the structure of dna deoxyribonucleic acid dna is made of nucleotides each nucleotide is composed...
TRANSCRIPT
The structure of DNAThe structure of DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acidDeoxyribonucleic acid DNA is made of nucleotidesDNA is made of nucleotides Each nucleotide is composed of phosphate, Each nucleotide is composed of phosphate,
sugar (deoxyribose) and a nitrogen basesugar (deoxyribose) and a nitrogen base 4 nitrogen bases – Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, 4 nitrogen bases – Adenine, Thymine, Guanine,
Cytosine (A,T,G,C)Cytosine (A,T,G,C) A-T, C-GA-T, C-G Bases are linked by hydrogen bondsBases are linked by hydrogen bonds
Figure 16.5 Sugar–phosphatebackbone
Nitrogenous bases
Thymine (T)
Adenine (A)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
Nitrogenous base
Phosphate
DNA nucleotide
Sugar(deoxyribose)
3 end
5 end
Figure 16.7
3.4 nm
1 nm
0.34 nm
Hydrogen bond
(a) Key features ofDNA structure
Space-fillingmodel
(c)(b) Partial chemical structure
3 end
5 end
3 end
5 end
T
T
A
A
G
G
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
G
T
T
T
T
T
T
A
A
A
A
A
A
Base PairingBase Pairing
DNA strandsDNA strands
Run in opposite directionsRun in opposite directions Helicase – unwinds helixHelicase – unwinds helix Topoisomerase – cuts and rejoins the helixTopoisomerase – cuts and rejoins the helix Ligase – brings together Okazaki fragmentsLigase – brings together Okazaki fragments DNA polymerases add nucleotides only to the DNA polymerases add nucleotides only to the
free 3free 3end of a growing strand; therefore, a end of a growing strand; therefore, a new DNA strand can elongate only in the new DNA strand can elongate only in the 55toto33directiondirection
Along one template strand of DNA, the DNA Along one template strand of DNA, the DNA polymerase synthesizes a polymerase synthesizes a leading strand leading strand continuously, moving toward the replication forkcontinuously, moving toward the replication fork
To elongate the other new strand, called the To elongate the other new strand, called the lagging strandlagging strand, DNA polymerase must work in , DNA polymerase must work in the direction away from the replication forkthe direction away from the replication fork
The lagging strand is synthesized as a series of The lagging strand is synthesized as a series of segments called segments called Okazaki fragmentsOkazaki fragments, which are , which are joined together by joined together by DNA ligaseDNA ligase
Figure 16.13
Topoisomerase
Primase
RNAprimer
Helicase
Single-strand bindingproteins
5
3
5
53
3
Origin of replication
RNA primer
Sliding clamp
DNA pol IIIParental DNA
3
5
5
33
5
3
5
3
5
3
5
Figure 16.15b
Figure 16.17
Overview
Leadingstrand
Origin of replication Lagging
strand
LeadingstrandLagging
strand Overall directionsof replicationLeading strand
DNA pol III
DNA pol III Lagging strand
DNA pol I DNA ligase
PrimerPrimase
ParentalDNA
5
5
5
5
5
33
3
333 2 1
4
Protein SynthesisProtein Synthesis
1.1. TranscriptionTranscription
The transfer of genetic info. From DNA to The transfer of genetic info. From DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA)messenger RNA (mRNA)
2.2. TranslationTranslation
The transfer of mRNA to proteinThe transfer of mRNA to protein
GenesGenes are pieces of DNA that code for proteins are pieces of DNA that code for proteins
mRNA – Uracil instead of ThyminemRNA – Uracil instead of Thymine
TranscriptionTranscription
DNA codes for single strand of mRNADNA codes for single strand of mRNA This happens in the nucleusThis happens in the nucleus RNA polymerase binds to the promoter RNA polymerase binds to the promoter
region on DNA templateregion on DNA template Sigma factor recognizes binding site on Sigma factor recognizes binding site on
DNADNA mRNA detatches at the terminator region mRNA detatches at the terminator region
of the DNA templateof the DNA template
TranscriptionTranscription
TranslationTranslation
The transfer of mRNA into a proteinThe transfer of mRNA into a protein This happens at the ribosomeThis happens at the ribosome Every 3 base pairs of mRNA is called a Every 3 base pairs of mRNA is called a
codoncodon tRNA hold anti-codons and amino acidstRNA hold anti-codons and amino acids tRNA bring amino acids down to the tRNA bring amino acids down to the
ribosomes using the corresponding anti-ribosomes using the corresponding anti-codon.codon.
TranslationTranslation
TranslationTranslation
The Genetic CodeThe Genetic Code
Discovery of DNA – Rosalind Discovery of DNA – Rosalind FranklinFranklin
Watson and CrickWatson and Crick
MutationsMutations
Sickle cell mutationSickle cell mutation
Prokaryotes vs. EukaryotesProkaryotes vs. Eukaryotes
In prokaryotes, translation of mRNA can In prokaryotes, translation of mRNA can begin before transcription has finishedbegin before transcription has finished
In a eukaryotic cell, the nuclear envelope In a eukaryotic cell, the nuclear envelope separates transcription from translation separates transcription from translation
Eukaryotic RNA transcripts are modified Eukaryotic RNA transcripts are modified through RNA processing to yield the finished through RNA processing to yield the finished mRNAmRNA
A A primary transcript primary transcript is the initial RNA is the initial RNA transcript from any gene prior to processingtranscript from any gene prior to processing
Comparing Gene Expression in Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya
• Bacteria and eukarya differ in their RNA polymerases, termination of transcription, and ribosomes; archaea tend to resemble eukarya in these respects
• Bacteria can simultaneously transcribe and translate the same gene
• In eukarya, transcription and translation are separated by the nuclear envelope
• In archaea, transcription and translation are likely coupled
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Figure 17.4
DNAtemplatestrand
TRANSCRIPTION
mRNA
TRANSLATION
Protein
Amino acid
Codon
Trp Phe Gly
5
5
Ser
U U U U U3
3
53
G
G
G G C C
T
C
A
A
AAAAA
T T T T
T
G
G G G
C C C G G
DNAmolecule
Gene 1
Gene 2
Gene 3
C C
Important vocabulary in Important vocabulary in transcriptiontranscription
The stretch of DNA that is transcribed is called a The stretch of DNA that is transcribed is called a transcription unittranscription unit
Transcription factors (sigma) – initiate the Transcription factors (sigma) – initiate the binding of the RNA polymerasebinding of the RNA polymerase
The completed assembly of transcription factors The completed assembly of transcription factors and RNA polymerase II bound to a promoter is and RNA polymerase II bound to a promoter is called a called a transcription initiation complextranscription initiation complex
A promoter called a A promoter called a TATA box TATA box is crucial in is crucial in forming the initiation complex in eukaryotesforming the initiation complex in eukaryotes
Figure 17.8
Transcription initiationcomplex forms
3
DNAPromoter
Nontemplate strand
53
53
53
Transcriptionfactors
RNA polymerase II
Transcription factors
53
53
53
RNA transcript
Transcription initiation complex
5 3
TATA box
T
T T T T T
A A A AA
A A
T
Several transcriptionfactors bind to DNA
2
A eukaryotic promoter1
Start point Template strand
RNA processing
• Enzymes in the eukaryotic nucleus modify pre-mRNA (RNA processing) before the genetic messages are dispatched to the cytoplasm
• During RNA processing, both ends of the primary transcript are usually altered
• Also, usually some interior parts of the molecule are cut out, and the other parts spliced together
• Each end of a pre-mRNA molecule is modified in a particular way
– The 5 end receives a modified nucleotide 5 cap
– The 3 end gets a poly-A tail• These modifications share several functions
– They seem to facilitate the export of mRNA to the cytoplasm
– They protect mRNA from hydrolytic enzymes– They help ribosomes attach to the 5 end
Figure 17.10
Protein-codingsegment
Polyadenylationsignal
5 3
35 5Cap UTRStartcodon
G P P P
Stopcodon
UTR
AAUAAA
Poly-A tail
AAA AAA…
RNA Splicing
• In some cases, RNA splicing is carried out by spliceosomes
• Spliceosomes consist of a variety of proteins and several small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs) that recognize the splice sites
Figure 17.12-3RNA transcript (pre-mRNA)
5Exon 1
Protein
snRNA
snRNPs
Intron Exon 2
Other proteins
Spliceosome
5
Spliceosomecomponents
Cut-outintronmRNA
5Exon 1 Exon 2
GeneDNA
Exon 1 Exon 2 Exon 3Intron Intron
Transcription
RNA processing
Translation
Domain 3
Domain 2
Domain 1
Polypeptide
Figure 17.13
Figure 17.15
Amino acidattachmentsite
3
5
Hydrogenbonds
Anticodon
(a) Two-dimensional structure (b) Three-dimensional structure(c) Symbol used
in this book
Anticodon Anticodon3 5
Hydrogenbonds
Amino acidattachmentsite5
3
A A G
Figure 17.22
Ribosome
mRNA
Signalpeptide
SRP
1
SRPreceptorprotein
Translocationcomplex
ERLUMEN
2
3
45
6
Signalpeptideremoved
CYTOSOL
Protein
ERmembrane
What Is a Gene? Revisiting the Question
• The idea of the gene has evolved through the history of genetics
• We have considered a gene as– A discrete unit of inheritance
– A region of specific nucleotide sequence in a chromosome
– A DNA sequence that codes for a specific polypeptide chain
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Figure 17.26TRANSCRIPTION
DNA
RNApolymerase
ExonRNAtranscript
RNAPROCESSING
NUCLEUS
Intron
RNA transcript(pre-mRNA)
Poly-A
Poly-A
Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase
AMINO ACIDACTIVATION
Aminoacid
tRNA
5 C
ap
Poly-A
3
GrowingpolypeptidemRNA
Aminoacyl(charged)tRNA
Anticodon
Ribosomalsubunits
A
AE
TRANSLATION
5 Cap
CYTOPLASM
P
E
Codon
Ribosome
5
3
Concept 17.5: Mutations of one or a few nucleotides can affect protein structure and function
• Mutations are changes in the genetic material of a cell or virus
• Point mutations are chemical changes in just one base pair of a gene
• The change of a single nucleotide in a DNA template strand can lead to the production of an abnormal protein
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Figure 17.23
Wild-type hemoglobin
Wild-type hemoglobin DNA3
3
35
5 3
35
5553
mRNA
A AGC T T
A AGmRNA
Normal hemoglobin
Glu
Sickle-cell hemoglobin
Val
AA
AUG
GT
T
Sickle-cell hemoglobin
Mutant hemoglobin DNAC
Types of Small-Scale Mutations
• Point mutations within a gene can be divided into two general categories
– Nucleotide-pair substitutions
– One or more nucleotide-pair insertions or deletions
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Substitutions
• A nucleotide-pair substitution replaces one nucleotide and its partner with another pair of nucleotides
• Silent mutations have no effect on the amino acid produced by a codon because of redundancy in the genetic code
• Missense mutations still code for an amino acid, but not the correct amino acid
• Nonsense mutations change an amino acid codon into a stop codon, nearly always leading to a nonfunctional protein
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Insertions and Deletions
• Insertions and deletions are additions or losses of nucleotide pairs in a gene
• These mutations have a disastrous effect on the resulting protein more often than substitutions do
• Insertion or deletion of nucleotides may alter the reading frame, producing a frameshift mutation
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Wild type
DNA template strand
mRNA5
5
3
Protein
Amino end
A instead of G
(a) Nucleotide-pair substitution
3
3
5
Met Lys Phe Gly StopCarboxyl end
T T T T T
TTTTTA A A A A
AAAACC
C
C
A
A A A A A
G G G G
GC C
G GGU U U U UG
(b) Nucleotide-pair insertion or deletion
Extra A
35
53
Extra U
5 3
T T T T
T T T T
A
A A A
A
AT G G G G
GAAA
AC
CCCC A
T35
5 3
5T T T T TAAAACCA AC C
TTTTTA A A A ATG G G G
U instead of C
Stop
UA A A A AG GGU U U U UG
MetLys Phe Gly
Silent (no effect on amino acid sequence)
T instead of C
T T T T TAAAACCA GT C
T A T T TAAAACCA GC C
A instead of G
CA A A A AG AGU U U U UG UA A A AG GGU U U G AC
AA U U A AU UGU G G C UA
GA U A U AA UGU G U U CG
Met Lys Phe Ser
Stop
Stop Met Lys
missing
missing
Frameshift causing immediate nonsense(1 nucleotide-pair insertion)
Frameshift causing extensive missense (1 nucleotide-pair deletion)
missing
T T T T TTCAACCA AC G
AGTTTA A A A ATG G G C
Leu Ala
Missense
A instead of T
TTTTTA A A A ACG G A G
A
CA U A A AG GGU U U U UG
TTTTTA T A A ACG G G G
Met
Nonsense
Stop
U instead of A
35
35
53
35
53
35 3Met Phe Gly
No frameshift, but one amino acid missing(3 nucleotide-pair deletion)
missing
35
53
5 3U
T CA AA CA TTAC G
TA G T T T G G A ATC
T T C
A A G
Met
3
T
A
Stop
35
53
5 3
Figure 17.24
Chromosomal Alteration
• Deletion• Duplications – hemoglobin, antifreeze• Inversions• Translocations• Transposons – jumping genes (corn)
Gene Expression
• Gene expression is the act of going from genotype to phenotype
• DNA to mRNA to Protein• Genes are regulated by turning on and off
transcription
The lac operon in E.coli is the method by which E. coli make enzymes that metabolize lactose
Regulatory gene – produces the repressor
Repressor binds to the operator when lactose is absent
No Transcription – RNA polymerase cannot bind to the promoter
When lactose is present, it binds to the repressor pulling it off the operator
RNA polymerase binds the promoter – transcription begins
Lactose-digesting enzymes are made
(a) Lactose absent, repressor active, operon off
(b) Lactose present, repressor inactive, operon on
Regulatorygene
Promoter
Operator
DNA lacZlacI
lacI
DNA
mRNA5
3
NoRNAmade
RNApolymerase
ActiverepressorProtein
lac operon
lacZ lacY lacADNA
mRNA
5
3
Protein
mRNA 5
Inactiverepressor
RNA polymerase
Allolactose(inducer)
-Galactosidase Permease Transacetylase
Trp operon. E.coli will make tryptophan from scratch, but if it is in the surroundings, the E.coli will absorb it.
Different from the lac operon
Promoter
DNA
Regulatory gene
mRNA
trpR
5
3
Protein Inactive repressor
RNApolymerase
Promoter
trp operon
Genes of operon
Operator
mRNA 5
Start codon Stop codon
trpE trpD trpC trpB trpA
E D C B A
Polypeptide subunits that make upenzymes for tryptophan synthesis
(a) Tryptophan absent, repressor inactive, operon on
(b) Tryptophan present, repressor active, operon off
DNA
mRNA
Protein
Tryptophan (corepressor)
Activerepressor
No RNAmade
Proximal control elements are located close to the promoter
Distal control elements, groupings of which are called enhancers, may be far away from a gene or even located in an intron
Some transcription factors function as repressors, inhibiting expression of a particular gene by a variety of methods
A particular combination of control elements can activate transcription only when the appropriate activator proteins are present
ActivatorsDNA
EnhancerDistal controlelement
PromoterGene
TATA box
Generaltranscriptionfactors
DNA-bendingprotein
Group of mediator proteins
RNApolymerase II
RNApolymerase II
RNA synthesisTranscriptioninitiation complex
Controlelements
Enhancer Promoter
Albumin gene
Crystallingene
LIVER CELLNUCLEUS
Availableactivators
Albumin geneexpressed
Crystallin genenot expressed
(a) Liver cell
LENS CELLNUCLEUS
Availableactivators
Albumin genenot expressed
Crystallin geneexpressed
(b) Lens cell
Types of Genes Associated with Cancer
• Cancer can be caused by mutations to genes that regulate cell growth and division
• Tumor viruses can cause cancer in animals including humans
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Cancer Genes
• Oncogenes are cancer-causing genes• Proto-oncogenes are the
corresponding normal cellular genes that are responsible for normal cell growth and division
• Conversion of a proto-oncogene to an oncogene can lead to abnormal stimulation of the cell cycle
Evidence That DNA Can Transform Bacteria
• The discovery of the genetic role of DNA began with research by Frederick Griffith in 1928
• Griffith worked with two strains of a bacterium, one pathogenic and one harmless
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• When he mixed heat-killed remains of the pathogenic strain with living cells of the harmless strain, some living cells became pathogenic
• He called this phenomenon transformation, now defined as a change in genotype and phenotype due to assimilation of foreign DNA
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Living S cells(control)
Living R cells(control)
Heat-killedS cells(control)
Mixture ofheat-killedS cells andliving R cells
Mouse dies Mouse diesMouse healthy Mouse healthy
Living S cells
EXPERIMENT
RESULTS
Figure 16.2
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Animation: Hershey-Chase ExperimentRight-click slide / select “Play”
Figure 16.4-3
Bacterial cell
Phage
Batch 1:Radioactivesulfur(35S)
Radioactiveprotein
DNA
Batch 2:Radioactivephosphorus(32P)
RadioactiveDNA
Emptyproteinshell
PhageDNA
Centrifuge
Centrifuge
Radioactivity(phage protein)in liquid
Pellet (bacterialcells and contents)
PelletRadioactivity(phage DNA)in pellet
EXPERIMENT