the human teaching disposition sidney strauss tel aviv university james s. mcdonnell foundation...

The Human Teaching DispositionSidney Strauss

Tel Aviv University

James S. McDonnell Foundation Workshop on TEACHING

December 3-5, 2004

General OverviewGeneral Overview

Philosophers and educators ask Philosophers and educators ask – what is good teaching?what is good teaching?– how can we foster it in others?how can we foster it in others?

I ask: I ask: Why do we teach in the first place?Why do we teach in the first place?

The search for answers transports us to the borders The search for answers transports us to the borders of our cognitive, cultural and biological endowmentsof our cognitive, cultural and biological endowments

Broad canvas, general lay of the research and Broad canvas, general lay of the research and theoretical landscapetheoretical landscape

General OverviewGeneral Overview

InnovationInnovation– Applying some ideas from cognitive sciences Applying some ideas from cognitive sciences

and cognitive development to teachingand cognitive development to teaching

Possible results Possible results – Some conceptual headwaySome conceptual headway– Perhaps different view of teachingPerhaps different view of teaching– Opening up new theory and research areas in Opening up new theory and research areas in

teachingteaching

Seven PointsSeven Points1. teaching and the cognitive sciences, writ 1. teaching and the cognitive sciences, writ

large, haven’t yet metlarge, haven’t yet met

2. teaching may be a 2. teaching may be a natural cognitive natural cognitive predispositionpredisposition

3. cognitive prerequisites of teaching3. cognitive prerequisites of teaching

*declarative and procedural knowledge*declarative and procedural knowledge

4. my claims about ontogenesis4. my claims about ontogenesis

*cognitive prerequisites develop, leading *cognitive prerequisites develop, leading

to emergence of teachingto emergence of teaching

*after its emergence, teaching develops*after its emergence, teaching develops

5. new places to go empirically5. new places to go empirically

6. teacher education6. teacher education

7. weaknesses of the approach 7. weaknesses of the approach

1. Teaching and the 1. Teaching and the Cognitive Sciences Haven’t Cognitive Sciences Haven’t Yet MetYet Met Considerable theory-building and research in Considerable theory-building and research in

the cognitive sciences and cognitive the cognitive sciences and cognitive development on development on learninglearning

Little theory-building and research on what Little theory-building and research on what sometimes causes learning: sometimes causes learning: teachingteaching

But first: What is a But first: What is a natural cognitive natural cognitive predisposition?predisposition?

What is a Natural Cognitive What is a Natural Cognitive PredispositionPredisposition??

Cognition that is:Cognition that is:– UniversalUniversal– Very complexVery complex– Learned without instructionLearned without instruction– Young children master it effortlesslyYoung children master it effortlessly

Sometimes so easy and natural that we don’t even Sometimes so easy and natural that we don’t even think about itthink about it

Language is a classic exampleLanguage is a classic example

Teaching might be, too.Teaching might be, too.

What is a Natural What is a Natural Cognitive PredispositionCognitive Predisposition??

Is teaching a uniquely natural cognitive Is teaching a uniquely natural cognitive predisposition for humans (species predisposition for humans (species unique)?unique)?

Video of an adult chimp fishing for termites Video of an adult chimp fishing for termites in the presence of a 3-year-old juvenile .in the presence of a 3-year-old juvenile .

See if there is teaching here.See if there is teaching here.

What is a Natural Cognitive What is a Natural Cognitive PredispositionPredisposition??

Was there teaching here?Was there teaching here? Did the adult chimpanzee Did the adult chimpanzee intendintend to to

teach?teach? Did the chimpanzee have an Did the chimpanzee have an

understandingunderstanding of the juvenile’s of the juvenile’s mind mind and learningand learning??

Difficult to sayDifficult to say Motivation to define teaching without Motivation to define teaching without

either either

What Is Teaching, Anyway?What Is Teaching, Anyway?

Biological definitionBiological definition ““An individual actor An individual actor AA can be said to teach can be said to teach if it if it

modifies its behaviorsmodifies its behaviors only in the presence of a only in the presence of a naïve observer, naïve observer, BB, , at some costat some cost or at least without or at least without obtaining an immediate benefit for itself. obtaining an immediate benefit for itself. AA’s ’s behavior thereby encourages or punishesbehavior thereby encourages or punishes BB’s ’s behavior, or behavior, or provides provides BB with with experience or sets experience or sets an examplean example for for BB. As a result, . As a result, BB acquires acquires knowledge or learns a skill earlier in life or more knowledge or learns a skill earlier in life or more rapidly or efficiently than it might otherwise do, or rapidly or efficiently than it might otherwise do, or that it would not learn at all.”that it would not learn at all.”Caro, T. M. & Hauser, M. D. (1992) Is there teaching in nonhuman animals? Caro, T. M. & Hauser, M. D. (1992) Is there teaching in nonhuman animals? The The Quarterly Review of Biology, 67,Quarterly Review of Biology, 67, 151-171.151-171.

Is Teaching Unique to Is Teaching Unique to Humans?Humans?

We saw that chimpanzees learn to fashion We saw that chimpanzees learn to fashion tools for termite fishingtools for termite fishing

– Whiten, A. et al. (1999). Cultures in chimpanzees. Whiten, A. et al. (1999). Cultures in chimpanzees. Nature, 399Nature, 399, 682-685., 682-685.

The question before us is:The question before us is:

Do chimpanzees, cats, birds Do chimpanzees, cats, birds teach?teach?

Is Teaching Unique to Is Teaching Unique to Humans?Humans?

BOTTOM LINEBOTTOM LINE– Little or no primate teaching in the wildLittle or no primate teaching in the wild– Little teaching in captivity (3 reported cases)Little teaching in captivity (3 reported cases)

if they teach in captivity, this means theyif they teach in captivity, this means they

have the capacity for teachinghave the capacity for teaching

- - TeachingTeaching may bemay be unique to humans (with unique to humans (with ToM)ToM)

What is Teaching, Anyway?What is Teaching, Anyway?

Psychological definitionPsychological definition ““When faced with the question of determining When faced with the question of determining

whether an action is a teaching action, as opposed whether an action is a teaching action, as opposed to some other action such as reciting, talking or to some other action such as reciting, talking or acting in a play, it is the acting in a play, it is the intentionintention of bringing of bringing about learningabout learning that is the basis for distinguishing that is the basis for distinguishing teaching from other activities. The teaching from other activities. The intentionintention the the activity serves, then, is a part of the meaning of the activity serves, then, is a part of the meaning of the concept...” (italics added)concept...” (italics added)

Pearson, A. T. (1989). Pearson, A. T. (1989). The teacher: Theory and The teacher: Theory and practice in teacher education.practice in teacher education. New York: Routledge New York: Routledge


The psychological view involvesThe psychological view involves: :

IntentionalityIntentionality– Intention to cause learning in other’s mindIntention to cause learning in other’s mind

Knowledge (gap)Knowledge (gap)– Close the gap in knowledge, understanding, etc.Close the gap in knowledge, understanding, etc.

Ziv, M., & Frye, D. (in press) Ziv, M., & Frye, D. (in press) Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development

Mind The Gap!Mind The Gap!

Teaching and the Big Teaching and the Big DivideDivide

Do very young children teach?Do very young children teach?

Teaching Develops In Early Teaching Develops In Early ChildhoodChildhood

Strauss, S., Ziv, M., & Stein, A. (2002). Strauss, S., Ziv, M., & Stein, A. (2002). Teaching as a natural cognition and its Teaching as a natural cognition and its relations to preschoolers’ developing theory of mind. relations to preschoolers’ developing theory of mind. Cognitive Cognitive Development, 17,Development, 17, 1473-1487. 1473-1487.

Maynard, A. E. (2002). Cultural teaching: The development of teaching skills in Maynard, A. E. (2002). Cultural teaching: The development of teaching skills in Maya sibling interactions. Maya sibling interactions. Child Development, 73Child Development, 73, 969-982., 969-982.

Ashley, J., & Tomasello, M. (1998). Cooperative problem-solving and teaching Ashley, J., & Tomasello, M. (1998). Cooperative problem-solving and teaching in preschoolers. in preschoolers. Social Development, 7Social Development, 7, 143-163., 143-163.

Wood, D., Wood, H., Ainsworth, S., & O'Malley, C. (1995). On becoming a tutor: Wood, D., Wood, H., Ainsworth, S., & O'Malley, C. (1995). On becoming a tutor: Toward an ontogenetic model. Toward an ontogenetic model. Cognition and Instruction, 13Cognition and Instruction, 13, 565-581., 565-581.

Ellis, S., & Rogoff, B. (1982). The strategies and efficacy of child versus adult Ellis, S., & Rogoff, B. (1982). The strategies and efficacy of child versus adult teachers. teachers. Child Development, 53Child Development, 53, 730-735., 730-735.

3½-year-old children show initial indications that 3½-year-old children show initial indications that they can teachthey can teach

5½-year-olds can be excellent teachers5½-year-olds can be excellent teachers


Strauss, S., Ziv, M., & Stein, A. (2002). Teaching as a Strauss, S., Ziv, M., & Stein, A. (2002). Teaching as a natural cognition and its relations to preschoolers’ natural cognition and its relations to preschoolers’ developing theory of mind. developing theory of mind. Cognitive Development, 17,Cognitive Development, 17, 1473-1487.1473-1487.

Study toStudy to determine cognitive prerequisites determine cognitive prerequisites of teachingof teaching

50 pairs of children: 25 age 3½ 25 age 5½50 pairs of children: 25 age 3½ 25 age 5½


Children given 3 kinds of tasks Children given 3 kinds of tasks – who do you teach task who do you teach task

All solved it correctlyAll solved it correctly

– classic false belief tasksclassic false belief tasks 3 ½ & 5 ½ -year-olds solve incorrectly and correctly3 ½ & 5 ½ -year-olds solve incorrectly and correctly

– teaching false belief tasksteaching false belief tasks Same results as classic false belief tasksSame results as classic false belief tasks

Taught to play a competitive game (one Taught to play a competitive game (one winner)winner)

Call a friend over to play the gameCall a friend over to play the game

Teaching Emerges and Teaching Emerges and Develops In Early Develops In Early

ChildhoodChildhood

Findings for Findings for 3½ -year-olds3½ -year-olds Teach (play?) game without verbally stating rulesTeach (play?) game without verbally stating rules

– Perhaps demonstrate the rules by playingPerhaps demonstrate the rules by playing

InterveneIntervene when learner errs when learner errs– Teacher compares her representation of the game with Teacher compares her representation of the game with

the learner’s behaviors the learner’s behaviors – Mismatch leads to actions (teaching)Mismatch leads to actions (teaching)

Do Do notnot intervene intervene when learner is correct when learner is correct


ChildhoodChildhoodFindings for Findings for 3½ -year-olds3½ -year-olds

Are they teaching?Are they teaching? ““Demonstrate”Demonstrate” Maybe they are playing the game and not teachingMaybe they are playing the game and not teaching Maybe their Maybe their “corrections”“corrections” are merely making the are merely making the

right move for the other right move for the other Intervene to Intervene to change behaviors and resulting moves, change behaviors and resulting moves,

not changing mental statesnot changing mental states– so that it will conform to the rulesso that it will conform to the rules– no intention to correctno intention to correct

Do Do notnot solve classic and teaching FB tasks solve classic and teaching FB tasks


ChildhoodChildhood

2 reasons why 3½-year-olds may be 2 reasons why 3½-year-olds may be teachingteaching

– Teachers always Teachers always make the first movemake the first move

– CheatCheat when playing but not when teaching when playing but not when teaching Recognize different goalsRecognize different goals

– Teaching: pass on knowledgeTeaching: pass on knowledge– Playing competitive game: winPlaying competitive game: win


ChildhoodChildhood

Findings for Findings for 5½ -year-olds5½ -year-olds

Explain and demonstrate the rules Explain and demonstrate the rules Interventions seem to be aimed at mental statesInterventions seem to be aimed at mental states Sometimes ask questions using mental state Sometimes ask questions using mental state

termsterms– Do you understand? What do you think you should Do you understand? What do you think you should

do now?do now?


ChildhoodChildhood

BOTTOM LINEBOTTOM LINE::

Children in early childhood can teachChildren in early childhood can teach

Development of Teaching Development of Teaching Once It EmergesOnce It Emerges

Ashley & Tomasello; Astington & Pelletier; Maynard; Strauss, Ziv, & Stein; Ashley & Tomasello; Astington & Pelletier; Maynard; Strauss, Ziv, & Stein; Wood et al.Wood et al.

SequenceSequence– 2-year-olds: probably don’t teach (but Strauss & Ornan)2-year-olds: probably don’t teach (but Strauss & Ornan)– 3½-year-olds: teaching emerges - demonstrations3½-year-olds: teaching emerges - demonstrations– 5½-year-olds: explanations, references to mental states5½-year-olds: explanations, references to mental states– 7½-year-olds: more contingent and responsive (related to learner’s 7½-year-olds: more contingent and responsive (related to learner’s

knowledge state)knowledge state)– Adolescents? Perhaps Socratic teaching, metacognitiveAdolescents? Perhaps Socratic teaching, metacognitive– Adults?Adults?

There may be levelsThere may be levels These levels may be developmentalThese levels may be developmental

– Needs elaboration: age difference not necessarily Needs elaboration: age difference not necessarily developmental differencesdevelopmental differences

The Great Divide The Great Divide Chimpanzees do not teach (Elisabetta will Chimpanzees do not teach (Elisabetta will help us with this) and 3½-year-olds probably help us with this) and 3½-year-olds probably do and 5 ½ year-olds definitely dodo and 5 ½ year-olds definitely do

Teaching may be a place where the great Teaching may be a place where the great divide exists between humans and other divide exists between humans and other primatesprimates

Species-typical and probably species uniqueSpecies-typical and probably species unique

2. Teaching May Be A 2. Teaching May Be A Natural Cognitive Natural Cognitive

PredispositionPredisposition

Includes domains such as:Includes domains such as:

anthropology- cultural evolutionanthropology- cultural evolution

biological evolution (phylogeny)biological evolution (phylogeny)

primatologyprimatology

child development (ontogeny): child development (ontogeny): infancy - adulthoodinfancy - adulthood

non-normative cognitive non-normative cognitive development and functioningdevelopment and functioning

Teaching as a Natural Teaching as a Natural Cognitive PredispositionCognitive Predisposition

Combined claims about teachingCombined claims about teaching::

species typical: universalspecies typical: universal

may be species unique with ToMmay be species unique with ToM

remarkably complex cognitivelyremarkably complex cognitively

poverty of the stimulus: invisibility and samplingpoverty of the stimulus: invisibility and sampling

teaching appears among toddlersteaching appears among toddlers

does not require instruction to be learneddoes not require instruction to be learned

maybe learned effortlesslymaybe learned effortlessly

Species Typical: Universality Species Typical: Universality of Teaching Among Humansof Teaching Among Humans

Species typicalSpecies typical or universal?or universal?– Do all societies have teaching?Do all societies have teaching?

David LancyDavid Lancy Alan FiskeAlan Fiske

If not, why do some societies not have If not, why do some societies not have teaching?teaching?

Could teaching be a cultural adaptation?Could teaching be a cultural adaptation? Does this ruin the cognitive Does this ruin the cognitive

predisposition claim?predisposition claim?

Universality of Teaching Universality of Teaching Among HumansAmong Humans

Reasons why universality is importantReasons why universality is important

– Species typical. No exceptionsSpecies typical. No exceptions Part of every culturePart of every culture

– Everyone is exposed to teachingEveryone is exposed to teaching

Universality of Teaching Universality of Teaching Among HumansAmong Humans

Vast cultural differencesVast cultural differences

However, teaching may be quite uniform across culturesHowever, teaching may be quite uniform across cultures

Teaching differs inTeaching differs in

– Amount (Tuareg in North Africa; St. Louis)Amount (Tuareg in North Africa; St. Louis)

– Content (poisoning spear tip among San !Kung in Content (poisoning spear tip among San !Kung in South Africa; feeding pigs in Sichuan districtSouth Africa; feeding pigs in Sichuan district in China; feeding pigeons in Trafalgar Square)in China; feeding pigeons in Trafalgar Square)

Universality of Teaching Universality of Teaching Among Humans: Mother Teaching Among Humans: Mother Teaching

Daughter to Sew, Chongzhou China Daughter to Sew, Chongzhou China 20042004

Sometimes through Sometimes through explanationexplanation as in as in

university teaching in Czechoslovakiauniversity teaching in Czechoslovakia(photo by Alfred Eisenstaedt, (photo by Alfred Eisenstaedt, LifeLife))

and in Bechuanaland and in Bechuanaland (photo by Nat Farbman, (photo by Nat Farbman, LifeLife))

Universality of Teaching in Universality of Teaching in Human CulturesHuman Cultures

Sometimes through Sometimes through demonstrationdemonstration as as seen among hunter-gatherers in seen among hunter-gatherers in BechuanalandBechuanaland

) ) photo by Nat Farbman, photo by Nat Farbman, LifeLife((

Universality of Teaching in Universality of Teaching in Human CulturesHuman Cultures

And sometimes we teach by And sometimes we teach by correctingcorrecting towards an ideal towards an ideal

) ) photo by Alfred Eisenstaedt, Truempy Ballet School, Berlin, 1930photo by Alfred Eisenstaedt, Truempy Ballet School, Berlin, 1930((

Cultural Diversity and Cultural Diversity and UniversalityUniversality

Bottom linesBottom lines Enormous cultural variationEnormous cultural variation Teaching and the cognitive abilities necessary Teaching and the cognitive abilities necessary

for teaching may be universalfor teaching may be universal The The contentcontent and and amountamount of teaching is of teaching is

different between culturesdifferent between cultures The The cognitive abilitiescognitive abilities that allow teaching are that allow teaching are

identicalidentical The The waysways of teaching are very similar of teaching are very similar

– Explanation, demonstration, correcting, etc.Explanation, demonstration, correcting, etc.

Teaching’s Remarkable Teaching’s Remarkable Cognitive ComplexityCognitive Complexity

Teaching is extremely complexTeaching is extremely complex

Teachers make inferences and attributions Teachers make inferences and attributions about others’:about others’:

minds (beliefs, partial knowledge, etc.)minds (beliefs, partial knowledge, etc.)emotions (anxious, comfortable)emotions (anxious, comfortable)motivation (high, low)motivation (high, low)


Based on these attributions and Based on these attributions and inferences, teachers teachinferences, teachers teach

Purpose of teachingPurpose of teachingto cause learning in othersto cause learning in others

psychological causalitypsychological causality

Teaching involves inferences aboutTeaching involves inferences aboutothers’ minds (knowledge gaps, others’ minds (knowledge gaps, emotional state, motivational state)emotional state, motivational state)how learning occurs in others’ mindshow learning occurs in others’ minds


How we teach indicates what our understandings How we teach indicates what our understandings of the mind are and how learning occursof the mind are and how learning occurs

UnreflectiveUnreflective– Donor for a Center for Research on Learning at Tel Aviv Donor for a Center for Research on Learning at Tel Aviv

UniversityUniversity

BOTTOM LINEBOTTOM LINE: Teaching is : Teaching is remarkably complex! (More about this remarkably complex! (More about this later)later)

Teaching not TaughtTeaching not Taught

Very young children are Very young children are exposed toexposed to teachingteaching

BUTBUT

Probably not taught how to teachProbably not taught how to teach

Learning how to teach seems to be effortlessLearning how to teach seems to be effortless

33 . .Cognitive Prerequisites Cognitive Prerequisites of Teachingof Teaching

Unlike language, we are at the beginning Unlike language, we are at the beginning of understandingof understanding

Declarative Knowledge Declarative Knowledge – Epistemological assumptions Epistemological assumptions

Procedural KnowledgeProcedural Knowledge– ProcessesProcesses– Discourse modelDiscourse model

44 . .My Developmental My Developmental ClaimsClaims

Declarative and procedural cognitive Declarative and procedural cognitive prerequisitesprerequisites for teaching for teaching developdevelop during during infancyinfancy

Teaching Teaching emergesemerges when prerequisites reach a when prerequisites reach a certain (undetermined) level at around age 3 ½ certain (undetermined) level at around age 3 ½

TeachingTeaching from that age from that age developsdevelops until until

adolescence (? … and beyond?)adolescence (? … and beyond?)

The Emergence of The Emergence of TeachingTeaching

Teaching Teaching emergesemerges when cognitive when cognitive prerequisites of teaching (declarative prerequisites of teaching (declarative and procedural knowledge) reach and procedural knowledge) reach certain (not yet determined) certain (not yet determined) developmental levelsdevelopmental levels

Around age 3 ½ Around age 3 ½

Tentative ConclusionsTentative Conclusions

If teaching is If teaching is – Universal (species typical with ToM)Universal (species typical with ToM)– Remarkably complexRemarkably complex– Mostly invisible and hardly sampledMostly invisible and hardly sampled– Not taught, yet learned effortlesslyNot taught, yet learned effortlessly– Occurs in early childhoodOccurs in early childhood

BOTTOM LINE: Teaching may be a natural BOTTOM LINE: Teaching may be a natural cognitive predispositioncognitive predisposition

5. Where to Go Empirically to 5. Where to Go Empirically to Test Development of Cognitive Test Development of Cognitive Prerequisites and Teaching?Prerequisites and Teaching?

Phylogenetic emergence:Phylogenetic emergence: Primates and lower Primates and lower (Christophe Boesch, Uri Leron, Danny Povinelli, (Christophe Boesch, Uri Leron, Danny Povinelli, Elisa Visalberghi)Elisa Visalberghi)

Research on Research on toddlerstoddlers: ontogenetic emergence (MA : ontogenetic emergence (MA theses: Adi Stein; Ayelet Solomon; Noah Mor; BA theses: Adi Stein; Ayelet Solomon; Noah Mor; BA honors thesis: Anna Gavrilov)honors thesis: Anna Gavrilov)

Pragmatics in linguisticsPragmatics in linguistics differences between cheating (deception) and differences between cheating (deception) and teaching (Ziv& Frye)teaching (Ziv& Frye)

Where to Go Empirically For Where to Go Empirically For Cognitive Prerequisites for Cognitive Prerequisites for

TeachingTeaching??Children translatingChildren translating

Teaching among extremely gifted teachersTeaching among extremely gifted teachers: adult developmental end : adult developmental end pointpoint

Developmental or physiological problemsDevelopmental or physiological problems- high functioning autistic syndrome/Asperger (Ronny Friedman with- high functioning autistic syndrome/Asperger (Ronny Friedman with

Margalit Ziv)Margalit Ziv)- brain damage (prefrontal lobe) and teaching (Noga Balaban with- brain damage (prefrontal lobe) and teaching (Noga Balaban with

Naama Friedman)Naama Friedman)- specific language impairment: semantic-pragmatic deficit- specific language impairment: semantic-pragmatic deficit (MA thesis: Anna Gavrilov with Naama Friedmann and (MA thesis: Anna Gavrilov with Naama Friedmann and

Margalit Ziv)Margalit Ziv)- teaching disabilities (!)- teaching disabilities (!)

Where to Go Empirically For Where to Go Empirically For Cognitive Prerequisites for Cognitive Prerequisites for

TeachingTeaching??

Formal systems of analysisFormal systems of analysis

– – AI, artificial life (Tzur Sayag, MattAI, artificial life (Tzur Sayag, Matt

Schlessinger)Schlessinger)

Theory of mind Theory of mind theory and research (Margalit theory and research (Margalit Ziv)Ziv)

6. Teacher Education 6. Teacher Education ImplicationsImplications

““That’s all right in practice. But does it work in That’s all right in practice. But does it work in theory?”*theory?”*

Attributed to a former Irish prime minister in response Attributed to a former Irish prime minister in response to policy proposals.to policy proposals.

Times Literary SupplementTimes Literary Supplement, Terry Eagleton, , Terry Eagleton, September 3, 1999, p. 18September 3, 1999, p. 18

*Thanks to *Thanks to Talma YzraelyTalma Yzraely for this quote for this quote

Teacher Education Teacher Education ImplicationsImplications

What I do What I do NOT, NOT, NOT NOT, NOT, NOT want to saywant to say

If :If : toddlers request and are sensitive to toddlers request and are sensitive to

teaching preschoolers know how to teach teaching preschoolers know how to teach Then, Then, there is no room for teacher education there is no room for teacher education


What I do want to say:What I do want to say:

We may want to think about teacher education We may want to think about teacher education in ways unlike our present thinkingin ways unlike our present thinking

Some of this thinking informed by Some of this thinking informed by developmental considerationsdevelopmental considerations

what is different about children’s and what is different about children’s and adults’ teachingadults’ teaching


Analogy to children’s science and math Analogy to children’s science and math concepts and how to teach to those conceptsconcepts and how to teach to those concepts

Teachers have “mis”conceptions about Teachers have “mis”conceptions about teaching, the mind, etc.teaching, the mind, etc.– They are resistant to changeThey are resistant to change– My experienceMy experience

Teaching teachers to teach in constructivist ways Teaching teachers to teach in constructivist ways has not been completely successfulhas not been completely successful

Often return to direct transmission (DT) modelOften return to direct transmission (DT) model Perhaps children’s natural cognitive ability is a Perhaps children’s natural cognitive ability is a

precursor of adults’ DT modelprecursor of adults’ DT model


Roles of various content in teacher education curricula: Roles of various content in teacher education curricula: *subject matter*subject matter

won’t change how teachers teachwon’t change how teachers teachwill change what is taughtwill change what is taught

*teaching techniques for subject matter*teaching techniques for subject matter*theories of learning and development*theories of learning and development minimal Piaget – use as a metaphorminimal Piaget – use as a metaphor*mind-reading*mind-reading subject matter-relatedsubject matter-related

analogy to clinical psychology analogy to clinical psychology trainingtraining

7. Weaknesses of the 7. Weaknesses of the ApproachApproach

Separating teaching from other forms of Separating teaching from other forms of social communicationsocial communication– Conversation, argument, cheating, etc.Conversation, argument, cheating, etc.

Probably implicates intentionalityProbably implicates intentionality– Mother-infant interactionsMother-infant interactions

Definitions of intentionality (for teaching)Definitions of intentionality (for teaching)– Searle, DennettSearle, Dennett– May be levels of intentionalityMay be levels of intentionality

Lack of precise definition of teachingLack of precise definition of teaching– Makes use of computational models, Alife difficultMakes use of computational models, Alife difficult– Narrow versus broadNarrow versus broad

77 . .Weaknesses of the Weaknesses of the ApproachApproach

Developmental issuesDevelopmental issues– Age differences do not mean Age differences do not mean

developmental differencesdevelopmental differences– What are the psychological entities that What are the psychological entities that

develop?develop?– What are the mechanisms governing What are the mechanisms governing

development?development?

SummarySummary1. teaching and the cognitive sciences writ large 1. teaching and the cognitive sciences writ large

haven’t yet methaven’t yet met2. teaching may be a 2. teaching may be a natural cognitive natural cognitive

predispositionpredisposition3. cognitive prerequisites of teaching3. cognitive prerequisites of teaching

*declarative and procedural knowledge*declarative and procedural knowledge4. my claims about ontogenesis4. my claims about ontogenesis

*cognitive prerequisites develop, leading *cognitive prerequisites develop, leading to emergence of teachingto emergence of teaching*after its emergence, teaching develops*after its emergence, teaching develops

5. new places to go empirically5. new places to go empirically6. teacher education6. teacher education

7. weaknesses of the approach 7. weaknesses of the approach

גמרנוגמרנו

I hope you:I hope you:

noticed that teaching is an noticed that teaching is an extraordinarily rich domainextraordinarily rich domain

found interest in these ideasfound interest in these ideas

Cognitive Prerequisites of Cognitive Prerequisites of Teaching: Declarative Teaching: Declarative

KnowledgeKnowledge

Partial list of Partial list of epistemological assumptionsepistemological assumptions Others have a mindOthers have a mind

– Same as mineSame as mine The mind contains knowledge, beliefsThe mind contains knowledge, beliefs

– Same as and different than mineSame as and different than mine What is in the mind gets expressed veridically (truth) or non-What is in the mind gets expressed veridically (truth) or non-

veridically (fibs/lies)veridically (fibs/lies) You teach someone you You teach someone you believebelieve has insufficient knowledge has insufficient knowledge

(false belief about teaching)(false belief about teaching) Psychological causalityPsychological causality

– Action-at-a-distanceAction-at-a-distance

Cognitive Prerequisites of Cognitive Prerequisites of Teaching: Procedural Teaching: Procedural

KnowledgeKnowledgeFeedback loops when teaching - Feedback loops when teaching -

On-line theory of mindOn-line theory of mind

Teacher teaches Teacher teaches – Attempts to read others’ Attempts to read others’

Knowledge, beliefs, skillsKnowledge, beliefs, skills Emotional stateEmotional state Motivational stateMotivational state

Cognitive Prerequisites of Cognitive Prerequisites of TeachingTeaching

Feedback loops when teaching (continued)Feedback loops when teaching (continued) When a teacher believes the pupils When a teacher believes the pupils do/dodo/do notnot

understand the materialunderstand the material– Representation of the correct understandingRepresentation of the correct understanding– Representation of the pupils’ correct/incorrect understandingRepresentation of the pupils’ correct/incorrect understanding– Detect a match/mismatchDetect a match/mismatch

If mismatch, leads to new teaching strategyIf mismatch, leads to new teaching strategy Based on the teacher’s understanding of Based on the teacher’s understanding of

– the mind (ignorance, partial knowledge, misconception)the mind (ignorance, partial knowledge, misconception)– how learning takes place in the mindhow learning takes place in the mind


KnowledgeKnowledge Executive function (umbrella term)Executive function (umbrella term)

– PlanningPlanning– Working memoryWorking memory– Impulse controlImpulse control– InhibitionInhibition– Mental flexibilityMental flexibility– Initiating actionInitiating action– Monitoring actionMonitoring action– Monitoring one’s and others’ mental statesMonitoring one’s and others’ mental states

Mostly involves disengaging from immediate Mostly involves disengaging from immediate environment to guide actionsenvironment to guide actions


KnowledgeKnowledge MutualMutual monitoringmonitoring related to roles related to roles Who is the teacher?Who is the teacher?

– More knowledge (more power)More knowledge (more power) Who is the learner?Who is the learner?

– Less knowledge (less power)Less knowledge (less power) Teacher Teacher

– Monitors and manages, directs, and controls learners’ mental, emotional, Monitors and manages, directs, and controls learners’ mental, emotional, motivational statesmotivational states

– Decides when and how to teach Decides when and how to teach – Monitors the results of teachingMonitors the results of teaching

Learner Learner – Monitors teacher’s teachingMonitors teacher’s teaching– Attempts to understand teachers’ representation of the domain, problem, Attempts to understand teachers’ representation of the domain, problem,

issueissue

Cognitive and Interpersonal Cognitive and Interpersonal Prerequisites of Teaching: Prerequisites of Teaching:

Discourse ModelDiscourse Model

David Bearison et al.; Bill DamonDavid Bearison et al.; Bill Damon

Regulatory properties of discourse between expert Regulatory properties of discourse between expert and novice change in the course of teachingand novice change in the course of teaching– When teaching begins, teacher directs, manages, controls When teaching begins, teacher directs, manages, controls

discourse.discourse.– Maintained by Maintained by bothboth teacher and learner during instruction teacher and learner during instruction– As learner knows more, the discourse becomes more one As learner knows more, the discourse becomes more one

of collaborationof collaboration Knowing how to do that is essential for teachingKnowing how to do that is essential for teaching

Theory of MindTheory of Mind

An understanding that others have An understanding that others have beliefs, desires, emotions, intentions, beliefs, desires, emotions, intentions, motivations motivations – May be different than one’s ownMay be different than one’s own– Others may have false beliefsOthers may have false beliefs

Classic task Classic task

Teaching Instinct: Cultural Teaching Instinct: Cultural EvolutionEvolution

Cultures replicate themselvesCultures replicate themselves– Tomasello et al. (1993)Tomasello et al. (1993)

Technologies that allow this replicationTechnologies that allow this replication– mythsmyths– artifactsartifacts– institutionsinstitutions– ceremoniesceremonies

Teaching is also a technology devised to pass on cultural Teaching is also a technology devised to pass on cultural knowledgeknowledge– Preserves cultural innovationsPreserves cultural innovations– Has value as a survival mechanismHas value as a survival mechanism


Controversy about what gets passed on Controversy about what gets passed on memes (Blackmore, 1999; Dawkins, 1999)memes (Blackmore, 1999; Dawkins, 1999)

““an element of a culture that may be an element of a culture that may be considered to be passed on by non-genetic considered to be passed on by non-genetic

means, means, especially imitation” (Dawkins, 1999, p.viii)especially imitation” (Dawkins, 1999, p.viii)

Controversy about mechanisms Controversy about mechanisms • imitation (Blackmore, 1999; Dawkins, 1999; imitation (Blackmore, 1999; Dawkins, 1999; Tomasello et al. 1993) Tomasello et al. 1993) • contagion (Sperber, 2000)contagion (Sperber, 2000)


BOTTOM LINE:BOTTOM LINE:

Teaching plays a role in cultural Teaching plays a role in cultural – Transmission and preservationTransmission and preservation

– Maybe not cultural innovationMaybe not cultural innovation

Development of Teaching Once Development of Teaching Once

Teaching Emerges: Research inTeaching Emerges: Research in China with Jin LiChina with Jin Li

Know Know how to how to play?play?

Say rules Say rules to experi- to experi- menter menter before before teaching?teaching?

Teach by Teach by demonstrdemonstra-ting?a-ting?

Teach Teach rules rules verbally?verbally?

3 ½ 3 ½ ++--++--

5 ½ 5 ½ ++++++--

7 ½ 7 ½ ++++++++

Nativist Claims RevisitedNativist Claims Revisited

Although teaching meets some nativist Although teaching meets some nativist criteriacriteria

– Unlikely there is a teaching moduleUnlikely there is a teaching module– Teaching is one kind of communicationTeaching is one kind of communication

Nativist Claims RevisitedNativist Claims Revisited

Nativists do not make developmental Nativists do not make developmental claims like Piagetclaims like Piaget

Minimal roles forMinimal roles for– culture culture – social interaction social interaction

Development of Teaching (Not Development of Teaching (Not Prerequisites for Teaching): Prerequisites for Teaching):

Sensitivity to Teaching Sensitivity to Teaching Among ToddlersAmong Toddlers

Sensitivity to teaching may appear among 2-year-oldsSensitivity to teaching may appear among 2-year-oldsNaming of objectsNaming of objects

What is involved in a child asking for an object’s What is involved in a child asking for an object’s name? name?

1. “Knows” that objects have names1. “Knows” that objects have names2. Knows that he does not know the name2. Knows that he does not know the name3. Believes others have knowledge of the 3. Believes others have knowledge of the

name (2+3 – knowledge gap)name (2+3 – knowledge gap)4. A request will yield the name from4. A request will yield the name from

someonesomeone

Development of Teaching: Development of Teaching: Sensitivity to Teaching Sensitivity to Teaching

Among ToddlersAmong Toddlers

BOTTOM LINE:BOTTOM LINE: 2-year-olds may have a 2-year-olds may have a sensitivity towards teachingsensitivity towards teaching

Strauss, S., & Ziv, M. (2001). A request for naming Strauss, S., & Ziv, M. (2001). A request for naming may be a request for teaching. may be a request for teaching. Behavioral and Behavioral and Brain Sciences, Brain Sciences, 24,24, 1118-1119.1118-1119.

What Is Teaching, Anyway?What Is Teaching, Anyway?

Biological definitionBiological definition ““An individual actor An individual actor AA can be said to teach can be said to teach if it if it

modifies its behaviorsmodifies its behaviors only in the presence of a only in the presence of a naïve observer, naïve observer, BB, , at some costat some cost or at least without or at least without obtaining an immediate benefit for itself. obtaining an immediate benefit for itself. AA’s ’s behavior thereby encourages or punishesbehavior thereby encourages or punishes BB’s ’s behavior, or behavior, or provides provides BB with with experience or sets experience or sets an examplean example for for BB. As a result, . As a result, BB acquires acquires knowledge or learns a skill earlier in life or more knowledge or learns a skill earlier in life or more rapidly or efficiently than it might otherwise do, or rapidly or efficiently than it might otherwise do, or that it would not learn at all.”that it would not learn at all.”Caro, T. M. & Hauser, M. D. (1992) Is there teaching in nonhuman animals? Caro, T. M. & Hauser, M. D. (1992) Is there teaching in nonhuman animals? The The Quarterly Review of Biology, 67,Quarterly Review of Biology, 67, 151-171.151-171.


Biological definition motivated by Biological definition motivated by – Evolutionary theory Evolutionary theory – Empirical work, ethology and labEmpirical work, ethology and lab

This definition of teaching does This definition of teaching does notnot require an require an – understanding of others’ mindsunderstanding of others’ minds – intentionalityintentionality

Partial consensus:Partial consensus: Very little Very little teachingteaching with this with this broad definition broad definition – Visalberghi (1996), Premack (2004), Povinelli (1993) Visalberghi (1996), Premack (2004), Povinelli (1993) butbut

see Boesch (1993), Savage-Rumbaughsee Boesch (1993), Savage-Rumbaugh

Development of the Development of the Cognitive PrerequisitesCognitive Prerequisites of of

TeachingTeaching

Declarative KnowledgeDeclarative KnowledgeGopnik, Meltzoff, Tomasello, Woodward Gopnik, Meltzoff, Tomasello, Woodward Others are intentional agents (~ 1½ years)Others are intentional agents (~ 1½ years) Others have a mind: intentionality (~ 1½ years)Others have a mind: intentionality (~ 1½ years)

– Same as mineSame as mine The mind contains knowledge, skills, beliefsThe mind contains knowledge, skills, beliefs

– Same as and different than mine (~ 4 years)Same as and different than mine (~ 4 years) What is in the mind gets expressed veridically (truth) or What is in the mind gets expressed veridically (truth) or

non-veridically (lies/fibs) (untested)non-veridically (lies/fibs) (untested) Psychological causalityPsychological causality

– Action-at-a-distance (untested)Action-at-a-distance (untested)

Development of the Development of the Cognitive Prerequisites of Cognitive Prerequisites of

TeachingTeachingProcedural KnowledgeProcedural Knowledge

Executive function (umbrella term)Executive function (umbrella term)– PlanningPlanning– Working memoryWorking memory– Impulse controlImpulse control– InhibitionInhibition– Mental flexibilityMental flexibility– Initiating actionInitiating action– Monitoring actionMonitoring action– Monitoring one’s and others’ statesMonitoring one’s and others’ states

Mostly involves disengaging from immediate environment to guide actionsMostly involves disengaging from immediate environment to guide actions

??

the human teaching disposition sidney strauss tel aviv university james s. mcdonnell foundation...

Documents

teaching slide

emergence of teaching

good teaching

cognitive development

cognitive sciences havent

different view of teaching

classic example teaching

approach slide