutionIndustrialization of textiles and some other Industrialization of textiles and some other basic industriesbasic industriesFactory system replaced domestic systemFactory system replaced domestic systemIron production methods improvedIron production methods improvedInvention of steam engineInvention of steam engineCoal replaced running water and wood burning Coal replaced running water and wood burning for energyfor energyTransition to steam power (boiling water with Transition to steam power (boiling water with coal/coke)coal/coke)Building of canals and canal systemsBuilding of canals and canal systemsInvention of the locomotive and building of Invention of the locomotive and building of railroadsrailroadsInvention of steamboats and steamshipsInvention of steamboats and steamships

The (Second) Industrial RevolutionInvention of process to make cheap steel Invention of process to make cheap steel (Bessemer process)(Bessemer process)Discovery and development of electricity as a Discovery and development of electricity as a source of power: dynamo, generator, electric source of power: dynamo, generator, electric lighting, etc.lighting, etc.Discovery and development of petroleum as a Discovery and development of petroleum as a source of power: gasoline, kerosene, etc.source of power: gasoline, kerosene, etc.

Electronic communication: Telegraph, telephone, Electronic communication: Telegraph, telephone, radio (wireless), etc.radio (wireless), etc.

Invention of internal combustion engine and the Invention of internal combustion engine and the automobileautomobile

Invention of the airplaneInvention of the airplane

Why was Britain first?Accumulation of capital from trade and coloniesDispersion of wealth creating a mass marketDedication to commercialism and respectability of tradeEnthusiasm for science and technologyBasic supply of the necessary raw materialsSupport from governmentIndividual technological and financial achievements valuedAgricultural Revolution created cheap labor supply, surplus income, healthier peopleFree from invasion.Secure, advanced banking and credit

The Textile Manufacturing Revolution1733 John Kay’ Flying Shuttle1765 James Hargreaves’ “Spinning

Jenny”1769 James Watt’s Steam Engine1769 Richard Arkwright’s Water

Frame1779 Samuel Crompton’s “Spinning

Mule”1787 Edmund Cartwright’s Power

Loom1792 Eli Whitney’s Cotton “Gin”

Classical EconomistsAdam Smith, Thomas Malthus, David RicardoCalled “liberal” in their time because they brought new ideas and argued against the old ideas of mercantilismFollowed Liberal principle of the individual with equal opportunity being free to achieve according to abilitiesCompetition benefited all: producers made money, created jobs, improved consumer goods, nation profitedlaissez-faire: leave economy alone; let natural laws functionArgued for minimal government interference: Government protects the nation and overseas shipping, protects the investor through laws such as limited liability, protects private propertyNo Government aid or protection of business from competitionIndividuals should behave ethicallyCriticism: Smith’s competition was cutthroat;Malthus’ predictions were dismal and dire;Ricardo’s ‘Iron Law of Wages’ ignored conditions

Britain’s Britain’s Factory Act of 1833Factory Act of 1833No child workers under 9 years of age No child workers under 9 years of age Employers must have a medical or age certificate for Employers must have a medical or age certificate for child workers child workers Children between the ages of 9-13 to work no more than Children between the ages of 9-13 to work no more than 9 hours a day 9 hours a day Children between 13-18 to work no more than 12 hours Children between 13-18 to work no more than 12 hours a day a day Children are not to work at night Children are not to work at night Two hours schooling each day for children Two hours schooling each day for children Four factory inspectors appointed to enforce the law Four factory inspectors appointed to enforce the law throughout the whole of the country.throughout the whole of the country.

Britain’s Britain’s Mines Act of 1842Mines Act of 1842Prohibited underground work in mines by children under the age of ten. Prohibited underground work in mines by all women. Fifteen government inspectors were appointed to enforce compliance with the ActApprentice chimney sweeps had to be at least 16 years of age.

Later Factory Acts Later Factory Acts in Britainin Britain1844

Textiles

Children 8-13 years could work only six half-hours a day Reduced hours for women ( to 12) and no night work

1847

Textiles

Women and children under 18 years of age could not work more than 10 hours a day.

1867

All Industries

Previous rules applied to all industries employing more than 5 workers

1901

All Industries

Minimum age for employment raised to 12 years.

Effects of the Industrial Effects of the Industrial RevolutionRevolution Urbanization of society; creation of Urbanization of society; creation of

urban problemsurban problems Great population growthGreat population growth Creation of global economy, world Creation of global economy, world

system of banking and creditsystem of banking and credit Creation of the industrial working classCreation of the industrial working class Middle class gains political controlMiddle class gains political control Transportation revolutionTransportation revolution Machines powered by fossil fuelsMachines powered by fossil fuels Creation of electronic mediaCreation of electronic media Increasing pressure for democracyIncreasing pressure for democracy Creation of public educationCreation of public education New radical ideologies created in New radical ideologies created in

responseresponse

Cleaning up after Napoleon:Cleaning up after Napoleon:Prince Klemens von MetternichPrince Klemens von Metternich

Austrian statesman, minister of foreign affairs

1809-1848Champion of ConservatismForged the victorious alliances against NapoleonRestored Austria as a leading powerHosted the Congress of Vienna, 1814-1815Father of the “Metternich Era” and the Metternich System

The Metternich System: His Plan to Restore and Keep Stability in Europe

Compensation: All honorable countries Compensation: All honorable countries should be repaid for lossesshould be repaid for losses

Legitimacy: Political power should be Legitimacy: Political power should be returned to the rightful leadersreturned to the rightful leaders

Balance of Power: No nation (among the Balance of Power: No nation (among the Great Powers) should dominateGreat Powers) should dominate

Concert of Europe: Keep peace through an Concert of Europe: Keep peace through an alliance of Great Powers acting togetheralliance of Great Powers acting together

Suppress and control liberalism and Suppress and control liberalism and revolutionary nationalismrevolutionary nationalism

Classical LiberalismClassical Liberalism Government with the “people” Government with the “people”

sovereignsovereign Written constitutional government Written constitutional government

protecting Natural Rightsprotecting Natural Rights Equality before the law for all classesEquality before the law for all classes Freedom of Religion, Speech, the Freedom of Religion, Speech, the

Press, AssemblyPress, Assembly Liberty for the Middle Class Liberty for the Middle Class

(indirectly for all)(indirectly for all) Economic individualism: Economic individualism: Laissez faireLaissez faire Support for the growth of new Support for the growth of new

industryindustry Expansion of educational systemsExpansion of educational systems

Classical ConservatismClassical ConservatismTradition and Traditional valuesSocial Order through LawStable Government determined by God,

History, and TraditionRights determined by the individual

State (no universal rights)Established Religion (of the majority)Power of the Old Aristocracy in the

traditional social classesProtection of Landed Wealth, Property

and other sources of Wealth

Final Act of Vienna, 1815Final Act of Vienna, 1815Bourbon monarchy restored in France under Louis XVIII

Italian states restored: old Bourbon and Habsburg rulers returned to rule

Austria gained Lombardy (Milan), Venezia (Venice) and the Tyrol

Britain gained South Africa, Sri Lanka, British Guiana, Malta, Mauritius, Ionian Islands, Trinidad and Tobago

Monarchy restored in Holland with addition of Austrian Netherlands (Belgium)

Russia gained Finland and most of Poland

Final Act of Vienna (cont.)Sweden gained Norway (from Denmark)Prussia gained part of Saxony, provinces in the Rhineland, Pomerania, and portion of PolandKingdom of Sardinia created: Savoy, Piedmont, Genoa, Turin, Sardinia; ruled by SavoyGerman Confederation created: 39 member states dominated by AustriaSwitzerland became independent and neutralSlave trade was condemnedConcert System established: Quadruple Alliance, Holy Alliance, and the Congress System

Year Congress Issue(s) Action(s)

1818 Aix-la-Chapell

e

France sided with Conservatism after Vienna

France joined Quadruple Alliance Quintuple Alliance

1820 Troppau

Revolts in Spain and Italian states; German students led nationalist uprisings; pressure in France and Britain

Troppau Protocol: Congress could authorize military intervention (British dissented)

1821 Laibach

Revolts in Italian states

Austrian army invaded Naples and Piedmont and put down revolts and restore monarchs

1822 Verona Revolt in Greece; Latin America independence; Spanish army deposed Ferdinand VII

French army restored Ferdinand VII in Spain; No decision on Greece; Britain blocked intervention in Americas

1823&

after

No further

congresses

Disagreement over revolutions in Latin America and Greece

Actions are unilateral: Britain supported U.S. Monroe Doctrine; Britain, France and Russia sent aid to Greece

Principles of Principles of RomanticismRomanticism Individualism: No rules or fixed formsIndividualism: No rules or fixed forms

Feelings, emotions, intuition above allFeelings, emotions, intuition above all The Romantic Hero: The struggle is The Romantic Hero: The struggle is

more important than victorymore important than victory Idealization of Love and Worship of Idealization of Love and Worship of

NatureNature Nationalistic prideNationalistic pride Nostalgia for the simple and unspoiled: Nostalgia for the simple and unspoiled:

primitivism; anti-Industrial Revolutionprimitivism; anti-Industrial Revolution Gothicism: The dark, mysterious, and Gothicism: The dark, mysterious, and

morbidmorbid The Artist and Artistic expression are The Artist and Artistic expression are

divinely inspireddivinely inspired

Age of Reaction / Post-French Revolution1814 Pre-war monarchies restored1815 Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia form

Concert of Europe; Russia, Austria, Prussia form Holy Alliance

1819 Carlsbad Decrees in Germany1819 Peterloo Massacre in Britain1819 Britain passes Six Acts1820 Revolts in Spain and Italian states1820 Congress of Troppau1821 Congress of Laibach1821 Greek Revolution begins1822 Congress of Verona

1817: Germany (failed)1817: Germany (failed) 1819: Germany (failed)1819: Germany (failed) 1820: Spain (new 1820: Spain (new

constitution)constitution) 1820: Italy (failed)1820: Italy (failed) 1821-29: Greece 1821-29: Greece

(successful)(successful) 1821: Romania (failed)1821: Romania (failed) 1822: Ireland (failed)1822: Ireland (failed) 1823: Serbia (failed)1823: Serbia (failed) 1825: Italy (failed)1825: Italy (failed) 1825: Russia (failed)1825: Russia (failed) 1829: Ireland (failed)1829: Ireland (failed) 1829: Serbia (gained 1829: Serbia (gained

autonomy)autonomy)

1830: France (new 1830: France (new constitution)constitution)

1830: Belgium 1830: Belgium (successful)(successful)

1830: Poland (failed)1830: Poland (failed) 1831: Germany (failed)1831: Germany (failed) 1832: Italy (failed)1832: Italy (failed) 1846: Poland (failed)1846: Poland (failed) 1848: France (Republic)1848: France (Republic) 1848: Italy (failed)1848: Italy (failed) 1848: Hungary (failed)1848: Hungary (failed) 1848: Germany (failed)1848: Germany (failed) 1848: Bohemia (failed)1848: Bohemia (failed) 1848: Poland (failed1848: Poland (failed 1848: Romania (failed)1848: Romania (failed)

Liberal/Nationalist Uprisings, 1817-50Liberal/Nationalist Uprisings, 1817-50

Causes of Revolutionary UnrestCauses of Revolutionary UnrestIssues and ideologies raised by the French Issues and ideologies raised by the French Revolution: Liberalism and NationalismRevolution: Liberalism and NationalismLack of recognition of many nationalitiesLack of recognition of many nationalitiesSpirit of RomanticismSpirit of RomanticismSuccess of revolutions in the U.S. and Latin Success of revolutions in the U.S. and Latin AmericaAmericaRise of the Middle Class and its desire for Rise of the Middle Class and its desire for powerpowerGrowing problems of the industrial workerGrowing problems of the industrial workerSerfdom in Eastern EuropeSerfdom in Eastern EuropeNew alternative ideologies: socialism, etc.New alternative ideologies: socialism, etc.Concert of Europe weakening and Concert of Europe weakening and separatingseparating

Liberal Reform and Revolution1822 Britain withdraws from Congress System

and Concert of Europe1823 Britain supports U.S. Monroe Doctrine1825 Decembrist Revolt in Russia; Latin

American independence complete1827 Britain, France, Russia support Greek

Independence1828 Britain repeals restrictions on religious non-

conformists1829 Greece wins independence in Treaty of

Adrianople1829 Britain passes Catholic Emancipation Act1830 July Revolution in France deposes Charles X1830 Polish revolt against Russia1831 Belgium wins independence from Holland1832 Great Reform Bill passes in Britain

Revolts after the Congress of Vienna1817 Student demonstrations begin in

German universities1819 Peterloo Massacre in England1820 Revolts in Spain, Portugal, Piedmont,

and Kingdom of the Two Sicilies1821-29 Revolution in Greece1825 Revolt in Russia1830 Revolts in France, Belgium (-”31)

and Poland1846 Revolt in Poland1848 Revolutions in France, Italian states,

German states and the Austrian Empire

1848: The Year of Revolution1848: The Year of Revolution•Revolt in Sicily against rule by NaplesRevolt in Sicily against rule by Naples•Revolution in Paris; Louis Philippe abdicatesRevolution in Paris; Louis Philippe abdicates•Revolution in Vienna; Metternich resigns; serfdom Revolution in Vienna; Metternich resigns; serfdom abolishedabolished•Revolution in Venice; republic declaredRevolution in Venice; republic declared•Revolution in Berlin; new constitution declaredRevolution in Berlin; new constitution declared•Revolt in Milan against Austrian ruleRevolt in Milan against Austrian rule•Sardinia declares war on AustriaSardinia declares war on Austria•Revolt in Prague by Czechs against Austrian ruleRevolt in Prague by Czechs against Austrian rule•Revolt in Hungary against Austrian ruleRevolt in Hungary against Austrian rule•Emperor Ferdinand I abdicates in AustriaEmperor Ferdinand I abdicates in Austria•Revolution in Rome; Pius IX fleesRevolution in Rome; Pius IX flees•Revolt in Poland against Russian ruleRevolt in Poland against Russian rule

Causes of the Revolutions of 1848Causes of the Revolutions of 1848Serfdom still existed in Eastern EuropeSerfdom still existed in Eastern EuropeSpirit of Romanticism most intenseSpirit of Romanticism most intenseMany nationalities still under foreign Many nationalities still under foreign ruleruleMiddle Class growing, demanding Middle Class growing, demanding political power and liberal reformpolitical power and liberal reformProblems of the industrial worker Problems of the industrial worker increasing demanding reformincreasing demanding reformNew alternative ideologies: socialismNew alternative ideologies: socialismConcert of Europe still weakeningConcert of Europe still weakeningSuccess of Belgium and GreeceSuccess of Belgium and Greece

Revolutionaries lacked unityRevolutionaries lacked unityGroups and classes distrusted each otherGroups and classes distrusted each otherNo true program for reformNo true program for reformOpposition unified and strongOpposition unified and strongLack of strong military of the Lack of strong military of the revolutionariesrevolutionariesSpirit of nationalism not quite strong Spirit of nationalism not quite strong enough (Germany, Italy, Hungary, etc)enough (Germany, Italy, Hungary, etc)Inexperienced, idealistic leadershipInexperienced, idealistic leadershipOld system still preferred by manyOld system still preferred by many

Reasons for failure of the RevolutionsReasons for failure of the Revolutions

France: 2France: 2ndnd Republic established; 2 Republic established; 2ndnd Empire Empire established in 1852 with Napoleon IIIestablished in 1852 with Napoleon IIIItaly: Liberal Constitution in Piedmont-Sardinia, Italy: Liberal Constitution in Piedmont-Sardinia, poised to lead unification; Pope restored in Rome poised to lead unification; Pope restored in Rome with French help; Austrian army wins back with French help; Austrian army wins back Venice and LombardyVenice and LombardyAustria: Ferdinand I replaced by Franz Josef; Austria: Ferdinand I replaced by Franz Josef; Metternich gone; Nationalities turned against Metternich gone; Nationalities turned against each other; Russians crushed Hungarians; each other; Russians crushed Hungarians; Feudalism ended; Nationalities continue pressureFeudalism ended; Nationalities continue pressureGermany: Failure to unify under Prussian Germany: Failure to unify under Prussian monarchy; Austria and Prussia: rivalry monarchy; Austria and Prussia: rivalry intensified over unificationintensified over unification

Results of the Revolutions of 1848Results of the Revolutions of 1848

Results of the Revolutionary Period, 1820-50Greece and Belgium gained independence; Serbia gained autonomy within the Ottoman EmpireBritain was inspired to reform new problems and increase suffrage to avoid revolutionSerfdom abolished everywhere except RussiaRadicals became more violent: anarchists and communistsLiberals dropped revolution as tactic changing to peaceful political solutions, seduced by businessWorking class frustrated: some began to organize politically; some turned to radical movementUnification movements in Germany and Italy became more pragmaticAustrian Empire attempted to “Germanize” other subject nationalities increasing their anger

(Very) Basic MarxEarlier (Utopian) socialists had failed because their analysis of society was not “scientific”Materialism or economic determinism is the major force in history. The history of mankind is a class struggle: The class with property vs. the class without property.The Industrial State brought the struggle between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.The value of the worker was ignored; The bourgeoisie profited without laborRevolution was necessary to install a workers’ state where the proletariat would rulePrivate property would become public property and the cause of the continuing struggle would vanish.The communist state is the inevitable end to the class struggle. A classless society would result.