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SUMMER TRAINING REPORT

Cement manufacturing and use of electrical and electronic equipment inthe cement plant.

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement of the course of B.TECH.

(Batch: 2008-2012)

KIIT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

GURGAON

Under the Guidance of: Submitted by:

AUSHOTOSH SAXENA P.SRIDHAR

GENERAL MANAGER 34023

NCCBM

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

With profound respect and gratitude, I take the opportunity to convey my thanks tocomplete the training here. I do extend my heartfelt thanks to Mr.AUSHOTOSH forproviding me this opportunity to be a part of this esteemed organization. I am extremelygrateful to all the technical staff of NCCBM for their co-operation and guidance that helpedme a lot during the course of training. I have learnt a lot working under them and I willalways be indebted of them for this value addition in me.

I would also like to thank the training in charge of K.I.I.T COLLEGE OF ENGINEERINGand all the faculty member of Electrical & Electronics department for their effort ofconstant co-operation which have been a significant factor in the accomplishment of mysummer training.

P.SRIDHAR

34023

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ABSTRACT

ement is one of the core industries which plays a vital role in the growth andexpansion of a nation. It is basically a mixture of compounds, consisting mainly

of silicates and aluminates of calcium, formed out of calcium oxide, silica,aluminum oxide and iron oxide. The demand for cement, being a derived one, dependsprimarily on the pace of activities in the business, financial, real estate and infrastructuresectors of the economy. Cement is considered preferred building material and is usedworldwide for all construction works such as housing and industrial construction, as well asfor creation of infrastructures like ports, roads, power plants, etc. Thus, it can said to be asignificant contributor to the Government's revenue collection and a pillar of overallplanned development of an economy.

C

The industry has been actively pursuing various avenues to improve its productivity and

energy efficiency. There has been all-around upgradation of technology in all sections ofthe plant like mining, process, equipment and machinery, packaging and transportation.

Cement industry in India is currently going through a technological change as a lot ofupgradation and assimilation is taking place. Currently, almost 93% of the total capacity isbased entirely on the modern dry process, which is considered as more environment-friendly. Only the rest 7% uses old wet and semi-dry process technology. There is also ahuge scope of waste heat recovery in the cement plants, which lead to reduction in theemission level and hence improves the environment.

Different types of electrical and electronic equipment are used in the plant, these are usedat various levels of operations in the plant like manufacturing of cement, detection of gases,testing of quality and for indicating safety levels.

An understanding of these devices and continuous research with upgradation of technologyin all of these devices can improve the performance of the plant as well as improve itsproductivity and energy efficiency.

Introduction

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Established in 1962, as Cement Research Institute of India and redesignated as NationalCouncil for Cement and Building Materials in April 1985, NCB is an apex body dedicatedto continuous research, technology development and transfer, education and industrialservices for the cement and building material industries. The entire range of services of

NCB is delivered by eight Corporate Centers through its units in Ballabhgarh andHyderabad. The main laboratories of the Council are located at Ballabhgarh, about 35 kmssouth of New Delhi.

National Council for Cement and Building Materials (NCB) is the largest IndustrialSupport Organization of its kind in India, with units in the various regions of the countryand in the field of Cement, Building Materials and Allied Areas and covers:

Research

Technology Development and Transfer

Education

Industrial Services

NCB has an over 300 strong team of highly qualified and experienced engineers, scientistsand other professionals.

Manpower Training and continued efforts to upgrade knowledge base is always givenhighest priority in NCB.

NCBs Services at a glance:

Turnkey Consultancy for Greenfield ProjectsBasic and Detailed EngineeringPlant Construction SupervisionGeological ExplorationComputer Aided Deposit EvaluationMine PlanningEIA & EMP. ISO-14000/EMSRaw Materials InvestigationLimestone Consumption Factor

Raw Mix DesignEstablishing Causes of Coating and Build-upProduct DevelopmentRefractory Engineering and ManagementWastes UtilisationIndustry Oriented TrainingSimulator based Training

Productivity EnhancementEnergy ConservationKiln Shell Ovality StudiesKiln AlignmentEnvironmental Management PlanMaintenance ManagementSecuring Project FundsTQM and Quality Systems(ISO 9000)

Supply of SRMsTesting ServicesCalibration ServicesLaboratory CertificationTraining in Plant OperationConcrete Mix DesignDiagnostic Studies for Distressed Structures

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In 2002 the world production of hydraulic cement was 1,800 million metric tons. The topthree producers were China with 704, India with 100, and the United States with 91 millionmetric tons for a combined total of about half the world total by the world's three mostpopulous states.

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Varieties of Cement in India

There are some varieties in cement that always find good demand in the market. To knowtheir characteristics and in which area they are most required, it will be better to take a lookat some of the details given below.

Portland Blast Furnace slag cement (PBFSC): The rate of hydration heat isfound lower in this cement type in comparison to PPC. It is most useful in massiveconstruction projects, for example - dams.

Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement: This cement is beneficial in the areas whereconcrete has an exposure to seacoast or sea water or soil or ground water. Underany such instances, the concrete is vulnerable to sulphates attack in large amountsand can cause damage to the structure. Hence, by using this cement one can reducethe impact of damage to the structure. This cement has high demand in India.

Rapid Hardening Portland Cement: The texture of this cement type is quitesimilar to that of OPC. But, it is bit more fine than OPC and possesses immensecompressible strength, which makes casting work easy.

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC): Also referred to as grey cement or OPC, it isof much use in ordinary concrete construction. In the production of this type ofcement in India, Iron (Fe2O3), Magnesium (MgO), Silica (SiO2), Alumina(AL2O3), and Sulphur trioxide (SO3) components are used.

Portland Pozolona Cement (PPC): As it prevents cracks, it is useful in the castingwork of huge volumes of concrete. The rate of hydration heat is lower in thiscement type. Fly ash, coal waste or burnt clay is used in the production of thiscategory of cement. It can be availed at low cost in comparison to OPC.

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Oil Well Cement: Made of iron, coke, limestone and iron scrap, Oil Well Cementis used in constructing or fixing oil wells. This is applied on both the off-shore andon-shore of the wells.

Clinker Cement: Produced at the temperature of about 1400 to1450 degree

Celsius, clinker cement is needed in the construction work of complexes, housesand bridges. The ingredients for this cement comprise iron, quartz, clay, limestoneand bauxite.

White cement: It is a kind of Ordinary Portland Cement. The ingredients of thiscement are inclusive of clinker, fuel oil and iron oxide. The content of iron oxide ismaintained below 0.4% to secure whiteness. White cement is largely used toincrease the aesthetic value of a construction. It is preferred for tiles and flooringworks. This cement costs more than grey cement.

Apart from these, some of the other types of cement that are available in India can beclassified as:

Low heat cement High early strength cement Hydrophobic cement High aluminium cement masonry cement

The setting of cement

Cement sets when mixed with water by way of a complex series of chemical reactions stillonly partly understood. The different constituents slowly crystallise and the interlocking of

their crystals gives to cement its strength. Carbon dioxide is slowly absorbed to convert theportlandite (Ca(OH)2) into insolublecalcium carbonate. After the initial setting, immersionin warm water will speed up setting. In Portland cement,gypsum is added as a compoundpreventing cement flash setting.

Environmental impacts

Cement manufacture causes environmental impacts at all stages of the process. Theseinclude emissions of airborne pollution in the form of dust, gases, noise and vibration whenoperating machinery and during blasting in quarries, and damage to countryside fromquarrying. Equipment to reduce dust emissions during quarrying and manufacture of

cement is widely used, and equipment to trap and separate exhaust gases are coming intoincreased use. Environmental protection also includes the re-integration of quarries into thecountryside after they have been closed down by returning them to nature or re-cultivatingthem.

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CO2 emissions

Cement manufacturing releases CO2 in the atmosphere both directly when calciumcarbonateis heated, producing lime and carbon dioxide,[14] and also indirectly through the

use of energy, particularly if the energy is sourced from fossil fuels. The cement industryproduces about 5% of global man-made CO2 emissions, of which 50% is from the chemicalprocess, and 40% from burning fuel.[15] The amount of CO2 emitted by the cement industryis nearly 900 kg of CO2 for every 1000 kg of cement produced.

In certain applications, lime mortar, reabsorbs the CO2 chemically released in itsmanufacture, and has a lower energy requirement in production. Newly developed cementtypes from Novacem[17] andEco-cement can absorbcarbon dioxide from ambient air duringhardening.

Heavy metal emissions in the air

In some circumstances, mainly depending on the origin and the composition of the rawmaterials used, the high-temperature calcination process of limestone and clay minerals canrelease in the atmosphere gases and dust rich in volatile heavy metals, a.o, thallium,[19]

cadmium and mercury are the most toxic. Heavy metals (Tl, Cd, Hg, ...) are often found astrace elements in common metal sulfides ( pyrite (FeS2), zinc blende (ZnS), galena(PbS), ...) present as secondary minerals in most of the raw materials. Environmentalregulations exist in many countries to limit these emissions.

Heavy metals present in the clinker

The presence of heavy metals in the clinker arises both from the natural raw materials andfrom the use of recycled by-products or alternative fuels. The high pH prevailing in thecement porewater (12.5 < pH < 13.5) limits the mobility of many heavy metals bydecreasing their solubility and increasing their sorption onto the cement mineral phases.Nickel, zinc andlead are commonly found in cement in non-negligible concentrations.

Use of alternative fuels and by-products materials

A cement plant consumes 3 to 6 GJ of fuel per tonne of clinker produced, depending on theraw materials and the process used. Most cement kilns today use coal and petroleum cokeas primary fuels, and to a lesser extent natural gas and fuel oil. Selected waste and by-

products with recoverable calorific value can be used as fuels in a cement kiln, replacing aportion of conventional fossil fuels, like coal, if they meet strict specifications. Selectedwaste and by-products containing useful minerals such as calcium, silica, alumina, and ironcan be used as raw materials in the kiln, replacing raw materials such as clay, shale, andlimestone. Because some materials have both useful mineral content and recoverablecalorific value, the distinction between alternative fuels and raw materials is not always

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clear. For example, sewage sludge has a low but significant calorific value, and burns togive ash containing minerals useful in the clinker matrix. [20]

Different Types of Processes

Raw materials which already possess correct composition in their natural state are found invery few places. Hence in the vast majority of cases, cement is made from an artificiallyproportioned mixture of raw materials.

The manufacturing process over the years of development may be classified under the

following categories:- Wet process

- Semi-wet / semi-dry process

- dry process

a) Wet Process

In the wet process raw mix is fed into the kiln in the form of slurry which may have watercontent of 30 to 40%. The slurry which is easy to blend and homogenise is directly fed intothe kiln which in the case of wet process is a relatively long tube. The wet process becomesindispensable in those cases where the naturally occurring raw materials have highmoisture content of more than 12% like chalk and marl. This is also essential whererelatively poor grade limestone have to be enriched through the process of beneficiationrequiring use of water as a process media. In fact, in the earlier times i.e. before 1950 most

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of the kilns were wet process kilns due to the fact that in the form of slurry it is easy toblend and homogenise the various components of the raw mix. In this process the fuelconsumption is the highest (in the region of 1300 to 1600 K.cal/Kg of clinker) the powerconsumption is lower at 110-115 Kwh/tonne of cement.

b) Semi-wet/Semi-dry Process

This process was evolved to counter the main drawback of the wet process which is highfuel consumption. In this process powdered raw meal is either converted into nodules byadding controlled quantity of water in a nodulising pan or by dewatering slurry in a filterpress to form filter cake of the raw material. These nodules or the cake thus formed are fedon to a moving grate where the raw meal gets partially calcined. This partially calcined rawmix in the form of nodules/cake is further charged into a rotary kiln for complete calciningand sintering in the form of clinker. However, this process poses a number of operationalproblems and capacity problems. The fuel consumption however, improves reasonably to

about 900-1100 K.cal/Kg of clinker but the power consumption increases to 115-120Kwh/tonne of cement.

c) Dry Process

In the dry process, the raw materials are dried in a combined drying and grinding plant toreduce the moisture content below 1%. The drying of materials is achieved by using kilnexhaust gases which may be supplemented by auxiliary hot furnaces during rainy season.The ground raw mix is homogenised in large silos. In fact, development of suitablehomogenising and blending systems are mainly responsible for making the dry processpopular and practicable. The blended and homogenised raw is fed into either a long dry

kiln or a short kiln with air suspension preheater in which partial calcination of the raw mixtakes place. In fact, long dry kilns have now practically gone out of use and the dry processis mainly confined to the use of air suspension preheater. This process gives the maximumbenefit as far as the heat consumption figures are concerned. As a further refinement anddevelopment of the dry process, the air suspension preheaters are now being fitted withPrecalcinators which ensure complete calcining of the raw mix before it enters the kiln.Fuel consumption is lowest in this process and is in the range of 750-950 Kcal/Kg ofclinker. The power consumption is in the range of 120-125 Kwh/tonne of cement. A flowprocess sheet of all the cement production processes including Pre-calcinator system isindicated in Fig.

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CEMENT PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

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ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENTS USED IN ACEMENT PLANT.

CT & PT

Current Transformers

A current transformer (CT) is a type of instrument transformer designed to provide acurrent in its secondary winding proportional to the alternating current flowing in itsprimary. They are commonly used in metering and protective relaying in the electricalpower industry where they facilitate the safe measurement of large currents, often in thepresence of high voltages. The current transformer safely isolates measurement and controlcircuitry from the high voltages typically present on the circuit being measured.

Current transformers are used extensively for measuring current and monitoring theoperation of the power grid. The CT is typically described by its current ratio from primary

to secondary. Often, multiple CTs are installed as a "stack" for various uses (for example, protection devices and revenue metering may use separate CTs). Similarly potentialtransformers are used for measuring voltage and monitoring the operation of the powergrid.

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The accuracy of a CT is directly related to a number of factors including:

Burden Burden Class /Saturation Class

Rating factor Load External electromagnetic fields temperature and Physical configuration.

Potential Transformers

Protective Current Transformers are designed to measure the actual currents in powersystems and to produce proportional currents in their secondary windings that are isolatedfrom the main power circuit. These replica currents are used as inputs to protective relays

which will automatically isolate part of a power circuit In the event of an abnormal or faultcondition therein, yet permit other parts of the plant to continue in operation.

Satisfactory operation of protective relays can depend on accurate representation ofcurrents ranging from small leakage currents to very high over currents, requiring theprotective current transformer to be linear, and therefore below magnetic saturation atvalues up to perhaps 30 times full load current. This wide operating range means that protective current transformers require to be constructed with larger cross-sectionsresulting in heavier cores than equivalent current transformers used for measuring dutiesonly. For space and economy reasons, equipment designers should however avoid overspecifying protective current transformers ITL technical staff are always prepared to assist

in specifying protective CT's but require some or all of the following information:- Protected equipment and type of protection. Maximum fault level for stability. Sensitivity required. Type of relay and likely setting. Pilot wire resistance, or length of run and pilot wire used. Primary conductor diameter or bus bar dimensions System voltage level.

Power Distribution Board

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A distribution board (orpanel board) is a component of an electricity supply systemwhich divides an electrical power feed into subsidiary circuits, while providing a protectivefuse orcircuit breakerfor each circuit, in a common enclosure. Normally, a main switch,and in recent boards, one or more Residual-current devices (RCD) or Residual Current

Breakers with Over current protection (RCBO), will also be incorporated.Following are the application

Application:-These are widely used for :-

1. Protection against electrical Short Circuit, overload and earth fault of the system.2. Control & monitoring of the entire electrical system of an industry / plant.3. Systematic power catering to various load of an electrical system.4. Normally used in Hospitals, Multi-storied buildings, steel industries, cement

industry, open cast mines, shopping mall etc.

Motor Control Centers

A motor control center (MCC) is an assembly of one or more enclosed sections having a commonpower bus and principally containing motor control units. Motor control centers are in modernpractice a factory assembly of several motor starters. A motor control center can include variablefrequency drives, programmable controllers, and metering and may also be the electrical serviceentrance for the building. Motor control centers are usually used for low voltage three-phase

alternating current motors from 230 volts to 600 volts. Medium-voltage motor control centers aremade for large motors running at 2300 V to around 15000 V, using vacuum contactors forswitching and with separate compartments for power switching and control.

Motor control centers have been used since 1950 by the automobile manufacturing industry whichused large numbers of electric motors. Today they are used in many industrial and commercial

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applications. Where very dusty or corrosive processes are used, the motor control center may beinstalled in a separate air-conditioned room, but often an MCC will be on the factory floor adjacentto the machinery controlled.

A motor control center consists of one or more vertical metal cabinet sections with power bus andprovision for plug-in mounting of individual motor controllers. Very large controllers may be bolted in place but smaller controllers can be unplugged from the cabinet for testing ormaintenance. Each motor controller contains a contactor or a solid-state motor controller, overloadrelays to protect the motor, fuses or a circuit breaker to provide short-circuit protection, and adisconnecting switch to isolate the motor circuit. Three-phase power enters each controller throughseparable connectors. The motor is wired to terminals in the controller. Motor control centersprovide wire ways for field control and power cables.

Each motor controller in an MCC can be specified with a range of options such as separate controltransformers, pilot lamps, control switches, extra control terminal blocks, various types of bi-metal

and solid-state overload protection relays, or various classes of power fuses or types of circuitbreakers. A motor control center can either be supplied ready for the customer to connect all fieldwiring, or can be an engineered assembly with internal control and interlocking wiring to a centralcontrol terminal panel board or programmable controller.

Motor control centers (MCC) usually sit on floors, which are often required to have a fire-resistance rating. Firestops may be required for cables that penetrate fire-rated floors and walls.

Application :-These are widely used for :-Protection against electrical Short Circuit, overload and earth fault of the system.

Control & monitoring of the entire electrical system of an industry / plant.Systematic power catering to various load of an electrical system.Normally used in Hospitals, Multi-storied buildings, steel industries, cement industry, open castmines, shopping mall etc.

Control & Relay Panel

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Application :-

These are widely used for:1. Protection and Control for Transformers.2. Protection and Control for Transmission and distribution lines3. Protection and Control for Bus Section and Bus Coupler

Drum Controller & Master Controller

Air break drum controllers are suitable for controlling A.C & D.C motors used in E.O.Tcranes, haulages in mines, winches, steel works. Mainly three sizes are manufactured, 40

Amps, 60 Amps, 150 Amps. Provided with stator reversing contacts.

A star wheel and roller arm give definite step location. The crank type-operating handle isprovided with off position trigger to prevent accidental starting or unwanted reversing.Operating handle is provided with deadman handle if required by the client Auxiliarycontacts are provided for Electrical inter locking.

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Arc Shields:

Arc shields are provided on both D.C and A.C. type controllers.

Cable Entry:

Standard cable entry is through a base plate, other type of fittings, can also be provided asper clients desire.

Construction:

Robust construction, top & bottom made of M.S. Plate. The fingertips are made of Harddrawn copper, grinding finish. Removable front cover made of sheet steel.

Drum:The contact segments are of Hard drawn Electrolytic copper, turned after assembly tomaintain concentricity. The contact assembly of controllers fixed on to insulated M.S.Shaft.

Concepts in switching technology with miniaturization & sophistication for used inautomatic control circuit like master control switch where mechanical positions istranslated into electrical signals for controlling remote starters, contactors and work inhighly contaminated atmosphere and extremely high shock and vibrating condition. EveryLimit Switch goes under rigorous testing before it is supplied. A wide variety to afford ahigh degree of versatility is available. The range includes:-

Grab differential limit switch. Spindle type rotary geared limit switch. Heavy duty lever type limit switch. Roller lever. Counter weight. Forked lever. V-shaped lever. Double Roller lever Foot Pedal Heavy duty cam operated Rotary Geared Limit Switch. Push rod limit switch. Heavy duty pull cord switch. Explosion proof limit switch for Hazardous atmosphere. Heavy duty snap action limit switch.

Technical Specification & Features

Utilisation category: AC 11 & DC 11 as per IEC IS 6875.

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Thermal current 10 amp to 40 amps. Insulation voltage 600 V AC & 240 DC. Operating temperature 20C to 110C. Mechanical life 20 million cycle.

Contact life: 10 million cycles. Terminal capacity: 2.5 mm2. Operating Torques: 6.804 to 14.968 KLS depending on switch size and cam

selected. Enclosure: IP 67 Characteristics Oil tight, Water tight & Dust proof. Time tested, extremely reliable design

Resistance Boxes

Resistance boxes & starting resistors are used for both AC and DC applications. It iswidely used for controlling and developing higher torque and have extensively applicablein: Cement Plants.

The grids of starting resistors are made from stainless steel and punched steel sheet and aresuitable for maximum temperature rise of 375 degree C as per BSS standards.

AC / DC Tachogenerators

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The AC Tacho generators provide the AC voltage output proportional to the speed of itsmover. Their main application areas include indication & display purposes. On basis ofsimple calculations, the frequency of 2 pole, 8 pole and 48 pole will produce 16.66 Hz,66.66 Hz and 400 Hz, respectively.

Some of the salient attributes of our AC/DC Tacho generators include:

Compact Light weight High linearity High stability and extreme reliability in hostile industrial environments

Its technical specifications are tabulated below:

Current Up to 50 mA

Speeds Up to 4000 rpm

Voltages 4V to 40 V / 1000 rpm

Pole Design 2, 8 and 48

Stepper Motors with Controller

A stepper motor (orstep motor) is abrushless, synchronous electric motorthat can dividea full rotation into a large number of steps. The motor's position can be controlledprecisely

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without any feedback mechanism (see Open-loop controller), as long as the motor iscarefully sized to the application. Stepper motors are similar to switched reluctance motors(which are very large stepping motors with a reduced pole count, and generally are closed-loop commutated.)

Stepper motors operate differently from DC brush motors, which rotate when voltage isapplied to their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple"toothed" electromagnets arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. Theelectromagnets are energized by an external control circuit, such as a microcontroller. Tomake the motor shaft turn, first one electromagnet is given power, which makes the gear'steeth magnetically attracted to the electromagnet's teeth. When the gear's teeth are thusaligned to the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet. Sowhen the next electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off, the gear rotates slightlyto align with the next one, and from there the process is repeated. Each of those slightrotations is called a "step," with an integer number of steps making a full rotation. In that

way, the motor can be turned by a precise angle.

Stepper motor characteristics

1. Stepper motors are constant power devices.2. As motor speed increases, torque decreases. (most motors exhibit maximum torque

when stationary, however the torque of a motor when stationary 'holding torque'defines the ability of the motor to maintain a desired position while under externalload)

3. The torque curve may be extended by using current limiting drivers and increasingthe driving voltage (sometimes referred to as a 'chopper' circuit, there are severaloff the shelf driver chips capable of doing this in a simple manner).

4. Steppers exhibit more vibration than other motor types, as the discrete step tends tosnap the rotor from one position to another, (this is important as at certain speedsthe motor can actually change direction).

5. This vibration can become very bad at some speeds and can cause the motor to losetorque (or lose direction).

6. The effect can be mitigated by accelerating quickly through the problem speedsrange, physically damping (frictional damping) the system, or using a micro-stepping driver.

7. Motors with a greater number of phases also exhibit smoother operation than thosewith fewer phases (this can also be achieved through the use of a micro steppingdrive)

Stepper motor with controller or controlled stepper motor having high torque density,rugged design and long life bearings. Stepper motors possess following attributes:

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Thermal protection Short circuit and wrong polarity protection Opt isolated signal input Low vibration, high speed and high torque

Potentiometer LEC for adjustable current reduction Potentiometer SA for adjustable precision of micro step High Torque to inertia for quicker start and stops Higher Power, rare earth magnets

These stepper motors have following technical specifications:

Supply voltage 20 .. 80 V DC

Output Current 1.9 .. 4.0 A

Step Modes 1.8

Current Adjustments via DIP switchesClock Frequency 0.. 400 kHz max.

Pulse Width (Clock) Min 1.25 high / low

Amblent Temperature 0oC .. 100oC

Connection Type Screw Type Terminals

Holding Torque Up to 30Nm

Frame Size 42 mm square to 110mm square

Relays

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A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing through the coil of the relaycreates a magnetic field which attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coilcurrent can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and most have double throw(changeover) switch contacts as shown in the diagram.

Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can be completely separate fromthe first. For example a low voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V ACmains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the relay between the two circuits,

the link is magnetic and mechanical.

The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically 30mA for a 12V relay, but itcan be as much as 100mA for relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs(chips) cannot provide this current and a transistoris usually used to amplify the small ICcurrent to the larger value required for the relay coil. The maximum output current for thepopular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these devices can supply relay coils directly withoutamplification

Relay showing coil and switch contacts

Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many more sets ofswitch contacts,

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Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can solder wires directly to the pinsproviding you take care to avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.

The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's connections. The coil will be obviousand it may be connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high voltage 'spikes'when they are switched off and this can destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. Toprevent damage you must connect a protection diode across the relay coil.

The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can seea lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This levermoves the switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground andanother behind them, making the relay DPDT.

The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:

COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch. NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off. NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on. Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay

coil is on. Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay

coil is off.

Choosing a relay

You need to consider several features when choosing a relay:

1. Physical size and pin arrangement

If you are choosing a relay for an existing PCB you will need to ensure that itsdimensions and pin arrangement are suitable. You should find this information inthe supplier's catalogue.

2. Coil voltageThe relay's coil voltage rating and resistance must suit the circuit powering therelay coil. Many relays have a coil rated for a 12V supply but 5V and 24V relays

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are also readily available. Some relays operate perfectly well with a supply voltagewhich is a little lower than their rated value.

3. Coil resistance

The circuit must be able to supply the current required by the relay coil. You canuse Ohm's law to calculate the current:

Relay coil current =supply voltage

coil resistance

4. For example: A 12V supply relay with a coil resistance of 400 passes a current of30mA. This is OK for a 555 timer IC (maximum output current 200mA), but it istoo much for most ICs and they will require a transistorto amplify the current.

5. Switch ratings (voltage and current)The relay's switch contacts must be suitable for the circuit they are to control. Youwill need to check the voltage and current ratings. Note that the voltage rating isusually higher for AC, for example: "5A at 24V DC or 125V AC".

6. Switch contact arrangement (SPDT, DPDT etc)Most relays are SPDT or DPDT which are often described as "single polechangeover" (SPCO) or "double pole changeover" (DPCO). For further informationplease see the page on switches.

Protection diodes for relays

Transistors and ICs must be protected from the brief high voltage produced when a relaycoil is switched off. The diagram shows how a signal diode (eg 1N4148) is connected'backwards' across the relay coil to provide this protection

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Current flowing through a relay coil creates a magnetic field which collapses suddenlywhen the current is switched off. The sudden collapse of the magnetic field induces a briefhigh voltage across the relay coil which is very likely to damage transistors and ICs. Theprotection diode allows the induced voltage to drive a brief current through the coil (and

diode) so the magnetic field dies away quickly rather than instantly. This prevents theinduced voltage becoming high enough to cause damage to transistors and ICs.

Reed relays

Reed relays consist of a coil surrounding a reed switch. Reed switches are normallyoperated with a magnet, but in a reed relay current flows through the coil to create amagnetic field and close the reed switch.

Reed relays generally have higher coil resistances than standard relays (1000 forexample) and a wide range of supply voltages (9-20V for example). They are capable ofswitching much more rapidly than standard relays, up to several hundred times per second;but they can only switch low currents (500mA maximum for example).

The reed relay shown in the photograph will plug into a standard 14-pin DIL socket ('ICholder'). .

Relays and transistors compared

Like relays, transistors can be used as an electrically operated switch. For switching smallDC currents (< 1A) at low voltage they are usually a better choice than a relay. However,transistors cannot switch AC (such as mains electricity) and in simple circuits they are notusually a good choice for switching large currents (> 5A). In these cases a relay will beneeded, but note that a low power transistor may still be needed to switch the current forthe relay's coil! The main advantages and disadvantages of relays are listed below:

Advantages of relays:

Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC. Relays can switch higher voltages than standard transistors.

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Relays are often a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).

Relays can switch many contacts at once.

Disadvantages of relays:

Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents. Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many

times per second. Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil. Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power

transistor may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.

Switchgear

The term switchgear, used in association with the electric power system, or grid, refers tothe combination of electrical disconnects, fuses and/or circuit breakers used to isolateelectrical equipment. Switchgear is used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to bedone and to clear faults downstream. Switchgear is already a plural, much like the softwareterm code/codes, and is never used as switchgears.

The very earliest central power stations used simple open knife switches, mounted oninsulating panels of marble or asbestos. Power levels and voltages rapidly escalated,making open manually-operated switches too dangerous to use for anything other thanisolation of a de-energized circuit. Oil-filled equipment allowed arc energy to be containedand safely controlled. By the early 20th century, a switchgear line-up would be a metal-

enclosed structure with electrically-operated switching elements, using oil circuit breakers.Today, oil-filled equipment has largely been replaced by air-blast, vacuum, or SF6equipment, allowing large currents and power levels to be safely controlled by automaticequipment incorporating digital controls, protection, metering and communications.

Types

Switch Gear

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Sheet Metal Deep Drawn BoxesSwitch gears are for the use of single phase and three phase power supply as well as fordisconnection through fuse. Switch is fitted in elegant deep drawn box.

16 x 240 DP

32 x 240 DP

16 x 415 Triple Pole

32 x 415 Triple Pole

63 x 415 Triple Pole

100 x 415 Triple Pole

200 x 415 Triple Pole

Fuse Units with Silverside Heavy Copper Contacts

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16 AMP

32 AMP

63 AMP

100 AMP

200 AMP

A piece of switchgear may be a simple open air isolator switch or it may be insulated bysome other substance. An effective although more costly form of switchgear is gasinsulated switchgear(GIS), where the conductors and contacts are insulated by pressurizedsulfur hexafluoride gas (SF6). Other common types are oil [or vacuum] insulatedswitchgear.

The combination of equipment within the switchgear enclosure allows them to interruptfault currents of many hundreds or thousands of amps. A circuit breaker (within aswitchgear enclosure) is the primary component that interrupts fault currents. Thequenching of the arc when the ciruit breaker pulls apart the contacts open (disconnects thecircuit) requires careful design. Circuit breakers fall into these four types:

Oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of oilthrough the arc.

Gas (SF6) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic field, andthen rely upon the dielectric strength of the SF6 to quench the stretched arc.

Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionize other

than the contact material), so the arc quenches when it is stretched a very smallamount (

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Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current flow very quickly: typicallybetween 30 ms and 150 ms depending upon the age and construction of the device.

Several different classifications of switchgear can be made[1]:

By the current rating. By interrupting rating (maximum short circuit current that the device can safely

interrupt)o Circuit breakers can open and close on fault currentso Load-break/Load-make switches can switch normal system load currentso Isolators may only be operated while the circuit is dead, or the load current

is very small. By voltage class:

o Low voltage (less than 1,000 volts AC)o Medium voltage (1,00035,000 volts AC)

o High voltage (more than 35,000 volts AC) By insulating medium:

o Airo Gas (SF6 or mixtures)o Oilo Vacuum

By construction type:o Indoor (further classified by IP (Ingress Protection) class or NEMA

enclosure type)o Outdooro Industrialo Utilityo Marineo Draw-out elements (removable without many tools)o Fixed elements (bolted fasteners)o Live-fronto Dead-fronto Openo Metal-enclosedo Metal-clado Metal enclose & Metal clado Arc-resistanto By IEC degree of internal separation[2]

No Separation (Form 1) Busbars separated from functional units (Form 2a, 2b, 3a, 3b, 4a,

4b) Terminals for external conductors separated from busbars (Form 2b,

3b, 4a, 4b)

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Terminals for external conductors separated from functional unitsbut not from each other (Form 3a, 3b)

Functional units separated from each other (Form 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b) Terminals for external conductors separated from each other (Form

4a, 4b) Terminals for external conductors separate from their associatedfunctional unit (Form 4b)

By interrupting device:o Fuseso Air Blast Circuit Breakero Minimum Oil Circuit Breakero Oil Circuit Breakero Vacuum Circuit Breakero Gas (SF6) Circuit breaker

By operating method:

o Manually-operatedo Motor-operatedo Solenoid/stored energy operated

By type of current:o Alternating currento Direct current

By application:o Transmission systemo Distribution.

A single line-up may incorporate several different types of devices, for example, air-

insulated bus, vacuum circuit breakers, and manually-operated switches may all exist in thesame row of cubicles.

Ratings, design, specifications and details of switchgear are set by a multitude of standards.In North America mostly IEEE and ANSI standards are used, much of the rest of the worlduses IEC standards, sometimes with local national derivatives or variations.

Functions

One of the basic functions of switchgear is protection, which is interruption of short-circuitand overload fault currents while maintaining service to unaffected circuits. Switchgear

also provides isolation of circuits from power supplies. Switchgear is also used to enhancesystem availability by allowing more than one source to feed a load.

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Safety

To help ensure safe operation sequences of switchgear,trapped key interlocking providespredefined scenarios of operation.James Harry Castell ([1]) invented this technique

in 1922. For example, if only one of two sources of supply are permitted to beconnected at a given time, the interlock scheme may require that the first switch mustbe opened to release a key that will allow closing the second switch. Complexschemes are possible.

PORTABLE INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASUREMENTS

ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS (AMPS, VOLTS, POWER, POWER

FACTOR)

GAS ANALYSERS (OXYGEN, CO, CO2)

TEMPERATURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS (CONTACT & NON-

CONTACT)

AIR FLOW MEASURING INSTRUMENTS (PITOT TUBE,

MICROMANOMETER, VANE ANEMOMETER)

PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS (MICROMANOMETER, DIAL

GAUGE)

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FLUE GAS ANALYSER

Flue gas is gas that exits to the atmosphere via a flue, which is a pipe or channel forconveying exhaust gases from a fireplace, oven, furnace,boilerorsteam generator.

Quite often, it refers to the combustion exhaust gas produced at power plants. Itscomposition depends on what is being burned, but it will usually consist of mostlynitrogen (typically more than two-thirds) derived from the combustion air, carbondioxide (CO2) and water vapor as well as excess oxygen (also derived from thecombustion air). It further contains a small percentage of pollutants such asparticulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides. Portableflue gas analyzers are used to measure both the efficiency of combustion and thelevels of pollutant gases. Improving the efficiency of a combustion process can notonly make significant financial savings but also help to reduce atmosphericpollution. Analyzers range from single gas pocket analyzers to portable multi-gasdata logging units for semi-continuous monitoring

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GAS ANALYSER (CO2)

In a gas analyser, the main components are an infrared source (lamp), a sample chamber orlight tube, a wavelength filter, and the infrared detector. The gas is pumped (or diffuses)into the sample chamber, and gas concentration is measured electro-optically by itsabsorption of a specific wavelength in the infrared (IR). The IR light is directed through thesample chamber towards the detector. The detector has an optical filter in front of it thateliminates all light except the wavelength that the selected gas molecules can absorb.Ideally other gas molecules do not absorb light at this wavelength, and do not affect theamount of light reaching the detector.

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As many gases absorb well in the IR area, it is often necessary to compensate forinterfering components. For instance, CO2 and H2O often initiate cross sensitivity in theinfrared spectrum. As many measurements in the IR area are cross sensitive to H 2O it issometimes not possible to analyze for instance SO2 and NO2 in low concentrations using

the infrared light principle.

The IR signal from the source is usually chopped or modulated so that thermal backgroundsignals can be offset from the desired signal.

TEMPERATURE MEASURING SYSTEM

Measurement of the hotness of a body relative to a standard scale. The fundamental scaleof temperature is the thermodynamic scale, which can be derived from any equationexpressing the second law of thermodynamics. Efforts to approximate the thermodynamicscale as closely as possible depend on relating measurements of temperature-dependent physical properties of systems to thermodynamic relations expressed by statisticalthermodynamic equations, thus in general linking temperature to the average kinetic energyof the measured system. Temperature-measuring devices, thermometers, are systems with

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properties that change with temperature in a simple, predictable, reproducible manner. SeealsoTemperature; Thermodynamic principles.

In the establishment of a useful standard scale, assigned temperature values of

thermodynamic equilibrium fixed points are agreed upon by an international body (GeneralConference of Weights and Measures), which updates the scale about once every 20 years.Thermometers for interpolating between fixed points and methods for realizing the fixedpoints are prescribed, providing a scheme forcalibrating thermometers used in science andindustry.

INFRA-RED RADIATION PYROMETER

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This instrument is used for measuring relatively high temperatures, as in furnaces. Most pyrometers work by measuring radiation from the body whose temperature is to bemeasured (radiation devices have the advantage of not having to touch the material beingmeasured). Optical pyrometers measure the temperature of glowing bodies by comparing

them visually with an incandescent filament of known temperature whose temperature canbe adjusted. In resistance pyrometers, a fine wire is put in contact with the object; theinstrument converts the change in electrical resistance caused by heat to a reading of thetemperature of the object.

Principle of operation

A pyrometer has an optical system and detector. The optical system focuses the thermalradiation onto the detector. The output signal of the detector(Temperature T) is related tothe thermal radiation orirradiancej* of the target object through the StefanBoltzmann law,the constant of proportionality , called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and the emissivity

of the object.

This output is used to infer the object's temperature. Thus, there is no need for directcontact between the pyrometer and the object, as there is with thermocouple and Resistancetemperature detector(RTDs).

Applications

Pyrometer is suited especially to the measurement of moving objects or any surfaces thatcannot be reached or cannot be touched.

VANE ANEMOMETER

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A vane anemometer is a type of anemometer, a meteorological instrument used tomeasure wind speed. The vane anemometer can also measure wind direction.

A vane anemometer which uses a small fan is turned by air flowing over the vanes. The

speed of the fan is measured by a rev counter and converted to a wind speed by anelectronic chip. Hence, volumetric flow rate may be calculated if the cross-sectional area isknown.

MICROMANOMETER

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A manometer could also be referring to a pressuremeasuring instrument, usually limitedto measuring pressures near to atmospheric. The term manometer is often used to referspecifically to liquid column hydrostatic instruments.

Micro manometer Applications:

Measurement of system pressures in heating, ventilation and air conditioning(HVAC) systems

Perfect for HVAC technicians performing Pitot tube traverses of airflow readingsacross

a duct Monitoring differential pressure across filters and coils in HVAC systems Measuring positive and negative pressure in air conditioning ducts Measuring differential pressure for clean room monitoring

Product features Differential pressure readings from -5 to +15 in. H20 Calculate and display a velocity reading when using a Pitot tube Variable time constant modes available for a steady display when measuring

fluctuating flowsDatalogging Version Also Includes:Data logging capability allowsuser to log 1000 data points with a time and date stamp

Calculates volumetric flow-in CFM, m3/h, or l/s Statistics function displays average, maximum and minimum values, and the

number of recorded samples Automatic conversion between actual and standard velocity readings Flowrate feature allows for simple and quick calculations of volumetric flowrate bysimply inputting the duct shape and size Makes HVAC pressure measurements easy... Combines a lightweight and durable

design with an easy-to-read display Measures static, total, and velocity pressures - As well as pressure drops Zeroing function ensures accurate measurements

across filters, coils, fans, and diffusers

Specifications

Pressure Range: -5 to +15 in. H20 (1% of reading 0.005 in. H20)

Resolution: Standard : 0.001 in. H20 (Advanced: 0.0005 in. H20)Velocity Range: 250 fpm - 15,500 fpm (1.5% at 2,000 ft/min)Averaging : Up to 255 values each of pressure and velocityFlow Rate : Displayed range: To 9,999,000 CFM, m3/h, l/sPower Supply: Four AA-size Alkaline (Approx. battery life:24 hours)Display: 4-digit LCD, 0.6 in.digit heightDimensions: 3.9 x 6.6 x 1.5 (0.76 lbs)

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CLAMP-ON POWER METER

Clamp meters are used in some meters to measure electrical powerand energy. The clampmeasures the current and other circuitry the voltage; the true power is the product of theinstantaneous voltage and current integrated over a cycle. Comprehensive meters designedto measure many parameters of electrical energy (power factor, distortion, instantaneous

power as a function of time,phase relationships, etc.), energy analysers, use this principle.With an appropriate instrument measurements may be made on three-phase, as well assingle-phase, power systems.

Ultrasonic leak detectors

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http://wapedia.mobi/en/Electrical_powerhttp://wapedia.mobi/en/Electrical_energyhttp://wapedia.mobi/en/Volthttp://wapedia.mobi/en/Integralhttp://wapedia.mobi/en/Frequencyhttp://wapedia.mobi/en/Parameterhttp://wapedia.mobi/en/Power_factorhttp://wapedia.mobi/en/Distortionhttp://wapedia.mobi/en/Phase_(waves)http://wapedia.mobi/en/Energy_analyserhttp://wapedia.mobi/en/Three-phasehttp://wapedia.mobi/en/Electrical_powerhttp://wapedia.mobi/en/Electrical_energyhttp://wapedia.mobi/en/Volthttp://wapedia.mobi/en/Integralhttp://wapedia.mobi/en/Frequencyhttp://wapedia.mobi/en/Parameterhttp://wapedia.mobi/en/Power_factorhttp://wapedia.mobi/en/Distortionhttp://wapedia.mobi/en/Phase_(waves)http://wapedia.mobi/en/Energy_analyserhttp://wapedia.mobi/en/Three-phase

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Ultrasonic leak detector and electronic stethoscope for use in industry, maintenance andmanufacturing wherever precision leak detection or diagnostics are required.

Ultrasound is composed of high-frequency sound waves above the range of human hearing.

UltraPro uses this technology to sense frequencies ranging from 18 to 42 kilohertz, whichare electronically translated down into the audible range. Predictive Maintenance usesairborne/structure-borne ultrasound technology to locate leaks in any gaseous systems andto troubleshoot rolling-element bearings or valve operations. UltraPro features a uniqueAutomatic Gain Control which automatically filters the signal to provide the best signal-to-noise ratio, suppressing background noise and pinpointing leaks. The AG circuit simplifiesoperation, removing complicated adjustment knobs and filter switches.

Energy Conservation

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ENERGY CONSERVATION ACT

Considering the vast potential of energy savings and benefits of energy efficiency, theGovernment of India enacted the Energy Conservation Act, 2001 (52 of 2001). The Actprovides for the legal framework, institutional arrangement and a regulatory mechanism atthe Central and State level to embark upon energy efficiency drive in the country.

Indian Industry Programme for Energy Conservation (IIPEC) Under IIPEC the TaskGroups for Textile, Cement, Pulp & Paper, Fertilizer, Chlor-Alkali, and Aluminium havebeen formed and the first meetings of these groups have taken place at Chhindhwada

(M.P.), Beawar (Rajasthan), Ballarpur (Maharashtra), Mumbai (Maharashtra) and Hirakud(Orissa) respectively. Each Task Force is being headed by stakeholders and BEE is activelyinvolved in organising the programmes. The Members from the industry participate in thisproject for sharing Best Practices, declaring their voluntary targets and benchmarking, etc.The voluntary targets undertaken by the Members from Cement and Pulp & Paper sectorwill alone result in saving of Rs.175 crores and Rs.51 crores respectively by 2005-06.

SHORT TERM MEASURES

1.Energy Conservation

Bureau of Energy Efficiency operationalized Complete pilot phase of programmefor energy efficiency in government buildings and prepare action plan for widerdissemination and implementation.

2. Energy audit of government buildings

Energy Audit completed for nine govt. buildings.

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Legal Performance contract agreement, payment security mechanism, bids selectionand evaluation criteria provided to all building owners for implementation.

Five Building owners have floated tenders. Monitoring and verification of energy savings from March 2005.

3. Capacity building amongst departments to take up energy efficiency programmes

BEE to train core group members to implement energy efficiency in buildings.

LONG TERM MEASURES

Potential of 23,700 MW assessed by end of XIth PlanThe Thrust Areas :

1. Industry specific Task Forces.

2. Notifying more industries as designated consumers.

3. Conduct of energy audit amongst notified designated consumers.

4. Recording and publication of best practises (sectorwise).

5. Development of energy consumption norms.

6. Monitoring of compliance with mandated provision by designated consumers.

STANDARDS AND LABELLING PROGRAMME

Standards and labelling (S&L) programme has been identified as one of the key activitiesfor energy efficiency improvements. The S&L program when in place would ensure thatonly energy efficient equipment and appliance would be made available to the consumers.Initially the equipment to be covered under S&L program are household refrigerators, air-conditioners, water heater, electric motors, agriculture pump sets, electric lamps &fixtures,industrial fans & blowers and air-compressors. Preliminary discussions have already takenplace with manufacturers of refrigerators, air conditioners, agricultural pump sets, motors,etc., regarding procedure to fix labels and setting standards for minimum energyconsumption.

DEMAND SIDE MANAGEMENT

The Demand Side Management and increased electricity end use efficiency can togethermitigate power shortages to a certain extent and drastically reduce capital needs for power

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capacity expansion. The Bureau will be assisting 5 electric utilities to set up DSM Cell andwill also assist in capacity building of DSM Cell staff. The preparation of investment gradefeasibility reports on agricultural DSM, municipal water pumping and domestic lighting ineach of the 5 states will also be undertaken by the Bureau under DSM programme.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN BUILDINGS AND ESTABLISHMENTS

Energy audit studies conducted in several office buildings, hotels and hospitals indicateenergy saving potential of 20-30%. The potential is largely untapped, partly due to lack ofan effective delivery mechanism for energy efficiency. Government buildings bythemselves, constitute a very large target market. The Government of India is committed toset an example by implementing the provisions of the EC Act in all its establishments as afirst initiative. To begin with, the Bureau has begun conduct of energy audit in theRashtrapathi Bhawan, Parliament House, South Block, North Block, Shram ShaktiBhawan, AIIMS, Safdarjung Hospital, Delhi Airport, Sanchar Bhawan, and RailBhawan.

Energy audit in the Rashtrapati Bhawan PMO, S S Bhawan, Sanchar Bhawan & RailBhawan has been completed

PROFESSIONAL CERTIFICATION AND ACCREDITATION

Designated Consumer. Under the EC Act, 2001 is required to appoint or designate energymanager with prescribed qualifications and also to get energy audit done from accreditedenergy auditor. It has been decided that prescribed qualification for energy manager will bethe passing of certification examination to be arranged by the Bureau. Also, regularaccreditation is proposed to be given to energy audit firms having a pool of certified energyauditors. The syllabus and other preparatory activities for conducting the examination have

been finalized and the first National Level Certification Examination is scheduled to beconducted in August 2003.

MANUAL AND CODES

In order to standardize the energy performance test procedures and adopt uniform codeswhile performing energy audit in the designated consumer premises, the Bureau hasundertaken this activity. Initially twenty energy intensive equipments have been identifiedfor development of performance test codes which will be developed and reviewed byexperts, validated by field tests and pilot tested by training energy manager and energyauditors in these codes.

DELIVERY MECHANISMS FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY SERVICES

Although the benefits of energy efficiency are well known and recognised, investments inenergy efficiency have not taken place due to variety of barriers faced by energy users,

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such as risk averseness and lack of motivation for making energy efficiency investments,and low credibility of energy auditors and their services, lack of confidence in the ability ofenergy efficiency equipment to deliver energy savings as expected, etc. An innovative wayof overcoming such barriers is the approach of using performance contracting through

energy service companies (ESCOs). The Bureau would be conducting investment gradeaudits in industries, which are proposed to be implemented on the performance contractbasis by ESCOs.

INDO-GERMAN ENERGY EFFICIENCY PROJECT(PHASE-II)

The Phase-I of the Indo-German Energy EfficiencyProject has been successfully completedby theerstwhile Bureau of Energy Efficiency(BEE) in June 2000.Activities in the Phase-IIof the Project have alreadybegun and the project would be supporting thethrust areas of theBureau as mentioned above.

ENERGY CONSERVATION AWARD 2002

To give national recognition through awards to industrial units for the efforts undertakenby them to reduce energy consumption in their respective units, the Ministry of Powerlaunched the National Energy Conservation Awards in 1991. BEE provides technical andadministrative support for the Awards Scheme. In the Awards Scheme 2002,for Large andMedium Scale Industry, applications were invited from 17 Industrial Sub-Sectors i.e.,automobile, aluminium, cement, chemicals, ceramics, chlor-alkali, edible oil/vanaspati,fertilizers, glass, integrated steel, mini-steel, paper& pulp, petrochemicals, refractories,refineries, sugar and textile plants. The automobile sector has been included for the firsttime in the Awards. 2002. The response from the industries to the year 2002 scheme has

been encouraging. In total, one hundred seventy four (174) industrial units belonging to theabove sub-sectors responded, which is a record for the Award Scheme since its inception.

The award scheme has motivated the participating units to undertake serious efforts insaving energy and environment. The data pertaining to 174industrial units indicated that in2001-2002, these units have been able to save collectively 641million kwh of electricalenergy which is equivalent to the energy generated from a 122MW thermal power stationat a PLF of 60%.Besides the above electrical energy savings, the participating units havealso saved 1.7 lakh kilolitres of furnace oil, 7.4 lakh metric tonnes of coal and 3588 lakhcubic meters of gas per year.In the monetary terms these units have been able to saveRs.594 crores per year and the investment of Rs.691 crores was recovered in 14 months

time period. This year, the Awards were given by the Hon.ble Vice President of India.

MOTORS

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS - RUNNING, STARTING,

SPEED CONTROL, BRAKING

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MECHANICAL FEATURES - ENCLOSURE, BEARINGS, TYPE OF

COUPLING/TRANSMISSION, NOISE

SIZE (RATING AND SERVICE CAPACITY) - CONTINUOUS,

INTERMITTENT OR VARIABLE LOAD

COST - CAPITAL COST, RUNNING COST (LOSSES, P.F.,

MAINTENANCE, DEPRECIATION)

TEMP RISE AND INSULATION STRENGTH

Proper Sizing of Motors

It is important to remember that it is the load that determines how much power themotor draws. The size of the motor does not necessarily relate to the power being

drawn. For example, a fan requiring 15 kW could be driven by a 15 kW motor; inwhich case, it is well matched. It could also be driven by a 30 kW motor, andalthough it would work, it would not be very efficient.

Motors are often oversized because of:

1. Uncertainty about load;

2. Allowance for load growth,

3. Rounding up to the next size;

4. Availability;

Because motor efficiency curves vary substantially from motor to motor, it isdifficult to make a blanket statement as to which motors should be downsized. Ingeneral, if the motor operates at 40% of its rated load or less, it is a strong candidatefor downsizing. This is especially true in cases where the motor load does not varymuch.

It often makes sense to replace oversized motors even if the existing motor has notfailed. Remember, energy costs for a motor over the course of a year can be up to

five times the cost of a new motor. This is especially true in cases where the motoris operating at a lower efficiency level due to oversizing.

Of course, there are benefits to oversizing motors in certain cases that should not beoverlooked when determining what the proper motor is for a given application. Inaddition to providing capacity for future expansion, oversized motors can

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accommodate unanticipated high loads and are likely to start and operate morereadily in under voltage conditions. These advantages can normally be achieved,however, with a modest oversizing margin.

The efficiency of motors operating at loads below 40% is likely to be poor andenergy savings are possible by replacing these with properly sized motors.

Oversized Motors lead to the following problems :

Higher investment cost due to larger size

Higher running cost due to decrease in efficiency

Higher maximum demand due to poor power factor

Higher cable losses and demand charges

Higher switchgear cost

Higher installation cost

Higher rewinding cost (in case of motor burnout)

There are two methods to optimise loading of a running motor :

Connecting motors in STAR

Use of Soft starter with energy saving features

The following suggestions are made:

If a motor is oversized and continuously loaded below 30% of its rated shaft load,the motor can be permanently connected in Star.

If the motor is normally loaded below 30% but has a high starting torquerequirement, then the motor can be started with a suitable starter and, afterovercoming the starting inertia, be automatically switched from Delta to Star, using

timer control or current sensing.

If the load is below 30% most of the time, but if the load exceeds 50% some times,automatic Star-Delta changeover Switches (based on current or load sensing) canbe used. However, if the changeover is very frequent the contactors would get worn

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out and the savings achieved may get neutralised by the cost of frequent contactorreplacements.

If the motor is nearly always operating above 30% of the rated load and sometimes

runs below 30% load, star-delta changeover will not be economical.

UNDERLOADING OF MOTORS

DECREASES OPERATING POWER FACTOR

DECREASES OPERATING EFFICIENCY

SELECTION OF MOTOR SHOULD BE SUCH THAT IT IS NOT

OVERSIZED MOREOVER, EXISTING MOTOR SHOULD BE OPERATED NEAR ITS RATED CAPACITY

PLANT CAPACITY : 2500 TPD (DRY) RAW MILL FAN:-

- MOTOR RATING : 850 kW

- MAX. LOAD : 450 KW

- % LOADING : 53

ADDITIONAL ENERGY

- BILL : Rs 1.00 LAKH/YR

(US$ 0.02 LAKH/YR)(@ RS 4/50 PER KWH)

( 1 US $ = RS 45)

COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR REPLACEMENT OF MOTOR

NAME OF MOTOR : COOLER COMPARTMENT NO 1 FAN

(3 SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR)

EXISTING MOTOR PROPOSED MOTOR

RATED HP : 150 100

FULL LOAD

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CURRENT AMPERES : 188 130

CURRENT LOADING

AMPERES : 106(56%) 87(67%)(ESTIMATED

EXPECTED POWER SAVING : 3.19 Kw

REDUCTION IN MAXIMUM DEMAND : 13.5KVA

ANNUAL SAVING : Rs 1.40 LAKH (US $ 0.03LAKH)

@ RS4/50 PER KWH , RS 150/KVA M.D CHARGES

1 US $ = RS 45,330 DAYS OPERATION/YR

ENERGY EFFICIENT MOTORS

DESIGNED SO THAT EFFICIENCY REACHES A PEAK AT ABOUT TWOTHIRD OF FULL LOAD AND REMAINS AS HIGH AS FULL LOADEFFICIENCY EVEN AT HALF LOAD

POWER FACTOR IS EQUAL TO OR SLIGHTLY HIGHER THAN STANDARDMOTORS

CONTAIN HIGHER ACTIVE MATERIAL, HENCE COSTLIER BY UPTO 30%AS COMPARED TO STANDARD MOTORS

RECOMMENDED IN PROJECT STAGE AND FOR REPLACEMENT OFSTANDARD MOTORS WHICH HAVE BEEN REWOUND MORE THANTWICE

PAYBACK PERIOD OF 2-3 YEARS

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ENERGY EFFICIENT TRANSFORMERS

TRANSFORMERS

DESIGNED FOR HIGH EFFICIENCIES (98% OR MORE)

IRON LOSSES REMAIN CONSTANT AND Cu LOSSES VARY AS SQUAREOF THE LOAD

EFFICIENCY MAXIMUM AT 60-70% LOAD (UNLIKE MOTORS AND FANS)

LOAD LOSSES REDUCE WITH IMPROVEMENT IN LOAD POWER FACTORFOR SAME KVA LOAD

LOCATION OF TRANSFORMER IS IMPORTANT TO MINIMISE CU LOSSES

(I2R LOSSES) THROUGH OPTIMISED CABLE LENGTHS

Most energy loss in dry-type transformers occurs through heat or vibration from thecore. The new high-efficiency transformers minimise these losses. Theconventional transformer is made up of a silicon alloyed iron (grain oriented) core.The iron loss of any transformer depends on the type of core used in thetransformer. However the latest technology is to use amorphous material ametallic glass alloy for the core. The expected reduction in energy loss overconventional (Si Fe core) transformers is roughly around 70%, which is quitesignificant. By using an amorphous core with unique physical and magnetic

properties- these new type of transformers have increased efficiencies even at lowloads - 98.5% efficiency at 35% load.

Electrical distribution transformers made with amorphous metal cores provideexcellent opportunity to conserve energy right from the installation. Though thesetransformers are a little costlier than conventional iron core transformers, theoverall benefit towards energy savings will compensate for the higher initialinvestment. At present amorphous metal core transformers are available up to 1600kVA.

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AutoCAD

AutoCAD is a CAD (Computer Aided Design or Computer Aided Drafting)software application for2D and 3D design and drafting. It was developed and sold

by Autodesk, Inc. First released in December 1982, AutoCAD was one of the firstCAD programs to run on personal computers, notably the IBM PC. At that time,most other CAD programs ran on mainframe computers ormini-computers whichwere connected to a graphics computer terminal for each user.

Early releases of AutoCAD used primitive entities lines, polylines, circles, arcs,and text to construct more complex objects. Since the mid-1990s, AutoCAD hassupported custom objects through its C++ Application Programming Interface(API). Modern AutoCAD includes a full set of basic solid modeling and 3D tools.With the release of AutoCAD 2007 came improved 3D modeling, which meant

better navigation when working in 3D. Moreover, it became easier to edit 3Dmodels. The mental rayengine was included in rendering, it was now possible to doquality renderings. AutoCAD 2010 introduced parametric functionality and meshmodeling.

AutoCAD supports a number of APIs for customization and automation. Theseinclude AutoLISP, Visual LISP, VBA, .NET and ObjectARX. ObjectARX is a C++class library, which was also the base for products extending AutoCADfunctionality to specific fields, to create products such as AutoCAD Architecture,AutoCAD Electrical, AutoCAD Civil 3D, or third-party AutoCAD-based

applications.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_applicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2d_computer_graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3d_computer_graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_drawinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autodeskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minicomputerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_terminalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_Programming_Interfacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_modelinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_rayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendering_(computer_graphics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AutoLISPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_LISPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_Basic_for_Applicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_.NEThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ObjectARXhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2Bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_applicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2d_computer_graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3d_computer_graphicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_drawinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autodeskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minicomputerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_terminalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_Programming_Interfacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_modelinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_rayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendering_(computer_graphics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AutoLISPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_LISPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_Basic_for_Applicationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_.NEThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ObjectARXhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B

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Conclusion

Cement industry, in any country, plays a major role in the growth of the nation.India, being the second largest cement producer in the world after China with a

total capacity of 151.2 Million Tons (MT), has got a huge cement industry. Withthe government of India giving boost to various infrastructure projects, housingfacilities and road networks, the cement industry in India is currently growing at anenviable pace. More growth in the Indian cement industry is expected in the comingyears.

The industry has been actively pursuing various avenues to improve its productivityand energy efficiency. There has been all-around upgradation of technology in allsections of the plant like mining, process, equipment and machinery, packaging andtransportation.

Various electrical and electronic equipments are used in the cement plant whichaffects the performance of cement plant and thus affects the production of cement.These are used during various stages like manufacturing, detection, testing andsafety.

Hence with the deep understanding of electrical and electronic equipment used inthe cement plant,various methods can be developed to improve the performance ofthe plants and aim for sustainable development.