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THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

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Before 1500, people believed the Earth was the center of a universe and everything revolved around it- the geocentric theory.

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A Polish cleric named Nicolaus Copernicus said that the planets and moons revolved around the sun.

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This is known as the heliocentric theory.

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Copernicus feared ridicule and delayed publishing his findings until 1543- the last year of his life.

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Why would he fear ridicule?

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Tycho Brahe left a mountain of data about the movements of heavenly bodies.

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Johannes Kepler concluded from Brahes data that planets orbit the sun in elliptical, not circular, orbits.

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Galileo Galilei created a telescope to better study the heavenly bodies.

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He published a book describing Jupiters four moons, sunspots and the moons uneven surface.

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In 1616, the Catholic Church warned Galileo not to support Copernicus ideas, fearing people would question all Church doctrines.

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Galileo went to Rome in 1632 to stand trial for his book that supported Copernicus views.

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Galileo read a signed confession that Copernicus was wrong and was sentenced to house arrest. 12

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These astronomical discoveries helped lead to the development of the scientific method- a logical procedure for gathering and testing ideas.

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This was furthered by Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes.

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Bacon urged scientists to experiment and draw conclusions- empiricism.

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Descartes developed analytical geometry- linking algebra and geometry.

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He believed that everything should be doubted until proved by reason.

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In 1687, Isaac Newton brought all of the astronomical ideas together in a single theory of motion called universal gravitation.

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It explains that all motion is linked by a common thread.

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He believed that the universe was like a giant clock, with all its parts working together perfectly in ways that could be expressed mathematically.

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Many new tools were created during this time.

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Zacharias Janssen invented the first microscope in 1590.

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In 1643, Evangelista Torricelli made the first mercury barometer- a tool for measuring atmospheric pressure.

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In 1714, Gabriel Fahrenheit created the first mercury thermometer- showing water freezing at 32 degrees.

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In 1742, Anders Celsius made a different thermometer that showed water freezing at 0 degrees.

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When Fahrenheit already had a thermometer, why would Celsius create a new one?

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Andreas Vesalius was the first to dissect a human body.

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In the late 1700s, Edward Jenner introduced the first vaccine- one to prevent smallpox.

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Robert Boyle, considered the father of modern chemistry, created a law that describes how the volume, temperature and pressure of gas affect each other. 28

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THE ENLIGHTENMENT IN EUROPE

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Because of the Scientific Revolution, people began to question other aspects of society.

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The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that stressed reason and thought and the power of individuals to solve problems.

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Thomas Hobbes believed that without government, anarchy would reign.

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To escape such a life, humans needed to give up their rights to a strong ruler in exchange for law and order.

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He called this situation the social contract.

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In so saying, a monarchs power went from justification by divine right to the consent of the governed.

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believed differently.

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He said that people could learn from their experience and improve themselves.

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He believed we could govern our own affairs and be responsible for the welfare of society.

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Locke stated that all people were born equal with three natural rights- life, liberty and property.

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He said the purpose of a government is to protect those rights- if they didnt citizens had the right to overthrow it.

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Hobbes or Locke? Which is right?

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It was Lockes ideas that inspired revolutions in Europe and America. 41

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In the mid-1700s, the Enlightenment spread to Paris, which became the meeting place of philosophes- who wanted to discuss politics and ideas.

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Five concepts formed the core of philosophe belief.

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1. Reason- Enlightened thinkers believed truth could be discovered through reason or logical thinking.

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2. Nature- The philosophes believed what was natural was also good and reasonable.

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3. Happiness- They rejected the notion that people should find joy in the afterlife and urged people to seek well-being in this life.

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4. Progress- They stressed that society and humankind could improve.

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5. Liberty- They called for the liberties that the English had won in their Glorious Revolution and Bill of Rights.

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Francois Marie Arouet- Voltaire published more than 70 books targeting clergy, aristocracy and government.

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Voltaire never quit fighting for tolerance, reason, freedom of religious belief and freedom of speech.

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Baron de Montesquieu wrote about political liberty.

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He believed that the separation of powers would keep anyone from gaining too much control of the government.

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Power should be a check to power.

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Another philosophe, Jean Jacques Rousseau was committed to individual freedom.

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Rousseau believed civilization corrupted peoples natural goodness.

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Are we corrupted by civilization? If we all lived alone in bubbles, would we have bad thoughts/actions?

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Rousseau believed that the only good government was guided by the general will of society- a direct democracy.

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Rousseaus social contract was an agreement between individuals to create a government.

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He said all people were equal and that the nobility should be abolished. 58

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Cesare Beccaria focused on the judicial system.

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He believed laws existed to preserve social order.

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He said the accused should receive a speedy trial, not be tortured and the punishment should fit the crime.

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A few outcomes occurred from the Enlightenment.

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The first was the idea that human reason could solve social problems.

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The second effect was a rise in a more secular outlook.

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The third effect was the rise of individualism.

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This was an emphasis in using your own reason to judge right from wrong.

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THE ENLIGHTENMENT SPREADS

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Women passed the ideas of the philosophes on during regular social gatherings called salons.

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One salon hostess was Marie- Therese Geoffrin.

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She helped finance the creation of a large set of intellectual books by Denis Diderot.

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These books were called Encyclopedias.

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Despite being banned by several governments, these books continued to spread through Europe.

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Why would the Encyclopedias be banned?

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During the 1600s and early 1700s European art had been dominated by a style called baroque.

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The new style was known as neoclassical. 74

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Musical styles also changed in reflection of Enlightenment ideals.

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Music had been dramatic organ and choral music dominated by Johan Sebastian Bach, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ho9rZjlsyY Y

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Antonio Vivaldi, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GIzBQA2F 0E8

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and George Friedrich Handel. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kuw8YjSbK d4

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A lighter, more elegant style of music known as classical emerged.

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Three Viennese composers rank among the greatest of the classical period.

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They were Franz Joseph Haydn, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lLjwkamp3 lI

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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=df-eLzao63I Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart,

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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Tr0otuiQ uU and Ludwig van Beethoven.

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Do you notice a difference in baroque and classical music?

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Many novels, or lengthy fictional stories, were written.

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Included among these are Pamela, by Samuel Richardson and Tom Jones, by Henry Fielding.

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The Enlightenment spirit also swept the European courts.

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Those monarchs that embraced the new ideas and made reforms are known as enlightened despots.

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These monarchs embraced the ideas but had no intention of giving up any power.

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They wanted to make their country stronger or make their own rule more effective.

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Frederick II of Prussia, Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II and Catherine the Great of Russia best fit this description.

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Frederick granted many religious freedoms, reduced censorship and improved education.

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Joseph II introduced legal reforms, freedom of the press and freedom of worship, and unlike Frederick, abolished serfdom.

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The most admired was Catherine the Great.

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She recommended allowing religious toleration and abolishing torture and capital punishment.

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Until a revolt, she had been in favor of abolishing serfdom.

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Like Peter the Great, Catherine sought access to a warm-water port.

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As a result, she fought several wars with the Ottomans- gaining territory on the Black Sea and rights through the Bosporus and Dardanelles.