• Welcome to the Summer Burst of AG 101. • You should be able to hear music – and can

control the MP3 Player shown in your view. • Program will begin at 1:00 PM. • Kristen Saacke Blunk, Penn State

Cooperative Extension, Moderating

Today’s Program –

Field, Forage and Grains

Crop Identification and Production

Today’s Session – Session VII • Field, Forage & Grains – Crop

production and identification

Next Week - Session VIII • Pest Management – weeds,

insects, fungus, virus, disease

Session IX • Specialty Crops – Vegetables, fruits,

greenhouse production

AG 101 “Winter Burst” focused on Pennsylvania Farms and Livestock Operations. The “Summer Burst” – beginning with today’s program – will take us along the following path:

Session XI •Wood Crops, Agroforestry, and

Woodlot Management

Session XII •Special Topics – whole landscape

approaches, riparian systems, adaptive management

Summer Burst Farm Visits

AG 101 Summer Burst

Average temperature for Winter Burst Field/Farm Visits: 23 degrees F

Summer Burst Anticipated

Average Temperature: >80 degrees F

Today’s Program –

Field, Forage and Grains

Crop Identification and Production

Marvin Hall Professor of Forage Management

Penn State Crop and Soil Sciences

Greg Roth Professor of Agronomy

Penn State Crop and Soil Sciences

Charlie White Extension Associate in Sustainable AG

Penn State Entomology

Today’s presentation will follow this format:

1. Plant Identification and Adaptation 2. Production Principles 3. Best Management Practices 4. Crop Utilization

Forages Alfalfa (perennial legume)

– Seed: color - light and dark brown to greenish yellow. shape - predominately kidney bean, but few mitten-shaped 2 - 5 mm

– Mature plant: 3-4 ft tall with multiple stems per plant; leaflets generally long and narrow, serrated at tips to approximately 1/3 of entire margin, pinnately compound, small pointed stipules; flower color variable but mostly purple, flower is a modified raceme

– Adaptation: deep, well drained soils with a pH of 6.5 -7. Generally for hay or silage but also grazing (caution with bloat)

Red clover (perennial, short lived legume) – Seed: color - yellow, brown, red, purple (multiple colors); few

seeds are 1/2 dark-colored (purple) and 1/2 light colored (yellow). shape - both heart and mitten-shaped. 2-5 mm (larger than white clover)

– Mature plant: 2-3 ft tall; palmately compound leaves; leaves and stems are pubescent; older leaflets have white, V-shaped, marks; flowers are red borne terminally on spherical head.

– Adaptation: Grows better than alfalfa on wetter and lower pH (5.5 – 7.0) soils. Good for silage or grazing (caution with bloat) but not hay. Only lives 2-3 years.

White clover (perennial legume) – Seed: color - yellow, brown, red, purple (multiple colors); shape

- both heart and mitten-shaped. 1-3 mm (smaller than red clover)

– Mature plant: 4-8 inches tall; stems prostate; palmately compound leaves; leaves and stems are not pubescent; flowers are white and borne terminally on spherical head.

– Adaptation: tolerated shading, grows best cool & moist conditions, soil pH 5.5 – 7.0. Good grazing species (caution with bloat) but doesn’t contribute much to hay or silage yield.

Orchardgrass (perennial) – Seed: color - light yellow in color. shape - many seeds show curved-form;

some florets in clusters; short awns or awn points visible on many seeds. Rachilla is cylindrical with “saucer” end. 5 to 9 mm. chaffy

– Mature plant: blades > 10 mm wide, with leaves folded in a bud shoot (flat stem). Sheaths are distinctly flat. Panicle type inflorescence - compact, upright spikelets on short and long pedicles; spikelets occur in groups appearing as one-sided clusters, sometimes having a purplish color; short awns or awn points; similar in general appearance to reed canarygrass. perennial. Bunch type growth habit (no rhizomes or stolons).

– Adaptation: Grows well on deep well drained soils with a pH of 6.0 – 7.0. Good for hay, silage or grazing. Commonly grown in mixtures with alfalfa

Cool-Season Forage Grasses grow best under moist and cool (<85° F) conditions

Timothy (perennial) – Seed: short (1 – 2 mm) and round, whitish brown in color, no rachilla, palea

or lemma. – Mature plant: upright growth, 3-4 ft tall in spring; inflorescence – spike-like

panicle; no rhizomes; corm (small bulb) at base of stem (see middle image below).

– Adaptation: Grows best in cool and moist conditions. Doesn’t tolerate drought or heat so production is minimal after first harvest. Good for hay or silage but doesn’t persist well under grazing. Popular grass for horse hay.

Smooth bromegrass (perennial) – Seed: very flat and papery-like in appearance; blunt apex; lemma

distinctly veined. 10 - 15 mm long, chaffy – Mature plant: (united sheath) inflorescence - panicle type; open, but

upright short and long pedicles; membranous; rhizomes; dense stands; M or W watermark on leaf about 1/2 way up (see middle image below).

– Adaptation: Grows well in wet or dry soil conditions. Produces seedheads about 3 weeks after orchardgrass (late May to early June in Pennsylvania). Good for hay or silage but doesn’t persist well under grazing.

Tall fescue (perennial) – Seed: color - yellow, brown single seeded; rachilla is

cylindrical with “bat handle” end. – Mature plant: 3-4 ft tall; produces seed head only in

spring growth, regrowth is vegetative. Leaves have heavey veins (see middle image below) and are frequently barbed along edges. Flowers are a panicle.

– Adaptation: Grows well under a wide range of soil conditions (pH 4.5 – 7) and managements. Good for grazing, silage or hay. Newer varieties are endophyte free or contain the “friendly” endophyte.

Ryegrass (annual to perennial) – Seed: single floret, usually with a short awn, color -

yellow, brown, 3-5 mm long. Rachilla is wedge shaped. – Mature plant: 1-2 ft tall, leaves are wazy; flowers are

arranged in a spike with spikelets parallel to the stem (see image on right below).

– Adaptation: Establishes rapidly. Grows best under cool and moist conditions, doesn’t grow well when the weather is hot. Good for silage or grazing but waxy leaf makes drying for hay difficult. Usually grown with a legume.

Switchgrass (perennial) – Seed: yellow to brown, 6-8 mm long, roundish. – Mature plant: 3 -6 ft tall; sheath edges are hairy. Ligule

is a fringe of hairs. Flowers are arranged in an open panicle. Spreads by rhizomes.

– Adaptation: Slow to establish. Grows best on moist, well-drained soils but also does well in dry, low fertility soils. Pasture or hay but don’t harvest lower than 8 inches above ground. Gaining interest as a potential biofuel grass.

Warm-Season Forage Grasses grow best under hot (>85° F) conditions

Depth of Planting (#1 cause of failure)

Percent seedling emergence of several forage crops when planted at 5 depths.

Rules of Thumb: Heal of shoe shouldn’t sink in more than ½ inch. About 10% of seeds should be on soil surface after planting!

Forage Establishment

Seeding depth (inches)

Crop 0.25 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 Alfalfa 78 64 53 45 19

Clover, white 91 47 28 2 0

Clover, red 89 56 62 22 14

Bluegrass, Kentucky 70 43 7 4 0

Bromegrass, smooth 94 78 69 51 24

Timothy 98 89 81 39 12

Seed-to-Soil Contact (#2 cause of failure) Most forage seeds must absorb more than their own weight in water

from the soil before germination begins.

Soil

Seed

Soil

Seed

Bad Good

Soil

Soil Fertility Management • Every ton of harvested forage removes about:

• 60 lbs of N • 20 lbs of P2O5

• 60 lbs of K2O

1 Ton of Hay

Forage yield increases as the plant matures. Harvest at full flower

Forage Harvest Management

Forage quality declines as the plant matures. Harvest at bud or boot stage.

Stored carbohydrates increase as the plant matures. Harvest is a compromise between: yield quality persistence

Grazing – Oldest form of forage harvesting. However, with Pennsylvania’s

cold winter weather it is necessary to store some forages to use when forage plants aren’t growing. A good grazing system will lose 20-25% of the available forage.

Hay – Forage is mowed and allowed to dry in the field until its

moisture content is low enough (< 20%) for it to be stored without molding. The drying can take from 3-6 days and increases the risk of loss due to rain. A good hay making system under ideal weather conditions will lose 15-25% of the available forage.

Silage – Forage is mowed and allowed to wilt in the field until its

moisture content is 50 to 65% before it is baled (baylage) or chopped (haylage) and put in a sealed contained (plastic wrap or tube, bunker, silo) where it ferments (bacteria consume carbohydrates and produce lactic acid which lowers the pH) and can them be stored without molding. A good silage making system will lose 15-25% of the available forage.

Forage Utilization

Grain Crops Corn (annual) – Seed: (see image below) yellow – Mature plant: average hybrid develops about 20-21 total

leaves, silks about 65 days after emergence, and matures about 125 days after emergence

– Adaptation: Corn is best adapted to deep well drained soils, but can be grown on shallower or less well drained soils also, but with lower yield potential.

Grain Crops Soybean (annual) – Seed: (see image below) light yellow; shiny. shape - nearly spherical. large

hilum (where seed was once attached to pod), dark-colored with white slit. – Mature plant: palmately compound; netted veins; white or purple flowers at

nodes on racemes. 2-4 seeds/pod. Stems hairy. Planted in May and harvested in October.

– Adaptation: Soybeans is best adapted to deep well drained soils, but can be grown on shallower or less well drained soils also, but with lower yield. More drought tolerant that corn due to extended flowering period.

Grain Crops Winter wheat (winter annual) – Seed: (see image below) light reddish brown – Mature plant: Large grass plant, approx 36-40 inches tall, spike type

head with 2-row effect in front and back on zig-zag rachis; many awned lemmas; leaves thinner and narrower than barley. Planted in September and October, harvested in July.

– Adaptation: Best adapted to deep well drained soils, but can be grown on shallower or less well drained soils also. More drought tolerant than corn. Mostly soft red winter wheat is grown in PA.

Grain Crops Winter barley (winter annual) – Seed: (see image below) Yellowish brown kernels – Mature plant: Large grass plant, approx 30-40 inches tall, spike type

head; short, club-shaped; 3-row effect in front and back; awned; glaborous; clasping auricles Planted in September and early October, harvested in June .

– Adaptation: Best adapted to well drained soils, not tolerant of low pH or less well drained soils . More drought tolerant than corn.

Grain Crops Spring Oats (annual) – Seed: (see image below) Pale yellow to light brown, depending on

weathering prior to harvest – Mature plant: Large grass plant, approx 30-40 inches tall, panicle

type head; compact, upright spikelets on short and long pedicles. Planted in March and April, harvested in late July and August.

– Adaptation: Best adapted to deep well drained soils, but can be grown on shallower or less well drained soils also. More drought tolerant than corn.

Grain Crops Sorghum (annual) – Seed: (see image below) Red, bronze or cream, spherical, BB sized – Mature plant: Vegetation similar to corn except grain on loose to dense

panicle on top of plant; saw tooth margin on sorghum leaves. Can vary in height from 3 feet to 12 feet tall. Shorter types are known as grain sorghum, taller types are known as forage sorghum. Usually planted at end of May and harvested in October or November.

– Adaptation: Adapted to a range of soil types. More drought tolerant than corn.

Grain Crops Canola (annual) – Seed: (see image below) black to dark brown and spherical – Mature plant: Vegetation similar to wild mustard plants 40-60 inches tall,

with yellow flower. Smells like broccoli. Winter and spring types available. Winter types planted in September and harvested in July.

– Adaptation: Adapted to a range of soil types. Does not tolerate wet soil conditions.

Grain Crop Establishment Grain crops are planted with either a planter or drill,

depending on the species • Planter: Corn, soybeans, sorghum • Drill: Wheat, barley, oats, canola, sorghum or

soybeans

Grain Crop Harvesting Grain crops are harvested in several ways • Combine: harvests grain for dry or ensiled storage • Forage harvester: Chops entire plant or part of

plant (ear or head) for ensiled storage • Corn picker: harvests corn ears for dry storage.

Grain Crop Residues The residues from some Grain Crops are also widely used • Corn: stover can be baled for bedding or mushroom

compost • Wheat, barley, or oats: straw is often baled for animal

bedding • Soybeans and canola: residue is not often baled.

Utilization of Grain Crops Grain crops used mostly for animal feed in PA with a few

exceptions. • Corn: Dairy, hog, cattle, poulty feed, ethanol feedstock • Corn silage: Dairy and beef cattle feed • Soybeans: Meal- animal feed, oil-vegetable oil, animal feed,

biodiesel • Wheat: Flour for human consumption, animal feed • Barley: Dairy, cattle and poultry feed • Oats: Dairy cattle, beef and horse feed • Sorghum: Animal feed, birdseed • Canola: Meal-animal feed, oil-vegetable oil, biodiesel

Grain Crop Nutrient Recommendations

Crop Typical Yield N P2O5 K2O

Bushels/acre Pounds/acre

Corn 130 130 50 30

Corn Silage 21 tons/acre 150 110 230

Soybean 40 0 40 60

Wheat 60 60 60 110

Oats 80 60 70 120

Barley 80 60 50 120

Sorghum 80 60 70 120

Canola 40 80 30 20

Corn has one of the highest nutrient requirements, especially when harvested for silage. Soybean has no N requirement. A rule of thumb for many grains is 0.8 to 1.0 lb of N per bushel

Grain Crop Production in PA: 2010

Crop Yield Area Production

Bu/acre 1000 acre 1000 bu

Corn 128 910 116,480

Corn Silage 18 tons/acre 400 7,200,000 tons

Soybean 42 500 20,790

Wheat 59 165 8,850

Oats 59 110 4,720

Barley 75 60 3,375

Sorghum 37 8/3 111

Canola - - -

Corn dominates our cropping systems, followed by soybeans, wheat and oats.

Grain Crop Test Weight and Moisture

Crop Bushel weight Standard Moisture

Pounds/bu %

Corn 56 15.5

Soybean 60 13.0

Wheat 60 13.5

Oats 32 14.0

Barley 48 14.5

Sorghum 56 14.0

Canola 50 10.0

The standard bushel weight of grain is the amount of grain that would fill a bushel container (1.244 cubic feet) when the grain is at a standard moisture content. Usually that moisture content is the level specified in the U.S. grading standards. i.e. “50 bushels of soybeans/acre” is: 50 bu x 60 lb/bu or 3000 lb of grain at 13.0% moisture harvested from one acre

Cover Crops Used in the gaps between economic crops to maintain soil

coverage and provide other benefits

Benefits

Reduce erosion

Reduce nitrogen leaching

Increase nitrogen value of fall applied manure

Nitrogen fixation (legume species)

Add organic matter to the soil

Weed suppression

Compaction alleviation

Supplemental forage

Increase yield potential of economic crops (sometimes)

Costs

Seed costs

Labor to establish and terminate

Increased management intensity

Cereal Rye • Description: Winter hardy cereal grass • Pros: Moderate seed cost. Can be established later in the fall than most other

species. Adds significant quantities of organic matter. Good nitrogen scavenger. • Cons: Can grow too much in the spring if management is untimely. Immobilizes

nitrogen if terminated too late. Forage value is less than other species. • Management Notes: Can be planted through December but late plantings will

provide minimal wintertime soil coverage and nutrient retention.

Oats • Description: Winter killed cereal grass • Pros: Moderate seed cost. Moderate forage value. Quick cover in fall. Winter kill

eases spring management. Fibrous roots enhance soil aggregation. • Cons: Minimal spring-time nitrogen retention. Needs to be planted early in the

fall. • Management Notes: Plant by mid-September to achieve enough soil coverage to

reduce erosion. Makes an excellent nurse crop to improve winter hardiness of companion legumes.

Annual Ryegrass • Description: Winter hardy annual grass • Pros: Low seed cost. Adds significant quantities of organic matter. Good nitrogen

scavenger. Fibrous roots enhance soil aggregation. Excellent forage value. • Cons: Can winterkill with improper management. Can be difficult to kill in the

spring. Risk of becoming a weed if seed set is allowed. • Management Notes: Plant by mid-September to ensure winter hardiness. If there

is significant fall growth, mow or graze to increase winter hardiness. ‘Italian’ and ‘Westerwold’ types differ in cost and agronomic traits.

Red Clover • Description: Short-lived perennial legume • Pros: Moderate seed cost. Moderate nitrogen fixation. Taproot can alleviate soil

compaction. Can increase yield potential of the following crop. Excellent forage value.

• Cons: Requires an early planting date to achieve significant biomass production. • Management Notes: Often ‘frost-seeded’ into small grains in March. Plant by early

August to achieve adequate biomass and N fixation the next spring.

Crimson Clover • Description: Semi-winterhardy annual legume • Pros: Low seed cost. Moderate nitrogen fixation. Quick growth in fall and spring.

Can increase yield potential of the following crop. Excellent forage value. • Cons: Winter hardiness is questionable in central PA, unlikely in northern PA. • Management Notes: Plant with a nurse crop of oats to increase winter hardiness.

Plant by mid- September to achieve good fall soil cover and maximum biomass and N fixation potential the next spring.

Hairy Vetch • Description: Winterhardy annual legume • Pros: Highest nitrogen fixation of the legumes. Excellent weed suppressor. Can

increase yield potential of the following crop. • Cons: Expensive seed. ‘Hard seed’ can create future weed problems. Poor fall

cover. Full nitrogen fixation potential is only achieved late in the spring. • Management Notes: Plant between mid-August to mid-September to increase

winter hardiness. Plant with a companion species like oats to increase fall soil cover. Lightly scarifying seeds reduces the ‘hard seed’ issue.

Forage Radish • Description: Winter killed brassica. Goes by trade names of ‘Tillage Radish’ and

‘Groundhog Radish.’ Identical to ‘Daikon’ radishes grown for human consumption. • Pros: Quick fall biomass production and nitrogen uptake. Taproot alleviates soil

compaction. Weed suppression through early May. Winterkill eases spring management. Minimal residue in spring creates a warmer and drier soil for earlier planting dates of the next crop.

• Cons: Nitrogen in biomass is released very early as residues decompose over winter. Poor soil coverage in spring. Requires an early planting date.

• Management Notes: Plant by September 1 to achieve maximum biomass production in fall. Not tolerant of poorly drained soils. Nitrogen deficiency can limit growth.

Cover Crop Establishment Methods Drill

Planter Airplane

Highboy PSU Crop Seeder

Broadcast

Cover Crop Termination Methods Herbicide Burndown

Tillage

Winterkill

Roller Crimping or Mowing

Moldboard \ Chisel

Cover Crop Adoption

CTIC Survey Results, 2010

Not enough tim

e to get a cover crop

established with

harvest challenges

Cover Crop Adoption One main factor is a barrier to cover crop adoption: Usual Harvest Dates of Major Crops in PA

Crop % of PA Cropland

Usual Harvest Date

Corn 42% Oct 15 – Nov 20

Soybean 23% Oct 20 – Nov 10

Corn Silage 18% Sept 10 – Oct 10 NASS, 2010

Results of 2010 Cover Crop Survey in the Conewago Watershed: Previous Crop Hectares ‘Green’ Biomass Level – Nov. 20th

None Low Medium High

All Cropland 4,244 48% 24% 18% 11%

Corn 1,841 58% 18% 12% 10% Hively, unpublished

Resources for Cover Crop Info

www.sare.org www.extension.psu.edu/cover-crops

Starting in Fall 2011: Cover Crop Innovations Training Program Presented by Penn State Extension With funding from Northeast SARE

Other Resources

• Weekly Field Crop News http://extension.psu.edu/field-crop-news

• Penn State Extension Crop Management Team http://extension.psu.edu/cmeg

• Cover Crops http://extension.psu.edu/cover-crops

• Crop Diagnostic Clinic http://cropsoil.psu.edu/extension/clinic

Other Resources

• Penn State Agronomy Guide http://extension.psu.edu/agronomy-guide

• Upcoming events/trainings – Sustainable Cropping Systems Research Tour – Jun 22 at Rock

Springs, PA http://cropsoil.psu.edu/research/cropping-systems

– Agronomic Weed Science Tour – Jun 29 – SE Ag Research & Extension Center – Manheim, PA http://extension.psu.edu/cmeg/events/agronomic-weed-science-tour

– Today's decisions, tomorrow's successes: Managing soils, weeds & pests in organic cropping systems – Jun 30 at Rock Springs, PA http://extension.psu.edu/cmeg/events/todays-decisions-tomorrows-successes-managing-soils-weeds-pests-in-organic-cropping-systems

Marvin Hall Professor of Forage Management

Penn State Crop and Soil Sciences

Greg Roth Professor of Agronomy

Penn State Crop and Soil Sciences

Charlie White Extension Associate in Sustainable AG

Penn State Entomology

• Recording of this session will be posted in the “AG DIALOGUE” box, along with a pdf of today’s powerpoint AFTER the live session at http://breeze.psu.edu/AG101

• Registered participants will receive post program/pre-program assessment survey following each live session. To register – visit http://guest.cvent.come/d/vdqt1f

Q& A

NEXT on AG 101: Pest Management Weeds, insects, diseases. Pennsylvania farms are often the first line of defense in emerging pest and disease issues. Recognizing the impact of pests and diseases on the farm is foundational to supporting the producers’ choices in management options

• June 15– 1:00 to 2:30 PM at http://breeze.psu.edu/AG101

• SPEAKERS: Dr. Ed Rajotte, Dr. John Tooker, and Dr. Bill Curran

• Register for AG101 at http://guest.cvent.com/d/vdqt1f