Chapter 5The Psychology of Athletes and Sports

Injury

Psychology of Injury• The relationship between psychological

variables and sports injuries is increasingly being investigated. The following have been identified as areas that might affect both the mental and physical health of an athlete. • Personality traits• Life Stress• Depression• Competitive Stress • Eating Disorders

Psychosocial Variablesand Injury

• Psychosocial variables develop through interaction between individual and a changing social environment.

• Life events can be stressful either positively or negatively. • A strong relationship exists between negative

events and increased injury risk.• Athletes with higher degrees of coping skills are

less likely to get injured.

• Recent research has demonstrated correlations between injury and exhaustion in collegiate athletes. (Vetter and Symonds, 2010)

• Athletes reporting exhaustion occurring sometimes.• Females (66%); Males (59%)

• Athletes reporting exhaustion occurring frequently.• Females (30%); Males (23%)

Psychosocial Variablesand Injury

Psychosocial Variablesand Injury

• Perceived stress, levels of social support, and fatigue may all be connected to sports injury and need to be addressed because they present problems for athletes in their sport and life.

• There are very complex interactions between life situations, personality, and current situations.

• Research typically seeks to define relationships between variables in an effort to improve treatment and recognition.

Personality Variables• 5 general traits are

extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness (Goldberg, 1990)

• Characteristics that may be related to sports injuries include:• General personality; Trait

anxiety; Locus of control; Self-concept; Stress response

Self Concept and Injury• Theory that athletes with a low self-concept are

less able to deal effectively with the stress of competition. • Though a true relationship has yet to be defined.

(Kleinert, 2002)

• Inability to cope may even result in behavior that leads to injury.

• Injury gives the athlete a legitimate excuse to avoid playing.

• Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (TSCS) may be given for screening.

Life Stress in Injury• Convincing findings have been produced from research

examining the relationship between psychosocial factors (e.g., social environment, life stress, and mood) and injury rates (Wiese-Bjornstal , 2010)

• Evidence suggests that when an athlete is experiencing significant personal changes, especially those seen as negative, the chances of injury increase.

• Two psychosocial variables; history of stressors and coping resources play a significant role in the cognitive appraisal and physiological responses to stressful situations and may influence the occurrence of injuries.

Life Event QuestionnairesA variety of scales can be used to assess life stress.

• Athletes with high life-stress scores might benefit from referral to a counselor in an effort to improve coping skills.

• Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)• Social and Athletic Readjustment Rating Scale

(SARRS)• Life Event Scale for Adolescents (LESA)• Life Event Questionnaire (LEQ)• Life Event Survey for Collegiate Athletes (LESCA)• Athletic Life Experience Survey (ALES)

Depression and Athletes• Major depression, dysthymia, and bipolar disorder

are the most common.• Identification in athletes may be tough.

• Seeking help is often seen as a sign of weakness or failure rather than a sign of strength (NCAA, 2012)

• Common signs and symptoms• Indecisiveness, Feeling sad, Difficulty concentrating,

Loss of interest, Frequent feelings of worthlessness• Athletic departments should foster relationships

with mental health resources.

Competitive Stress and Adolescents

• As more adolescents participate in sports, there are more concerns regarding the psychological impact of competition:• Intensity of competition has increased.• Pressure to win has risen.

• Coaches and parents must take care to avoid forcing children beyond their ability to cope.

• Young athletes may be more prone to injury, psychosomatic illness, burnout, and other stress-related problems.

• According to the Association of Applied Sport Psychology concern should be raised if: • Conversations at home are dominated by sport

discussions.• Child is allowed little time to spend with his friends.• Child’s education becomes a distant second priority

to competition and talent development.• Child is overly nervous about competing especially

when parents are watching.

Competitive Stress and Adolescents

• Do allow children to be interested and want to play whatever sport he or she chooses.

• Do teach children to respect his/her coach.• Do be willing to let children make his/her own

mistakes and learn from them.• Do be interested and supportive, light and

playful, understanding. • Do model flexibility of your own opinions.

Competitive Stress and Adolescents

• Don’t try to relive your youth through children. • Don’t blame the equipment, coach, other

players, referees or even the weather if the team does not do well or win.

• Don’t push, push, push….Children who are pushed beyond their capabilities may lose their self-confidence.

• Don’t expect perfection or tie your ego or image to the children’s performance.

Competitive Stress and Adolescents

Psychology of Injury• Injury is a psychological stressor for athletes.• According to Weiss & Troxel:

• Phase 1 –The athlete adapts to activity restriction and situation.

• Phase 2 – The athlete appraises short- and long-term significance of the injury.

• Phase 3 – The athlete experiences emotional responses.

• Final stage – The athlete copes with long-term consequences.

Psychology of the Injured Athlete

• Recommendations involve:• Treating the person, not just the injury.• Treating the athlete as an individual.• Keeping in mind the importance of

communication skills.• Remembering the relationship between

physical & psychological skills.• Seeking the help of a sports psychologist.

Eating Disorders

Why are eating disorders prevalent in athletics?• Majority of sports have narrow parameters for

appropriate body type for athletic success.• Specific sports require specific body types.• Media exposure focuses on physical

appearance, especially for females. • Emphasis on the ideal body has negative effects on

the athletes and can lead to serious diseases.

Types of Eating Disorders • Anorexia nervosa – self-starvation motivated by

obsession with thinness and overwhelming fear of fat• Bulimia nervosa– repeated bouts of binge eating followed by some form

of purging• Subclinical Disordered Eating

• Dieting obsessively when not overweight• Preoccupation with food, calories, nutrition, and

cooking• Excessive exercising • Frequent weighing

Risk Factors(Monsma, 2006)

• Sport task - revealing uniforms or being physically evaluated

• Sport environment - comments from teammates, coaches, parents or judges

• Biological characteristics - metabolism and physical size

• Psychological characteristics - self-esteem, body image and anxiety.

Research of Eating Disorders (Rosen et al, 1986; Sanford-Martens, 2009; Greenleaf et al, 2009)

• More than 1/3 of athletes have reported to use at least one extreme dieting method.

• 25-32% of female athletes were classified as having symptoms and patterns of clinical disordered eating.

• 2-3.4% were classified as having a clinical diagnosis of an eating disorder

Sport Specificity and Eating Disorders

• Female athletes (5%) are more likely to practice pathogenic (unhealthy) dietary habits than males (2%). (Sanford-Martens et al, 2005)

• More research is needed into the pathogenic eating disorders in male athletes. For example, making weight in wrestling.

• Are males susceptible to the same pressures as female counterparts?

• Is there underreporting in the male population?

Sport Specificity and Eating Disorders

• Female athletes involved in sports that place a premium on physical appearance (aesthetic sports) demonstrate a significantly higher prevalence of eating disorder symptoms than do female nonathletes (Hausenblas & Carron, 1999)

• 33-40% of aesthetic and power sports had symptomatic athletes

• 21-27% of cross country, swimming, track, and ball sports had symptoms

Consequences of Eating Disorders• Dehydration; gastric upset; esophageal

inflammation; erosion of tooth enamel; hormone imbalances, amenorrhea; kidney and heart problems; depression and anxiety are often co-morbid syndrome in people with eating disorders.

• female athlete triad links disordered eating with osteoporosis and amenorrhea (Nattiv et. al, 2007)

• male athlete triad links energy deficits, bone loss, and low sperm counts to hormonal changes (Chatterton & Petrie, 2013).

Prevention• Placing less emphasis on weight.

• Avoiding referral to weight in a negative manner. Avoiding ostracizing an athlete for being overweight.

• Avoiding mandatory weigh-ins.• Coaches and parents need to be alert for early

warning signs of eating disorders.• Screening or clinical interviews with athletes

during PPE.• Athletes Targeting Healthy Exercise and Nutrition

Alternatives (ATHENA)

Treatment

• Ranges from counseling and education to hospitalization.

• May include psychological counseling as eating disorders can be symptoms of severe psychological problems such as depression.

• One-third of all cases do not respond to therapy.