theoretical perspective of learner autonomy and...

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE OF LEARNER

AUTONOMY AND TASK BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING

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CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE OF LEARNER AUTONOMY

AND TASK BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING

Autonomy develops in a community of teachers and pupils as a shared process,

whereby language learning is inseparable from its meaningful use in

communication -Little, 2001

2.1 Introduction

The second chapter presents the related theoretical perspectives to show the

feasibility of integrating Learner Autonomy (LA) with Task Based Language

Teaching (TBLT). The innovativeness of this method lies in the autonomy granted

to learners to keep them prepared for the responsibility for improving their skills

on their own eventually. This chapter also discusses the problem which learners

face in speaking the target language and how this can be mitigated with the

rationale behind this method. Theory of language learning on which this method is

based needs a detailed mention. The point of view taken for the nature of

language, which involved in the development of learners’ skills also requires a

special mention. This method calls for the appropriate role for the teachers,

learners and the instructional materials along with the techniques to be employed

in the classroom for realising the impact of learner autonomy on their enhancing

the macro skills.


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2.2 Problems in Learners’ Speaking Skill

Though citizens can utilize the educational services available under the policy,

the “universal education”, it has created problems consequently. The overcrowded

classrooms and the co-existence of learners with differential abilities because of

their varied mediums of instructions and boards of school education are a few

inevitable after effects to be mentioned.

The educational opportunities available with the increase in the educational

institutions are insufficient with the tremendous increase in the number of learners

year by year. This increase in learners has created a necessity for catering to the

heterogeneous needs of learners. Large classes pose a problem not only to the

teachers but also to the learners. The inadequate or unavailable opportunity for

practice in speaking English is the undesirable consequences of large classes.

The limited class hours of teachers leave them a little time for the delayed

oral responses from learners. Learners also find themselves at a loss for words or

responses, if immediate reply is required within the available time.

The expectations of learners’ grammatically correct constructions by the

teachers place them in a tongue-tied position. Learners avoid becoming an object of

ridicule by making mistakes. One or two such instances of poor linguistic

performance and teasing looks and remarks of co-learners stifle learners from trying

further in speaking English. The unexpected demand in using the second language

orally at the post graduate level may also lead to anxiety for a few learners. Research


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findings establish the high level of language anxiety with the lack of self-confidence

(Kojima 38).

Learners lack in self-confidence to speak English language owing to the

inadequate exposure to circumstances demanding the use of English. Given

enough opportunities for interacting with other learners are provided, they can

amend errors borne out of lack of knowledge of language usage.

Improper attention to what others speak in English is felt occasionally.

The fear in speaking English may hinder them from listening to others, when

they speak English.

Listening to radio and television programmes in English may be

confidence-boosting in using the language, if they express their views on the

content of the programmes. Otherwise, their own production of the language acts

as a hurdle for them to use the language fluently and effectively.

The influence of learners’ mother tongue or vernacular language on English

is perceptible in the utterances of learners. Not only sound but also the expressions

of vernacular language deeply ingrained in them for many years usurp the place of

English occasionally. They condition their mind from the childhood to think in

their mother tongue. Many learners are habituated to translating their thoughts and

views into English to respond to the others’ queries. If they are unable to find

equivalent expressions in the second language, their inability demoralizes them to

proceed in using the language.


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The current academic ambience is disadvantageous for learners to develop

their communicative skills. The poorly equipped classrooms contribute their mite to

the restrictions on learners to improve their language. Necessary infrastructure

facilities for the applications of computer technology lack in a few educational

institutions. The websites designed for improving their speaking skill is beyond

the reach of learners, when they are within their institutions.

The teacher-centered method, sidelining speaking skill, large classes,

giving more importance to exam-oriented learning by learners at the school as well

as college level, lack of proper infrastructure and insufficient self-motivation and

self-confidence on the part of learners might mainly be ascribed to the poor

performance of learners in speaking English. So, the adoption of conventional

teaching method is inappropriate for the prevailing condition of academia and its

functioning.

2.3 Theoretical View of Integrated Learner Autonomy and Task Based

Language Teaching

2.3.1 The Importance of Interaction

The interactional view of language gives primacy to interpersonal

relationships and social transactions (Richards and Rodgers 21). Interaction with

the environment gradually plays an important role in the individual’s self-concept,

since it is a social product. Interactions with the environment enable him/her to

“transform and organize reality” (Benson, Teaching 36) and thus, knowledge


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constructed will be unique to the person. Learners are also interested in things which

maintain or enhance the “the structure of self” (BAPCA).

Learners make their learning effective from being fully involved and taking

well-informed decisions about the content and process of learning with

social interactions. Thus, social interaction is the “basis for the development of

higher-level mental activity of the individual” (qtd in Kohonen 6).

Language is mainly used for social relations and interaction gives learners to

use the uncontrollable power of language to be aware of their inclinations and needs.

It imparts the specific knowledge about the meaning attributed to their actions.

The concept of “learner autonomy” for making self-directed goals in

learning derives its meaning from the concept of “personal autonomy” for

autonomous lives (Edwards 33). Personal autonomy is important to the existence

of humans as social beings (Benson, Teaching 43). The role of interaction in

autonomous learning is confirmed with the standpoint of supporters of learner

autonomy. Autonomous learning, to Dam, is a social and democratic process for

learners to create the “learning text and context together” (qtd. in Radai 30).

Autonomy develops through learning by doing, reflection and conceptualisation,

interaction and negotiation (Pemberton 10).

Interaction is a meaning-focused activity directed by the teacher in the Task

Based Language Teaching and any focus on language form is incidental. Vocabulary


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improves and with the enhanced vocabulary, comprehension is enriched and leads to

language development (Kumaravadivelu, Understanding 142).

Empirical research findings show that the learner-to-learner interactions

through negotiation of meaning leads to better comprehension and quicker

language improvement. So, pair or group work provides better opportunities for

interaction than teacher-fronted class. Avoiding learner-to-learner interaction

checks learners’ output becoming input for further interaction.

Learning in formal educational contexts through interaction and negotiation will

lead to the development of autonomy (Pemberton 6). Interaction considers options,

seeks information, considers objectives, reaches decisions and reflects on what learners

have experienced. Interactivity implies making purposeful choice while interacting with

materials or peer learners. The degree of interaction depends on presenting the contents

in a motivating and engaging way and maximizing the choices available to learners

(Clarke 4). Interaction among learners may end up with the cognitive growth of

individual learners (Schwienhorst 22).

Feedback on learner’s erroneous language production in the breakdown in

communication helps learners to modify it and may engage them in meta or

linguistic talk. This, in turn, allows them to notice the gap between their current

second language knowledge and the target knowledge. As Long perceives “negative

feedback” is the platform for improving the performance (Errey 17). The features of


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second language oral interaction, certainly, facilitate the second language learning

(Kim 4).

Collaboration, the mode of interaction, leads to learner autonomy

demanding the focus of attention on learners (Schwienhorst 21). Since learning is a

social and collaborative endeavour from Vygotskian perspective, a task, the central

activity of Task Based Language Teaching, gives a context for the support for second

language learners either from teacher or from a more knowledgeable learner.

The influence of previous task experience is certain on the fluency and

complexity areas of language. When task is repeated, the comparison between the

performance of task familiar group and the task unfamiliar group reveals the

increased use of interactional features by the task familiar group (Kim 5).

Social context refers to a range of language learning environments that

include the classroom as well. It shapes motivation, goal and functions of second

language learning in the community. It ensures the variations and the availability of

input to the learner and the norms of proficiency acceptable to that particular speech

community (Kumaravadivelu, Understanding 43). Communication is a social

behavior and hence, apart from formal and functional effectiveness, social

appropriateness needs the attention of learners.

Interactions constantly organize and reorganize a sense of who they are

and how they relate to the social world. Nunan views that an identity of the


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user changes “across times and space” constantly with the target language

(Kumaravadivelu, Beyond 48).

Contexts provided for interaction “in and with the target language” foster

language learning (Schwienhorst 21). Interaction gains psychological tone, when

social interaction is meaningful to learners. The psychological processing modifies

the existing knowledge.

From the psychological perspective of Rousseau, Dewey, Kilpatrick, Rogers

and Freire “knowledge cannot be taught but must be constructed by the learner”

(Benson, Teaching 35). Learning is seen as a cognitive, deliberate and active

process resulting in knowledge. The emphasis of constructivists on the active

learning process, problem solving skills and working collaboratively with others

has made an impact on the learning theories (Christina 336).

2.3.1.1 The View of Constructivist on Interaction

Constructivists hold the view that effective learning starts with learners’

knowledge already existing and development of the knowledge is with the

interpretation of the experiences (Benson, Teaching 100). Learners’ previous

knowledge helps them to make assumptions and interpret facts and evidences.

It also encourages them to assess the comprehension of information and their own

point of view. Learners are considered as active constructors of knowledge by

mediating their own meaning with their previous knowledge and the knowledge of

other participants in the learning environment.


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2.3.1.2 Interlanguage out of Interaction

Learner’s construction of a language system from the input to which she or

he has been exposed is called as idiosyncratic dialect by Corder in 1971 and

Interlanguage (IL) by Selinker in 1972. Thus, learner’s speech is internally structured

but distinct from the Language Source (LS) and the Target Language (LT). It is the

most advanced stage of learning in an evolving series of stages of learning.

It is a continuum between first language (L1) and second language (L2),

when learners cross the familiar language to the developing language. Selinker

discusses the phenomenon of fossilization as “linguistic items, rules and

subsystems” of the native language of speakers, which they retain in their

interlanguage relative to the particular target language. It is irrespective of the age

of the learner or the amount of exposure to the target language (Larsen-Freeman

and Long 60).

With the repetition of tasks, inter language can be restructured and this

gives an opportunity to focus on expressing meaning and then on form during the

performance of the task (Kim 5).

Long’s “interaction hypothesis” emphasizes the negotiation between

participants as it facilitates comprehension and in turn, language production. It aids

learners in restructuring their interlanguage and allowing them to increase their

current level of “receptive or expressive capacities” of interlanguage. It helps

learners to notice the gap between how many language forms they are familiar


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with and the existing target language forms, as it “connects input, internal

learner capacities particularly selective attention and output in productive ways”

(qtd. in kumaravadivelu 35). The same is found in Allwright’s claim that the

importance of interaction lies not only in its creation of learning opportunities but

mainly in the promotion of learning (35). Acquisition occurs in interaction. The expert,

a more knowledgeable learner or a teacher, creates a context for learners to involve

actively and “fine tunes” the support needed for them (Ellis, Task 177).

2.3.1.3 Major Theories Supportive of Interaction

Vygotsky’s idea of the “Zone of proximal development” (ZPD) brings out

how the “the directive communicative speech” of more experienced peers is

transformed by learners into “self-directive inner speech”. It helps learners to

internalize meanings through interaction with the experts. It conveys the difference

between the own actual development level attained and the potential development

level that can be reached in collaboration with more experienced learners (Benson,

Teaching 38-39). ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development), a key construct in socio

cultural theory explains how learners internalize new structures with the creation of

necessary ZPDs. The implication of ZPD is the importance of tasks, which is hardly

in the contexts created for learning but in the way the participants perform the task.

ZPD shows the extent to which a learner is “ready to perform a new skill.

These newly acquired skills become autonomous and a new zone is created in

turn, “to make possible the acquisition of still further skills” (Ellis, Task 179).


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Vygotsky gives importance to social interaction as it is the “source of self-directive

inner speech”. This inner speech relates the role of reflection in bringing connection

between social interaction in learning and self-direction (Benson, Teaching 38).

The initial production of a close relationship between interpersonal activity

and intrapersonal activity in social interaction makes available the intra

psychological processes. The latter engenders in the learner “independent strategic

functioning capability” (Ellis, Task 177).

The implication of this theory in autonomous learning is that learners’

choice of tasks is in such a manner either to give them an opportunity to use newly

acquired skill or to construct ZPDs to learn new skill further. Learners can do the task

on their own, when they are within the area of self-regulation. The development in

the zone, ZPD enables them to proceed to learner autonomy through self-

regulation (177).

Scaffolding supports the development of a new skill espoused in socio

cultural theories. Scaffolding is the dialogic process in which a learner assists

another to create interest in the task, in pursuit of the goal specified and

simplifying the task. It ensures sustenance of the involvement during problem

solving and demonstrates the idealized performance of the task to be carried out.

Thus, scaffolding engages the demands of cognitive and affective states of the

learner performing a task (181).


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Contingency makes the transformation of social processing into cognitive

processing possible. It makes an important condition for learning, which is set by

scaffolding. Effectiveness of tasks is revealed in the study of the interactions to

know the manifestation of contingency in them. Micro analysis of specific

interactions reveals the strength of contingency (182).

The use of small groups, including pairs, represents a means of enhancing

learner autonomy through interaction. Assistance from peers is the motive behind

the group activities held in the class. Pooling of learning resources is the

advantage for learners in group activities. To check the possibility of learners

leading each other astray, heterogeneous groups are set up in such a manner that

more proficient learner helps the less proficient one (Farrell 19).

2.3.1.4 Interaction for Natural Use of Language

For language learning, the provision of utterances in contexts is sufficient

and necessary. It helps them to know the meaning and usability. This favours the

natural use of language and is against the view that the study of grammar is

sufficient and necessary to use a language (Kumaravadivelu, Understanding 60).

Krashen’s “input hypothesis” is based on this view. From comprehensible input

which is defined as i+1, learners acquire the language by understanding the

messages. The incomprehensible structures, which are a bit beyond the second

language learners’ current level of knowledge or ability in the messages, help

them to acquire the new structures. Mere exposure to instances of comprehensible


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input through the language games and problem-solving tasks, he ascertains that

learners acquire linguistic knowledge or ability (143). However, the creation of

condition in order to prepare learners to “cope with communication” is essential

instead of the systematic presentation of language inputs or maximum planned

practice (61).

The researcher takes the standpoint that supports the claim that negotiation

facilitates comprehension. Acquisition is ensured with the psycholinguistic

outcomes of tasks as well.

2.3.1.5 The Effect of Interaction on Input and Output

Interaction is a means by which not only input is accessible but also output

is facilitated to learners. Merrill Swain’s “concept of comprehensible output”

stresses the fact that it is a mechanism for language learning. The learner is being

pushed not only to deliver the message and to deliver it “precisely coherently and

appropriately”. Learners move from “semantic processing to syntactic processing”,

while they involve in the production of the language. This attempt takes learners from

processing language at the level of word meaning to the level of grammatical

structures. Thus, production of language demands a high level of cognitive activity.

Three possible functions of output-the noticing function, the hypothesis

testing function and the meta-linguistic function identified by Swain assure the

important role of output in the language learning. When learners encounter a

problem in the still-developing target language, it makes them aware of what they


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know only partially or the little linguistic knowledge they possess. When they

receive negative feedback in negotiated interaction, they may test different

hypothesis about a linguistic system. Learners may consciously think about

language and its system to guide them to produce linguistically correct and

communicatively appropriate language (48).

Researches were conducted on the possibility of training learners to provide

feedback on the linguistic productions during the interaction. The attention to form

is found to be related to learners’ individual differences on age, gender, proficiency,

pair, dynamics, and level of engagement and planning time. A few other factors,

which it depends on, are the task complexity, task familiarity in the task design

and task implementation and learner factors as collaborative pair dynamics, high

levels of engagements and interaction with “a dyadic partner of a higher proficiency

level” (Kim 4).

2.3.1.6 The Role of Interaction in Learner Autonomy

Environmental and pedagogic are the two external factors, which appear to

shape the language-learning attitude of learners. Preparing learners psychologically

involves allowing them to undertake a small learning project depending upon their

readiness. This preparation varies from group to group. Minimal preparation will

lead to an extended one. Learners can be prepared psychologically, if learning is

purposeful for them. This purpose of learning is dependent on the structuring of


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learning. This structuring is the “identification of the relevant objectives, their

assembly into a realistic learning programme and the encouragement of the learner

to meet the deadline in the programme” (Dickinson 122).

The difference between teacher mode and the self-learning mode lies in the

extent to which internalizing the structuring of learning occurs. Structure depends on

the content at the beginning and later in the way of learning. The process structure

and the content vary according to individual needs. Interactions among them will

enable to realise their inadequacy in expressing themselves their needs and interests.

The ability to set learning content from their needs can be improved through training.

These levels will set the stage for learning how to plan in some learners. Stern’s view

of the basic strategies includes the active planning strategy. This strategy involves the

selection of goals and the identification of stages of learning.

The effective learning strategies make the difference between the motivated

language learners and the non-motivated. Good learners look for opportunities to

talk with target language speakers, develop strategies to initiate, maintain and

maximize the occasions for the conversation. To master the second language,

learners need active exposure time to the second language, conscious association

making and meaningful practice in and out-of-classroom context with self-initiative

attempts. Rubin is assertive of good learners’ ability in developing techniques for

clarifying meaning and understanding (Dickinson 122).


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2.3.1.7 Experiences Strengthening Interaction

Learning is experiential as long as the learner is in touch with the realities

being studied. Merely thinking about or considering the possibility of doing

something with it is insufficient. The learning content must be relevant to learners.

At the same time, they must be open to the information that is different from their

own preconceived information. So, teachers are expected to encourage learners to

be open-minded in learning. The information, which is relevant and related to the

existing experience of learners, is essential for learning. If new, irrelevant concepts

are forced upon them, learners will feel uncomfortable. A barrier is created

between the teacher and the learner and the learner and the content materials.

Instead of creating a tone of threat in the classroom, teachers can create a

supportive environment by encouraging learners to explore concepts and beliefs,

which are different from theirs. The significant learning will take place, when

threat to the self is reduced to the minimum and facilitation is provided for the

differentiated perceptions (BAPCA). The stage for learner-centered teaching is set

with frequent interactions among learners and acceptance in the change in his/her

role as a teacher from a figure of an expert to a mentor.

Personality is shaped through personal experiences. Roger speaks of the

impossibility of a person teaching another person directly but the certainty of

facilitating another’s learning, as a result of his personality theory. Every person is


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the centre of constantly changing world of experience. Based on their perception

or experience, each person reacts or responds.

The difference between “traditional” education and “progressive approach”

emphasizes the need for coping with the changes in higher education at present.

The expression and cultivation of individuality are pitted against the imposition

from outside. The change is from external discipline towards free activity, learning

from authorities towards learning through experience; from preparation for a

future towards utilizing the opportunities of present life; from static aims and

materials towards a changing world. The newer approaches are founded on the

idea that there is an intimate and necessary relation between the processes of

actual experience and education (Kolb 8).

An act of perception is an act of creation. The experience of an individual is

a totality, something that holds together and is meaningful. This experience occurs

as a social group, hardly as a collection of individuals. Social dimension permeates

any individual act of perception. It includes the place of individuals in society, social

embededness, and the involvement in the world. The human practice, language and

culture play an important role for the functioning in the world (Bracken 127). Breen

and Littlejohn go to the extent of saying that shared decision-making needs to be

based on meaningful “discussion between all members of the classroom to decide

how learning and teaching are to be organized” (Kumaravadivelu, Understanding 39).


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The experiences of learners bring to the classroom are shaped by a broader

social, economic, educational and political movement of the learners’ upbringing.

Hence, the language policy makers have to consider the impossibility of insulating

classroom experiences from the dynamics of political, educational and social

institutions (39).

Language teaching and learning in real social contexts are inherently complex

and so, a single theory is insufficient to be a basis for any method (Allford 31). In the

same manner, the concept of autonomy in the language learning is multifaceted

(Benson, “Concepts” 29) and this study has considered different perspectives on

learner autonomy as they are relevant to the implementation of the research design.

2.4 Cognitive Abilities for Developing Inquiry and Reflective Skills

The human thought is viewed as a “process of hypothesis testing and theory

building involving the continual development”. Constructivists are assertive in

developing reflective and inquiry skills for a meaningful and relevant education.

The capacity to interact in a social context to take any critical decisions must be

developed within a learner since the ability to reflection and analysis rely on the

capacity for social interaction (Benson, Teaching 14).

The importance given to cognitive abilities of learners, the development of

inquiry skills and formulation of their opinions using their own experiences have

made a drastic change in learning and teaching theories (Hourani 336). Cognitive

science is the domain in which linguistics is placed firmly with the idea of


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Chomsky that human utterance is creative (Bracken 141). Each experience impels

learners to generate language and inquiry skills are developed with accruing

learning experiences.

Karl Popper is certain that learning springs from challenging situations

since it is a creative force. Limitations or errors (conscious or unconscious) provoke

man to discover or relearn (Swann 261). To him, the contexts are interpreted ones and

belonging to world one. They are “causes” to be interpreted through signals.

Meaningful realities can be constructed and checked for their viability through such

concrete, social and communicative contexts. Learners’ understanding is the

mental construction of hypothetical and sense-making relations. This world of our

interpretations is a subjective world of consciousness. He calls it third world in his

Three World Model (Wendt 93). His creation of three worlds is the way he looks

at reality. This creation is preferable to the accumulation of facts presented by the

teachers. This subjective truthfulness contains the idea of objective truth (95).

To evaluate these mental constructions, learners develop the argumentative

or critical thinking, which evolves from “descriptive or informative functions”

(Keuth 311). All these abilities distinguish human from animals, which are with

“expressive and communicative functions”, the lower functions of language (306).

Phil Benson expresses the same view that reflection as a cognitive element

leading to action helps learners to manage learning especially, when questioning

the fundamental beliefs at moments of crises or change.


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2.4.1Acquisition is Out of Attention and Awareness

The emphasis on the learning process is confirmed by the views of

psychologists. Schemidts’ “noticing hypothesis” emphasizes the learner’s display of

apprehension and awareness of particular linguistic forms before those forms being

processed. This is based on the assumption that the cognitive approaches require

learner’s active mental engagement with linguistic input for the acquisition.

The key function of selection or engaging a particular bit of information by

detecting within the class or type of sensory information is subject to control,

according to Tomlin and Villa. It belongs to the domain of attention rather than

awareness. This detection is oriented by the attentional resources. Their contention

is that at the neuro anatomical level, control of attention is exerted by the

voluntary reactivation. At the functional level, learners are able to regulate the

amount of processing. The specific aspects of stimuli will receive that regulation

by personal choice or instruction or covert cues (Benson, Teaching 88). This view

confirms that task planning aids acquisition (Ellis, Planning 7-8). Leo Van Lier

points out the importance of noticing in the learning process. It is “an awareness of

existence” focusing one’s consciousness to keep their mental energy ready for

processing (qtd. in Kohonen 5).

Another view is that the mental development of representations is due to

the existence of thoughts. As a result of the analysis, these loosely held mental

representations around meaning (knowledge of the world) are rearranged into


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organized explicit ones around formal structures. Bialystok views that awareness

is the result of the interaction between analysis and control. Analysed representations

are articulated and can be attended to by the precise ways of controlling the

processing. The more analysed representations allow attention to more detailed

and more precise specifications of those representations. Their concern may be

with rules or structures, sometimes with process or procedures. This process has

been called consciousness as they lead to the subjective feeling of awareness

(Benson, Teaching 88-90).

The researcher has also taken Bialystok’s view of the role of awareness

since the phenomenological experience makes implicit knowledge explicit with

this process of analysis.

Learning depends on the learner’s “cognitive control for what is attended to

in input” and thus attentional process is subject to learner control. As the attention

deals with analysed representations from input, the direction of attention leads to

the development of proficiency.

2.4 .2 Reflection on Experiences

The suitable learning experiences upon reflection and new hypotheses

testing lead to further experience. Psychologists Sheila Harri-Augstein and Laurie

Thomas have developed self-organised learning method called “Learning

Conversation”. This method employs many structured training techniques built

around the reflection on learning experiences. Their contribution to autonomy in


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language learning is that learner moves towards autonomy through cognitive and

affective processes and with the skilled assistance of teachers (42).

Personal construct theory is influential on theory of autonomy and it

lays stress on the “shared assumptions and values” to fabricate personal constructs.

These constructs become unique with the attempt of an individual to make sense of

those experiences. This attempt goes on when the individual undergoes the new

experience. If any resistance occurs out of contradiction between the new knowledge

and existing personal constructs, the help from the co-learners makes them aware of

their assumptions about learning. This leads to the assumption of responsibility for

their learning processes (36). To make a learner feel a sense of “ownership” of a

second language, he or she has to identify himself or herself as a user of that

language. The language learnt will be the learners’ own, if the control on linguistic

expressions lies only with the learner. Autonomy lies in the area of experiences,

which learners choose to use for improving their second language. They like to

explore the particular meanings of the expressions to know their appropriateness

to these areas of experiences (Benson 101).

2.4.3 Experiential Learning for Reflection

Learning needs serious reflection on the experience undergone and the

testing of new hypothesis to obtain further experiences for realising the “full

measure” of it. If the experience is meaningful to learners, it will become part of


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learners’ individual “frame of reference”. For that, it should be experienced on a

“subjective emotional level”. Thus, it acts as a bridge between experience and

theoretical conceptualisation.

The experiential model implies the control of the language with learner

reflection on the language structure. In this sense, reflection is on the content of

language learning. However, Kohonen emphasizes the need for autonomous

learners to understand the process of language learning (93).

Conscious reflection on learning experiences and sharing with other

learners in cooperative groups may increase learners’ awareness of learning and

understanding of the learning processes. This reflection is oriented towards the

learning process.

The activities, in this research targeted tasks, elicit learners’ knowledge and

beliefs, make learners articulate what has come to their awareness. They keep them

ready for confronting alternate views and make them reflect the appropriateness of

revising and expanding their knowledge.

The task knowledge is essential to have responsibility for the learning

process. This task knowledge is about the purpose of a task, the demands of the

task and the nature of the task, which is implicit in these considerations. Learners

need to know the task knowledge, which is metacognitive in nature.

Expert learners conceive mentally the task demands and decide on how

best they can go about to complete the tasks. They include task goals, sub goals


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and the constraints that they have to face for the performance. Experience enables

learners to take decisions about planning, monitoring and evaluation of learning

within the context of task. The task requires learners’ knowledge of language and

language learning to be performed successfully. So, responsibility for language

learning is due to the mobilisation of learners’ metalinguistic knowledge base (96).

Leni Dam uses the term “evaluation” in the sense in which the term

“reflection” is used by others. Evaluation is an important element in the

development of learner autonomy. It attempts to ensure the discussion and

revision of undertaken work and to establish a “basis of experience and

awareness” to plan further learning. It can also be undertaken by learners

themselves (94).

2.4.3 Major Theories Supportive of Reflection

Reflection carried out collectively enables learners to organise the learning

process of ensuing classes. The central role of conscious reflection is a key cognitive

process in learning (90). The development of autonomy is through critical reflection

and self-evaluation. With these, learners’ capability for learning is increased and their

use of target language becomes self-reliant. Little argues that “each occasion of

language use is an occasion of language learning ... knowledge about the target

language provides the indispensable basis for critical reflection and analysis” (98).

Reflection is a complex construct and drew attention from Dewey way back in

1933, since he emphasized the belief or supposed form of knowledge on a firm basis


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of evidence and rationality by the conscious and voluntary effort. Its failure to view

reflection as socially conditioned and affective in nature is pointed out later (91).

Reflection has both individual and social dimensions and so, it leads to an

internal mechanism for the responsibility for learning. As language learning is

considered to engage both intellect and feelings, the role of reflection in the

development of responsibility in learners for choosing the learning process is

important (93).

Reflection is a phase within the process of learning in some model and

private reflection results in an insight into the learning task. Sharing with other

learners helps them to test the newly developed ideas (Boud 46). The process of

learning involves the reflection on experience for an in-depth understanding as

well as interpretation, which forms knowledge constructs.

The model of experiential learning considers learning as a process of

bringing resolution to the conflicts between the “prehension” dimension and

“transformation” dimension. The “prehension” dimension refers to the way in

which an individual grasps experience. The “transformation” dimension refers to the

transformation of experience by orienting them towards reflective observations.

The “prehension” dimension functions through two modes of knowing,

which are at both the extremes. Experience is through “apprehension” in which

Knowledge gained is instant and without rational inquiry. When it is through


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“comprehension”, it is through conscious or unconscious learning with varying

degrees of emphasis.

Active orientation enables an individual to take risk showing concern for the

successful accomplishment of things. On the other hand, the reflective orientation

enables an individual to transform experiences through reflective observation to avoid

errors without minding the failure of performance (Philip 97-101).

In Kolb’s experiential learning, the learner’s “immediate experience is

taken as the focus of learning”. The notion of learning is that it is a cyclical

process integrating “immediate experience, reflection, abstract conceptualization

and action. Reflection is both “collaborative and transformative”, as subjective

personal meaning is imparted to the abstract concepts. It also uses it as “concrete

reference point” for “testing the implications and validity of ideas created during the

learning process” (Benson, Teaching 38).

Experiential learning techniques provide opportunities to learn from each

other’s experiences. They engage themselves actively in the process. Knowledge is

assimilated and will pave the way for learners’ taking responsibility of their own

learning (Kohonen 5).

A theory of language learning autonomy considers the “specific nature of

language, of the language faculty”. The learners’ involvement, reflection and

appropriate language use are the three principles, which are essential for the

implementation of learning autonomy in the language classroom.


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Planning and evaluation are a shared responsibility. The target language is

employed to undergo shared and individual processes through reflection. This is

gradually internalised as second language inner speech (Carson xxiii).

2.4.5 Language Using Situation-An Essential Need

The transfer from classroom interaction to communication in life depends on

the role played by the teacher and learners. The teaching methodology adopted

takes its earlier systemic orientation to a largely communicative orientation. This

communicative orientation highlights the fact that language is a tool for expressing

personal, needs, wants, beliefs and desires and thus, enables the teacher to secure

learners’ involvement.

CLT approach emphasizes interaction to be the learning mode through

which communication is to take place in the target language. Storytelling suits the

needs of learners at various levels of second language proficiency. It provides

platform for sharing personal experiences. The contextual information provided

enables others to make sense of story teller’s experience. Pedagogy is, thus, a

mechanism for maximizing learning opportunities in the classroom and as a means

for transferring their life in and outside the classroom (Razia 55).

Wilkins is certain that if learners language is controlled from outside, they

will hardly know how to transform the knowledge to a “language-using situation”

from a “language-learning situation” (Bygate 6).


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Organisational View of Integrated Method of Learner Autonomy and Task

Based Language Teaching

The method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of learning

materials, which commensurate with the assumptions about the nature and theory of

learning and teaching appreciated in the selected approach. It is concerned with the type

of suggested teaching and learning activities and the role of teachers, learners and

instructional materials.

2.5.1 Objective

The way that the learning experiences or tasks are utilised in the learning or

teaching process specifies the methodology. In any teaching method, the objectives are

set by the teacher and are realised by learners. On the other hand, this integrated method

of teaching, as a process method, negates precise objectives for the learning process.

The absence of precise and defined objectives hinders them hardly from

realising the target for which they are devised. For, every teaching method has

explicit or implicit objective in it (Richards 8).

2.5.2 Syllabus

The syllabus should be considered as a set of general guidelines for teachers,

who are expected to adjust the teaching process to individual, social and curricular

contexts. Syllabus is a source of teacher reference. It enables learners to acquire the

language through “methodological mediation” (Kumaravadivelu, Beyond 47).


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Learner-centered pedagogy has negotiation as a fundamental element.

The syllabus requires the suggestions not only for the active involvement of

learners to perform group work in the learning process but also in pedagogical

decision making. The implicit recommendations for fostering group work involve

the negotiation of meaning and decisions among learners for the content, teaching

strategies, materials design and evaluation (Silva, Barbosa and Melo179).

This negotiation is for the co-responsibility and self-development in the

process of syllabus management. To promote learner autonomy, learners’ ability to

make decisions consciously about the learning objectives and selection of strategies to

achieve them is essential. If learners are aware of learning goals, they will monitor their

progress and involve themselves in the conscious construction of their learning (180).

The assumptions of process syllabus include the readiness of learners in

formulating learning plans and setting the learning activities (Peter Skehan,

Cognitive 272). Under the process approach, syllabus construction provides only

the framework that facilitates learners to make effective autonomous decisions.

But the assumptions on which these syllabi based are that learners are “willing,

and capable of, playing a full part in syllabus negotiation” (262).

To make learner ready for the process syllabus, they need to equip themselves

with knowledge about social affective, cognitive and metacognitive strategies.

Social affective strategies help them to solve affective problems of learners in the

group. Cognitive strategies enable them to process the materials to be included.


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Meta cognitive strategies, concerning with reflection and flexibility, help them to

realise their strengths and weaknesses, to develop the self-awareness in learning and

to choose the suitable strategy for the content to learn (Peter Skehan 264-5).

To be autonomous, learners need to exercise their freedom to utilize the

content and the strategies of their preference for language improvement. Learners

should take responsibility for their own learning as well as for learners with whom

they interact. Political nature of autonomy is, thus, re-emphasized as social nature

of learning is given importance (Pemperton 6).

2.5.3 Learning Activities

Language tasks chosen may be situational authentic or interactional

authentic. Language behaviour, which wants to establish a “shared understanding

by asking questions and clarifying meanings”, is interactional authentic. Language

behaviour, which are generally carried outside the classroom at present or later in

learners’ life is situational authentic. Skehan assures the interactional authentic

tasks, which manifest “a sort of relationship to the real world” (Ellis Task 6).

A task may involve both oral and written activities but it is conveyed through

task contents. Production of language may hardly be in any stage of task performance,

according to Richards, Platt and Weber. The planning stage may involve reading,

listening or writing. On the whole, a task conveys its primacy to oral or written

production though it refers to activities involved any of the language skills (6).


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A learner-centered curriculum is with flexible framework. The response of

teachers is to help learners to develop knowledge and ability to manipulate the

linguistic system to use it to convey their messages spontaneously. Learners need

to understand the necessity for performing the communicative functions with the

linguistic system they have mastered. They are expected to develop styles and

strategies to communicate as effectively as possible and to be aware of using the

socio culturally appropriate language for different circumstances.

2.5.4 The Role of Learners

The role of learners needs special mention as they are taken from the total

dependent position to near independence. They learn how to direct their learning

process. To become independent, they need to change their mentality from being a

slave to traditional view of teaching. Instead of criticizing or rejecting the offer of

freedom in their learning, they prepare themselves for the occasion to discover their

own learning possibilities. As Aoki defines learners’ “capacity, freedom, and/or

responsibility to make choice concerning their own learning” as learner autonomy

(Benson, “State” 31), they need to make learning choices for themselves.

As older learners, the post graduate learners have better memory power,

learning capacity and analytic ability. They can perform well the life-oriented

tasks even with the limited vocabulary. Their familiarity with these tasks helps

them to perform complex tasks with ease (Saville 83).


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2.5.5 The Role of Teacher

The role of teacher is to prepare learners to make connections between the

simulated interactions in a restricted way and the demands of circumstances in life

outside the classroom.

The study on interpersonal dynamics that might affect learner autonomy led to

the theory of Dynamic Interrelational Space (DIS). It takes into consideration the

capacities of the teacher as the capacities of learners for learner autonomy.

It conceptualises that learner autonomy is an interrelational construct. The learner

must develop a capacity for utilizing teacher as a resource and teacher must develop

the capacity to lend a support to learners who struggle with the anxieties to initiate

and progress with their work. Their development of the capacity to cope with their

own anxieties facilitates the learning process of learners (Lamb 65).

To promote learner autonomy, Little stresses on teacher autonomy as

“capacity to self-direct their teaching”. Benson views that teacher autonomy as

freedom to self-direct their teaching whereas Smith and Little view that teacher

autonomy as capacity to self-direct their learning as a teacher. Little further

emphasizes that development of learner autonomy depends on the development of

teacher autonomy. He points out further that teachers should know what it is to be

autonomous to foster learner autonomy among them (77).

The role of teachers changes from being an authority to set down a plan to

the minute for each class. They must be flexible and “true facilitators” of learning.


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They have to be alert for the learning opportunities and teachable moments.

They have to avoid taking the sole responsibility of planning for each class or the

complete withdrawal from teaching learners. The condition creates the sharing of

responsibility between the teacher and learners.

The change in the role of teacher and relationship is due to the necessity for

their supportive, approving, encouraging approach. Teachers mantle the role of a

friend to allow learners to be responsible for their learning on their own by being

sensitive to their needs, goals and requests. His other help includes the preparation

of appropriate in-house materials and self-assessment techniques for learners.

Through a series of programmes of workshops, special lectures, psychological

and methodological preparation of teachers will be of much use in giving a fillip to

their confidence to help learning in this mode of study (Dickinson 122).

2.5.6 Instructional Materials

In autonomous learning, the input must be comprehensible, interesting,

suitable to the linguistic knowledge level of learners and capable of producing

differential responses from learners by providing a flexible framework for the

same objective.

It must be checked for the intelligibility of learning instructions and objectives

since the learning styles and strategies of learners differ from each other.


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2.5.7 Mode of Assessment

An appropriate system of assessment needs to be adopted suitable for the

syllabus, content of learning and learning strategies/styles of learners’ choice

suggested for this method of teaching.

Rivers opines that self-assessment is a way for developing the sense of

autonomous learning. They develop their “own internal criteria” for knowing the

improvement in their skills. They can take informed decisions about how to move

forward in their learning path. The self-assessment is an essential aspect of

developing learner autonomy as the teachers’ direction and assessment of the

quality of their work can be done away with. Teachers, the more knowledgeable

and experienced persons, act as guides to reach the goal of making learners move

even beyond the teacher’s level of competence (Farrell 20).

To become more responsible for their own learning, in addition to setting

their learning goals, learners need to be aware of their current language

proficiency level in relation to their own goals. They have to be aware of their

strengths to augment and weaknesses to limit to gain proficiency. Teacher and

peer assessment complement their self-assessment.

Learners can be allowed to assess themselves using the checklist, which can

be developed jointly by teachers and learners. If it is jointly constructed, it will

include the needed aspects of learning from the point of view of learners.


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An assessment system, which accommodates self-assessment, will be

favourable to autonomous learning. Common European Framework of Reference

(CEFR) embodies an “action–oriented” approach that has “inter-related dimensions”.

It is used as a means of assessing the reception, production, interaction and

mediation like language activities with the appropriate strategies and socio

linguistic and pragmatic components (Little 27).

The test-based evaluation can be replaced with task based assessment.

The latter helps learners to retain what they have learnt in the class. It makes them

use language frequently (Alabbad and Gitsaki 22).

Reflecting on what and how they carry out the learning task, how much

contributions they have made to the group and how they can improve their

contribution further will also enable them to monitor their own learning progress.

2.6 Suggestions of Scholars for Fostering Learner Autonomy

“Deconditioning” learners from their thought or learning habits hitherto

followed is carried out, if they are against fostering autonomy. It is also one of the

roles of reflection for some researchers. So, gradual introduction of autonomy to

suit learners’ own pace is to be followed, if resistance is for the imposition of

autonomy at full swing at the outset (Benson, Understanding 93).

Phil Benson brings to the limelight the need for researches to establish the

“relationship between the rate at which ideas are introduced and their uptake by

learners”. Candy’s suggestion is to “jolt adult learners out of their compliance and


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passivity” through the transfer of control to learners either gradually or all of a

sudden. Holec views that a gradual deconditioning of learners helps to “re-examine”

their role in language learning. They have to shed prejudices and to be well-informed

so that they will have a clearer idea of their role and what is to be expected from

other components of the learning systems (95).

Learners can be taken from one level to another, when they are ready for

the next level. David Nunan charted five levels of autonomous learning in relation

to the use of content and process. The first level is for the creation of awareness in

learners for the pedagogical goals and content of the materials. Learners identify

their own preferred learning style or strategy and implication of pedagogical tasks.

The second level aims for learners to select goals from a range of alternatives.

The third level is for allowing learners to modify and adapt the goals and content

of the learning programmes. The fourth level is designed for them to create their

own goals and objectives. In the last level, learners make links between the

classroom learning and the world beyond by the application of their skills

developed or knowledge gained (Range). This confirms the notion that autonomy

is a matter of degree and eschews the view that it is “all or nothing” phenomenon

(Oxford 47).

2.7 Phenomenological Study for Corroboration

To corroborate the research findings with the perspectives of the

informants, the researcher has attempted this phenomenological study.


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Husserl’s Phenomenology is based on the intuition that an intrinsic

intelligibility to the experience occurs when an individual is open to the

phenomenon. The language produced can reveal this intelligibility in productive

ways. Experience is, thus, utilized for inquiry on its own terms and is avoided

from being reduced to biology, behaviour or sociology (Holloway 106).

The key components of Phenomenological psychology are description,

reduction, essences and intentionality. Description is the experience which a person

undergoes about things. It keeps away from science and scientific knowledge and

returning to the “things themselves”. A person’s experience is central to

phenomenology. “Reduction” or “bracketing” means the suspension of the taken for

granted assumptions and presuppositions about a phenomenon by an individual in

order to return to the things themselves. “Essences” refers to the core meaning of a

person’s experience of a phenomenon. Intentionality refers to the “The total

meaning” of a thing in an individual’s consciousness (Ganeson 71).

Empirical Phenomenological Reflection (EPR) is a type of reflection

through which the Fundamental Structure (FS) of a phenomenon may be accessed,

according to Colaizzi. The phenomenal level reveals what happens explicitly for

the individual through the description of the lived experience whereas the

phenomenological level expects the researcher to reflect on “the implicit and

structural dimensions of subjects” descriptions through the focus on the internal

relations of the essential elements with one another (Eckartsberg 30).


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2.8 Conclusion

This chapter presents in detail the implications of the nature of language,

language learning and theory of language learning and teaching in developing

learners’ macro skills in classroom. It elaborates the emphasis given on the

techniques to be followed and the demands through which these techniques drive

home the innovative nature of this method of teaching. The next chapter details the

strategy adopted for implementing the techniques, which involve the integration of

Learner Autonomy (LA) and Task Based Language Teaching (TBLT) to enhance

learners’ speaking skill.


theoretical perspective of learner autonomy and...

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