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Unit D - Driving Fundamentals

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Unit D - Driving

Fundamentals

Learning Objectives

After completing this unit the trainee

will be able to:

1. Compare and contrast size and

dimensions of various school buses.

2. Operate a bus using proper driving

techniques.

3. Understand Virginia traffic laws

regarding pupil transportation.

4. Identify potential dangers when

operating a bus.

Suggested Time: 4-5 hours

I. Introduction – Successful Driving

D.1 and D.2

A fundamental requirement for

successful driving, in addition to

operational skills, is being aware of the

vehicle. The need to become aware of the

vehicle can be compared to the natural

awareness we each have of the

dimensions of our body. For example, if

a person was not aware of where their

head was in relationship to other things

in the environment, he or she would be

constantly knocking it against objects.

To prevent drivers from constantly

“knocking” the bus against objects the

driver must know and be constantly

aware of its dimensions and understand

its operation.

It is a relatively easy task to learn the

physical dimensions of the bus, but

learning how it operates and achieving a

natural awareness of where the vehicle is

in relation to the environment takes

practice. By the end of the training

session, the driver will become much

more aware of the vehicle and the

essentials for driving that vehicle.

However, learning to operate a vehicle

safely in a complex highway

environment is a lifelong experience.

Let us begin that experience by exploring

the physical dimensions of the bus, then

progress to specific driving

fundamentals, which begin with the turn

of the key.

II. Definitions of School Buses by Type

D.3

a. "Type A school bus" means a

conversion bus constructed utilizing a

cutaway front-section vehicle with a

left side driver's door. This definition

includes two classifications. Type A1,

with a Gross Vehicle Weight Rating

(GVWR) of 14,500 pounds or less;

and Type A2, with a GVWR greater

than 14,500 pounds, but less than or

equal to 21,500 pounds.


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b. "Type B school bus" means a bus

constructed utilizing a stripped

chassis. The entrance door is behind

the front wheels. This definition

includes two classifications: Type B1,

with a GVWR of 10,000 pounds or

less; and Type B2, with a GVWR

greater than 10,000 pounds.

D.4 c. "Type C (Conventional) school bus"

means a body installed upon a flat-

back cowl chassis with a hood and

fenders. This definition shall include

two classifications: Type C1, with a

GVWR range of 17,500 pounds with

a design seating capacity range from

16 to 30 persons; and Type C2 with a

GVWR of more than 21,500 pounds

designed for carrying more than 30

persons. The engine is in front of the

windshield and the entrance door is

behind the front wheels. Both Type

C1 and Type C2 must be equipped

with dual rear tires.

d. "Type D school bus" means a bus

with a body constructed utilizing a

stripped chassis. The entrance door is

ahead of the front wheels. This bus is

also known as a rear engine or front

engine transit style school bus.

Discussion: Discuss and relate the size

of various school buses to other

vehicles.

Discuss the dangers involved with

operating large school buses.

III. Dimensions of School Buses by

Type

D.5 and D.6

Discussion: Discuss the importance of

knowing the height, weight, width,

wheelbase, length and turning radius of

each bus.

Discuss what kind of incidents can

occur if the driver fails to know these

dimensions.

IV. Starting the Bus

D.7

1. The driver’s seat should be adjusted

so that he or she can operate the

pedals, the steering wheel, and other

controls effectively, and be able to see

all surrounding areas.

2. Adjust mirrors. The inside mirror is

used for viewing passengers within

the bus and serves as a rear view

mirror. The left and right outside

rearview mirrors should be adjusted

so the driver can see at least 200 feet

to the rear. The cross-view mirrors

should be adjusted so as to optimize

the driver’s indirect view of the

children in the “Danger Zone.”

(Federal Motor Vehicle Safety

Standard 111)


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3. The driver’s seat belt must be fastened

before the bus is put in motion.

4. The parking brake should be set so

that the bus will remain stationary.

5. Place the transmission (manual and

automatic) in neutral. This is done

primarily because the driver’s foot

could slip off the clutch. If it were in

gear, the bus would move forward,

possibly hitting a pedestrian, or

damaging another vehicle.

6. Before starting a bus with a manual

transmission, depress the clutch pedal

to relieve some strain on the battery.

Depress the accelerator pedal. Use

the hand choke if necessary.

7. The key should be turned to start the

engine. The engine should be

warmed slowly, never “revved,”

while it is cold. If the throttle is used

while warming the engine, it should

not be set so that the engine runs at

excessive “rpm’s”. The engine

warming period should be short to

conserve fuel, and the throttle should

be disengaged before starting out.

D.8

8. Gauges should be checked to detect

malfunctions. The voltmeter gauge

should show 12-14 volts. The oil

gauge needle should be in the center

of the dial. The fuel gauge needle

should indicate that there is enough

fuel to complete the run (see your

local policy). On those buses with air

brakes, the air pressure gauge should

indicate enough pressure in pounds

per square inch for braking. There

should be an audible or visible

warning when the pressure is below

approximately 60 pounds per square

inch.

V. Starting Out and Accelerating

D.9

1. Place the foot on the service brake

pedal and then release the parking

brake.

2. Depress the brake pedal to put the

vehicle in gear.

3. Place the gearshift lever in drive.

4. Use the mirrors to check approaching

traffic and the area surrounding the

bus.

5. Give a signal indicating readiness to

enter the flow of traffic. If any

significant time lapses, recheck traffic

before moving.

6. Depress the accelerator slowly and

smoothly until the bus begins to

move.

VI. Braking and Stopping a Bus

D.10

Stopping a school bus smoothly is a sign

of a good driver. Using correct stopping

procedures not only stops the vehicle

efficiently, but also saves wear on the

braking system.

The distance it takes to stop a school bus

includes the distance the vehicle goes


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from the time the eyes see a problem to

the time the brain knows it – this is

perception distance. Additionally,

stopping distance includes the distance

traveled from the time the brain tells the

foot to move from the accelerator until

the foot pushes the brake – this is

reaction distance.

Lastly, stopping distance includes the

distance it takes to stop once the brakes

are applied – this is braking distance.

Therefore, the vehicle’s overall stopping

distance is the combination of perception

distance, reaction distance, braking

distance and brake lag.

D.11

It is important to remember that the

braking distance increases with speed.

As the speed of a vehicle is doubled, the

braking distance is increased by about

four times. Traveling 40 mph requires

four times more braking distance than

required at 20 mph.

D.12

VII. Steering

1. Grasp the steering wheel with both

hands. The left hand should be at

approximately the 9 o’clock position;

the right hand should be at

approximately the 3 o’clock position.

The hands should be on the outside of

the steering wheel and the thumbs on

the top or outside of the wheel.

2. The eyes should be focused on the

road. The driver should always be

checking the environment ahead,

about the distance the vehicle would

travel in 12 to 15 seconds, (that’s

about one-fourth of a mile at highway

speeds). The driver should also look

in the side and rearview mirrors to see

that the road is clear.

Note: The hand-over-hand method of

steering should be used. The push-pull

method is preferable for transit type

buses.

VIII. Turning

D.13

Code of Virginia (§46.2-835)


Discussion: How is making a turn in a

school bus different from making a turn

in a passenger car? (You have to allow

enough room for both the front and the

back wheels to complete the turn.)

To be classified as an expert driver the

driver must be able to assume the correct

steering position, prepare appropriately

for the turn, make all turning maneuvers

correctly and smoothly, and re-enter

traffic with the appropriate caution.

Before making a turn, the driver should

activate the appropriate signal and

exercise caution.


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1. Making a right turn

When the entire bus clears the curb at the

corner and stays as nearly as possible in

its own lane of traffic, the operator has

made a perfect right turn. To make this

perfect turn, the operator must consider

the following factors: where to stop prior

to the turn if a stop is necessary, how far

to angle out when leaving the curb,

where to begin the turn, the speed of the

bus while making the turn, and how to

straighten out after making the turn.

D.14

Follow these procedures when making a

right turn under normal conditions:

a. Check the traffic surrounding the bus.

b. Give a signal within the designated

distance for the current speed.

c. Move to the far right-hand lane and

slow down.

d. Observe and obey all traffic signs and

signals.

e. Reduce speed to 10 mph or less;

turning slowly gives the driver and

others time to avoid problems.

f. When making a turn at an

intersection, allow sufficient space to

avoid running over the curb or

striking parked vehicles.

D.15 g. Check for pedestrians and check

traffic left and right – yield to all

pedestrians and vehicles.

h. Turn wide as needed to complete the

turn, and don’t turn wide to the left at

the beginning of the turn unless

necessary.

i. Complete the turn; never change gears

while making a turn.

j. Deactivate the signal light after

completing the turn, if necessary.

D.16

Discussion: Discuss the dangers

involved when making right-hand turns.

Cite examples.

2. Making a left turn


D.17

When the bus stays as nearly as possible

in its own lane of traffic, the operator has

made a perfect left turn. To make this

perfect turn, the operator must consider

the following factors: where to begin the

turn, when to begin the turn in relation to

oncoming traffic, the speed of the bus

when making the turn, and how to

straighten out after making the turn.

Follow these procedures when making a

left turn under normal conditions:

a. Check the traffic surrounding the bus.

b. Give a signal within the designated

distance for the current speed.

c. Move to the far left-hand lane or the

right-hand turn lane if there are two

turning lanes, and slow down.

d. Observe and obey all traffic signs and

signals.


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e. Reduce speed to 10 mph or less;

turning slowly gives the driver and

others more time to avoid problems.

f. When making a turn at an intersection

allow sufficient space to avoid

running over the curb or striking

parked vehicles.

g. Check for pedestrians and check

traffic left, right and straight ahead –

yield to all pedestrians and vehicles.

h. Reach the center of the intersection

before starting the turn.

i. Complete the turn – never change

gears while making a turn.

j. Deactivate the signal light after

completing the turn.

D.18


involved when making left-hand turns.

Cite examples.

IX. Backing

D.19

A driver must be able to back the bus in a

straight line without scraping or hitting

stationary objects.

1. Activate the four-way hazard lights at

least 100 feet before stopping.

2. Stop the bus in the proper position to

back.

3. Get out and walk around the vehicle

(if it is safe to do so). Check

clearance to sides and overhead.

4. Post a lookout on the inside - back of

the bus to give warning of obstacles,

approaching persons or other vehicles.

Signal for a quite bus.

5. Before and during the backing

maneuver constantly check all mirrors

to see that the way is clear – if in

doubt don’t back.

6. Tap horn and check mirrors again.

7. Back slowly and smoothly.

D.20

Offset backing to the right and left;

A driver must be able to back the bus

into a space that is to the right rear of

your vehicle as well as the left rear of

your vehicle.

1. Activate the four-way hazard

lights at least 100 feet before

stopping.

2. Stop the bus in the proper position

to back.

3. Get out and walk around the

vehicle (if it is safe to do so).

Check clearance to sides and

overhead.

4. Post a lookout on the inside - back

of the bus to give warning of

obstacles, approaching persons or

other vehicles. Signal for a quite

bus.

5. Before and during the backing

maneuver constantly check all

mirrors to see that the way is clear

– if in doubt don’t back.


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6. Tap horn and check mirrors again.

7. Back slowly and smoothly into the

opposite lane until the front of the

vehicle has passed the parking

boundary.

D.21

Do not back the bus unless it is

absolutely necessary. Backing causes

many collisions.

If backing is absolutely necessary,

remember this rule:

D.22

LOAD BEFORE BACKING and

BACK BEFORE UNLOADING


involved when backing. Cite examples.

X. Turnarounds

D.23

Making a turnaround is not

recommended. It is preferable to drive

around the block rather than make a

turnaround. However, because of the

environment some drivers have no other

choice but to turnaround. When such a

maneuver is necessary, it should be

carried out with extreme caution.

1. Activate the four-way hazard lights at

least 100 feet in advance of a

turnaround.

2. Give a brake signal indicating an

intention to stop and stop the bus in

proper position on the roadway.

3. The bus should be stopped one bus

length ahead of the road it is to be

backed into.

4. Check all traffic in the vicinity of the

bus.

5. If traffic is present, wave it around the

bus, if safe.

6. Back into the road checking mirrors

constantly and using a safety patrol or

designee observing from the inside

back of the bus to give warning of

obstacles, approaching persons or

other vehicles – if in doubt don’t

back.

7. After checking traffic, re-enter the

roadway with caution.

If a turnaround is absolutely necessary,

remember this rule:

LOAD BEFORE BACKING and

BACK BEFORE UNLOADING

Following this rule, the driver will

always have the pupils on the bus when

backing.

XI. Parking the Bus

D.24

When parking the bus, follow these

simple procedures:

1. When the bus is parked on level

ground or an upgrade, shift the gear to

low and turn the front wheels away

from the curb.


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2. When the bus is parked on a

downgrade, shift the gear to reverse

and turn the front wheels toward the

curb or the edge of the road.

3. Turn off the ignition and remove the

key.

4. Release the clutch and set the parking

brake.

5. Whenever possible the driver should

park the bus in a manner that

eliminates backing.

D.25

Parallel parking to the right and to the

left; A driver must be able to parallel

park the bus into a space that is to the

right of your vehicle as well as the left of

your vehicle.

1. Making certain to know the size of

the vehicle you are driving.

2. Signal your intentions with left or

right signal light depending on the

side you wish to park.

3. Line the school bus parallel with

the parked vehicle, positioning

your vehicle about three feet away.

4. Activate the four way hazard

lights, checking mirrors to make

certain you are clear to begin

backing.

5. With the transmission in reverse

slowly begin to back the bus.

D.26

6. Turning the steering wheel hard in

the opposite direction you wish to

back.

7. Visually checking in front of and

around the bus often, continue

backing the bus until it is

predominantly in the parking

space.

8. Slowly move forward to straighten

the bus out.

XII. Position on the Roadway

D.27

School bus drivers must be careful to

stay in one lane for normal driving, not

straddling the lane marker lines or

driving in the center of an unmarked

roadway or obstructing more than one

lane.

1. Use parking lanes only for emergency

stopping; stay on the hard (improved)

surface.

2. Proceed in the farthest lane to the

right, unless the driver intends to pass

or turn to the left.

3. On unmarked roads, position the bus

to the right of the center of the road.

Special care should be practiced on

unmarked roadways where hills

restrict sight distance. Stay

sufficiently to the right side of the

road to avoid potentially out of

position approaching vehicles.

4. Often rural roads are narrow, have

weak outer edges and soft shoulders.

Care should be taken to avoid these

weak outer edges which may give

way under the weight of the bus

forcing it onto the soft shoulder. Also


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on rural roads be on the lookout for

high crowns (road’s center higher

than its outer edges), pot holes, and

farm vehicles.

5. Keep a safe following distance – one

second for every 10 feet of vehicle

length under 40 mph.

XIII. Entering the Flow of Traffic

D.28

Caution must be exercised when entering

the flow of traffic. Remember that a

school bus cannot accelerate rapidly.

1. Before entering a road, stop at the

point of entry.

2. Activate the appropriate turn signal.

3. Check to determine that there are no

pedestrians or other obstructions in

the path of the bus.

4. Check the mirror to determine that all

passengers are seated.

5. Check front, rear, sides, mirrors, and

“blind spots."

6. Yield the right-of-way to vehicles

already on the road.

7. Look for a suitable gap in traffic, and

when safe, using the appropriate gear

accelerate smoothly into the road.

8. Deactivate the turn signal when

correct lane position is established, if

necessary.

XIV. Intersections

D.29

Approach intersections with caution and

observe all surrounding traffic. The

driver should be prepared to stop if

necessary even though they may have the

right-of-way.

1. When two vehicles approach or enter

an uncontrolled intersection at

approximately the same time, the

driver of the vehicle on the left shall

yield the right-of-way to the vehicle

on the right.

2. When two vehicles approach an

uncontrolled “T” intersection at


driver of the vehicle on the highway

that intersects but does not cross the

other highway shall yield the right-of-

way to any vehicle traveling on the

other highway.

3. If the driver intends to turn left at an

intersection not controlled by a left

turn signal he or she shall yield the

right-of-way to any vehicle coming

from the opposite direction if it is so

close as to cause a hazard.

4. Give the right-of-way to all

pedestrians.

5. Obey all traffic signs, signals, law

enforcement officers and uniformed

school crossing guards. Police

officers and crossing guards take

precedence over traffic control

devices.

XV. Following another Vehicle


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D.30

Following another vehicle too closely

can cause an accident. A driver who

follows too closely does not have enough

time or distance to handle emergency

situations.

Collisions occur frequently because

drivers do not allow a safe stopping

distance between their vehicles and those

in front of them. If the vehicle ahead

suddenly swerves, slows, or stops, the

driver behind cannot stop quickly enough

to avoid a collision.

As a rule, a safe following distance is one

second for every 10 feet of vehicle length

at speeds below 40 mph. At greater

speeds add one more second for safety.

For example, when driving a 40-foot

vehicle, the driver should leave 4 seconds

between the bus and the vehicle ahead.

Over 40 mph, he/she needs 5 seconds.

D.31

Outside cities and towns, keep at least

200 feet behind other buses and trucks –

never follow another vehicle closer than

one bus length.

Conditions such as wet roads, fog, snow,

and ice will increase stopping distances.

Following distances must be longer

whenever a driver encounters conditions

such as these. A driver who stays alert,

cautious, and follows at a safe distance

can better avoid collisions.


involved when following vehicles. Cite

examples.

XVI. Passing

D.32

Overtaking and Passing

Generally, the school bus driver will not

have to overtake and pass other vehicles.

But when it is necessary, the driver

should pass only where it is permitted,

pass on the left at a safe distance and

keep in mind the following:

D.33 1. Check for no approaching traffic and

that traffic following is not rapidly

overtaking and attempting to pass the

bus.

2. Indicate the intention of passing by

giving a left-turn signal in advance;

check all “blind spots.”

3. Use left turn signal.

4. When all is clear, quickly move to the

left-hand lane.

5. Increase the speed of the bus and pass

traffic at a safe distance.

6. After passing, check mirrors to make

sure the bus has cleared the vehicle

and the driver can see the entire front

of the overtaken vehicle.

7. Signal to return to the right lane and

check “blind spots.”

8. Return to the right lane and resume

speed.


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D.34

9. Avoid passing or running side-by-side

with another bus on the highway.

D.35

10. The driver should never pass another

vehicle:

a. If it is weaving (sound the horn,

and increase the following

distance);

b. When it is passing pedestrians,

cyclists or animals;

c. Signaling or otherwise indicating a

left turn;

d. On a hill, curve, intersection, or

when a railroad crossing is in

view.

XVII. Being Overtaken and Passed


D.36

Except when overtaking and passing on

the right is permitted, the driver of an

overtaken vehicle shall give way to the

right in favor of the overtaking vehicle

and shall not increase the speed of his

vehicle until completely passed by the

overtaking vehicle.

Remember:

1. Stay in the right lane.

2. Continue at the same speed, or

decrease vehicle speed to aid the

passing vehicle.

3. Allow the overtaking vehicle to pass.

Note: If driving on a narrow road and

traffic is backed up, pull to the side of the

road at a safe place and let the vehicles

behind pass. (Do not pull off onto the

shoulder of the road unless a pull off area

has been prepared.)

XVIII. Railroad Crossings

Code of Virginia (§46.2-884; 886)

D.37

Major tragedies can be avoided if proper

safety procedures for crossing railroad

tracks are followed. Always remember

to stop, look and listen, and proceed as

follows:

1. Tap the brake lightly as you approach

a railroad crossing to warn other

drivers the bus is about to stop.

2. Check mirrors.

3. Activate the four-way hazard lights.

4. Stop within 50 feet, but not less than

15 feet from the railroad crossing.

5. Place the transmission in Park, or if

there is no Park shift point, in Neutral

and press down on the service brake

or set the parking brake.

6. Keep the children quiet, and be sure

all heater and defroster controls are in

the off position.

D.38

7. Turn off all warning lights (non-

sequential warning light system).

8. Open the entrance door and the

driver’s window.


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9. Listen and look carefully in both

directions – be alert to multiple tracks.

Check mirrors.

10. When it is safe to cross, close the

entrance door and turn off the four-

way hazard lights.

11. Cross the railroad tracks in a gear

which allows you to cross the rails

completely without changing gears.

Discussion: Discuss dangers in which

the bus may not have enough room to

clear the tracks completely once

crossed. Traffic or traffic control may

inhibit safe clearance.

Note: The train will not only cover the

track, but its cars will extend over the

track about 3 feet on both sides.

Note: Buses do not need to stop at a

railroad crossing where a law

enforcement officer or traffic control

device directs traffic to proceed.

XIX. Speed Limits for School Buses


Virginia Administrative Code

(8VAC20-70-30)

D.39

School buses should be operated within

posted speed limits and consideration

should be given to current road

conditions. The Code of Virginia states:

The maximum speed limit for school

buses shall be 45 miles per hour or the

minimum speed allowable, whichever is

greater, on any highway where the

maximum speed limit is 55 miles per

hour or less, and 60 miles per hour on all

interstate highways and on other

highways where the maximum speed

limit is more than 55 miles per hour.

XX. Driving on School Grounds

D.40

Each school division has someone

designated to supervise students while

they are on school grounds. But even

though there are rules and people to

enforce them, students sometimes

disregard them.

“End of school day” or “after school”

driving is of particular concern. This is

due to students that are anxious to get on

the bus and go home. They may not be

paying close attention. Bus drivers

should be especially cautious at all times

when driving on school grounds.

1. Always stay alert and proceed slowly

and cautiously while driving a bus on

school grounds. If an emergency

occurs, an alert driver may be able to

prevent a disaster by bringing the

slowed vehicle to a quick stop in a

short distance.

2. Each bus is required to stop at the

“designated place” for loading and

unloading. No other place should be

used.


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3. Drivers should follow the “rules of the

road” on school driveways as on

roadways.

4. Bus drivers should not deactivate

traffic warning lights when loading or

unloading pupils on school driveways.

5. Drivers shall not pass other buses

while they are loading and unloading.

6. School bus drivers should leave the

school in a safe and orderly manner,

without following other buses too

closely.

7. When a bus departs the school, it must

stop before entering the roadway,

unless controlled by a traffic officer

or other traffic control device.

8. A driver should be extremely careful

and alert at all times while operating a

school bus. When operating a bus

near pedestrians the driver should

anticipate potential problems that may

be encountered.

Remember: Do not back the bus unless

it is necessary.

XXI. Driving Under Special

Conditions

D.41

Most drivers learn how to operate motor

vehicles under ideal conditions; but when

unfavorable road, lighting, traffic, or

weather conditions occur they sometimes

run into trouble.

Special conditions put special

responsibilities on the driver. The expert

driver modifies driving approaches under

unfavorable driving conditions. For

example, the expert driver will reduce the

speed of the bus when stopping distance

has been increased by inclement weather.

In all driving environments the driver is

responsible for the safety of the

passengers and the bus. This is a

difficult task since the driver operates the

school bus over many types of roads and

in varied conditions. It is necessary to be

constantly prepared to adapt driving

habits to the circumstances encountered.

To do this requires a large part of the

driver's attention being focused on the

roadway and the traffic, especially while

driving under special conditions.

D.42 1. Driving on Rural Highways

Many miles of school bus travel occur on

suburban or rural roads. These roads

vary from standard-width, hard-surfaced

roads to narrow, gravel-, crushed rock-,

or dirt-surfaced.

Rural roads are generally narrow and

often have little or no shoulder. With

buses being 8 feet wide, the potential for

crashes on these roads increases.

One of the great hazards on such roads is

the condition of their shoulders. During

wet weather the shoulders may become

soft and give way under the school bus.


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A wash-out may also occur leaving the

shoulder lower than the road’s surface.

When these conditions are likely to

occur, the driver should avoid pulling too

far to the right.

Hills and rises are another source of

danger. Many motorists tend to drive

toward the center of the road. School bus

drivers approaching a hill or grade

should decrease speed and pull to the

right as far as possible to minimize the

potential for a collision with an

approaching vehicle driving over the

center. This is especially critical on

curves, and where dips in the road reduce

sight distance.

Be on the lookout for blind and

uncontrolled intersections and driveways.

These occur more frequently in a rural

setting because of foliage near the road

edge, and because of the increased

incidence of sharp curves and rises. Be

aware of these locations, approach them

prepared and reduce speed.

2. Urban Driving

D.43

Driving in an urban setting requires

constant vigilance due to the large

frequency of intersections, other motor

vehicles, pedestrians, and traffic control

devices, all of which are sources of

potential conflict. The driver should

allow enough driving space and time to

make good decisions.

In heavy city traffic, the driver may find

escape routes limited. During peak

traffic hours, the driver may be hemmed

in by other vehicles. In this type of

traffic, the driver should increase the

distance between the bus and the vehicle

ahead, giving room to see, maneuver, and

stop.

School bus drivers must always keep

their vehicles in the proper lane of traffic.

In city traffic, it’s generally best to travel

in the right-hand lane. On multi-lane

highways, the choice of lanes depends on

travel intentions. If lanes are not marked,

the driver should imagine that they exist

and keep the bus in its proper place.

The speed of the school bus should be

consistent with the speed of other

vehicles traveling in urban areas. If the

bus is driven too fast or too slowly, it

presents a traffic hazard to other drivers.

The distance between the bus and other

vehicles should be sufficient to permit

the bus to stop in emergencies without a

collision.

3. Twilight and Night Driving

D.44

Proper vehicle preparation is of

importance when driving during the

twilight or the night. Driving at twilight

is more dangerous than driving during


15

daylight. During twilight hours, shadows

increase the difficulty of judging speed

and distance of other vehicles, and some

drivers may overestimate their ability to

see clearly. At twilight, as soon as light

begins to fade, turn on the headlights, not

parking lights, to make the vehicle more

visible to others. The driver must use

headlights from sunset to sunrise, but be

aware that some other drivers may not

have turned on their lights.

To improve the driver’s ability to see and

drive during darkness the driver should:

a. Use the taillights of the vehicles ahead

to determine a safe following

distance, particularly in a rural area.

b. Be alert to the sudden appearance of

dark or dim objects on the highway.

c. Watch for slow-moving or unlit

vehicles, pedestrians, animals, and

potentially highway conditions.

D.45

d. When approaching a pedestrian or

animal at night:

Put lights on low beam

Decelerate

Prepare to take evasive action

should the pedestrian enter the

roadway

e. When approaching an animal refuge

or crossing area, decelerate and watch

for animals on or near the roadway.

f. Never drive so fast that you cannot

stop within the distance that you can

see ahead with driving lights – Never

out-drive headlights.

g. If drivers of oncoming vehicles refuse

to dim their head lights:

Decelerate;

Keep the headlights on low beam;

Avoid looking directly at the

vehicle’s bright lights;

Focus the eyes on the right side of

the roadway, beyond the oncoming

vehicle.

Note: Do not flash the headlights.

h. Night driving procedures

Before starting, check to make

sure that all interior and exterior

lights on the bus are working and

are clean.

Keep headlights on low beam in

cities and towns, in fog or haze

and when approaching other

motorists on a highway. Use high

beam headlights on highways

when no other vehicle is coming

toward you within 500 feet ahead.

When following, use low beams

whenever you are within 200 feet

of the vehicle ahead. Code of

Virginia (§46.2-1034)

Keep interior overhead lights off

while driving.


16

See that lights on the instrument

panel are not so bright as to

interfere with vision.

Schedule trips to allow for

increased night driving time.

XXII. Expressway Driving

D.46

Driving on expressways differs in many

respects from the stop-start routine of

driving on other roads.

1. How to get on the expressway

a. Be sure that the driver is entering

the correct ramp of the exit. If the

driver makes a mistake, have

he/she drive on to the next exit and

get off. Never back up to or on an

entrance ramp.

b. Once on the entrance ramp, check

traffic around and on the

expressway. The driver should

begin looking over their shoulder

for a gap in the traffic large

enough for their vehicle to fit into

without crowding anyone. Turn

on the proper turn signal and

continue to check for an opening.

c. As the ramp straightens, the driver

should accelerate to the speed of

the expressway traffic so that

he/she can blend in smoothly.

Continue to watch the gap in

traffic. Remember: the driver

must yield the right-of-way to

traffic already on the highway.

d. If the driver judges speed and

distance correctly, the gap should

be near them as he or she reaches

the end of the acceleration lane. If

the driver is traveling at the speed

of traffic, he/she can make a

simple lane change and merge with

the flow of traffic. However, since

the school bus is often traveling

slower than the speed of traffic,

merging is more difficult, so

practice extreme caution. If there

is a solid white line between the

entrance ramp and the expressway,

the driver has to wait until he/she

has passed it before merging.

Caution: watch for vehicles in

front of the bus in the acceleration

lane that may have stopped or

slowed without warning.

e. When merged, the driver should

cancel the turn signal and adjust

their speed. Establish a good

following distance and try to

maintain a cushion of space to the

sides and rear.

2. How to drive on expressways

Drive smoothly at a steady speed. Give

drivers following the bus the opportunity

to pass the bus safely. Choose a lane and

stay in it. Wandering from one lane to

another is dangerous on a high-speed


17

expressway. In general, keep to the

right. If trucks and merging traffic make

this lane hazardous, move to the next

lane. Whether he/she is changing lanes,

passing, entering, or exiting on an

expressway, always use turn signals and

check traffic to the rear and sides.

The driver should leave enough room

between the vehicle and the one ahead so

that he/she has time to react. Apply the

"one-second for every 10 feet of bus plus

one-second" following distance rule. If

the bus is 40 feet long there should be a

five-second gap (four-seconds for the 40

feet plus one-second) between the bus

and the vehicle in front. If a vehicle cuts

into the space ahead of the driver, the

driver must slow down a little and re-

establish a safe following distance.

3. How to deal with emergencies on an

expressway

One of the most dreaded emergencies

that may be encountered on an

expressway is a vehicle approaching

from the wrong direction. If the driver is

confronted with this situation, he/she

should blow the horn and blink the lights.

Drive the bus as far as possible to the

right side of the road.

If the driver is faced with an emergency

on an expressway and must stop the bus,

he/she should signal for a right-hand turn

and decelerate. Drive the bus completely

off the right side of the road -- all four

wheels and fenders. If circumstances

warrant, evacuate the bus, ensuring that

your passengers are a safe distance from

danger.

4. How to get off the expressway

a. About a half mile before the exit,

signal and move into the lane

nearest the exit. (If the driver is on

a special activity trip, your pre-trip

plans should indicate which exits

will be taken.) Move into the

deceleration lane. This is an extra

lane that allows the bus to slow

down without interrupting the flow

of traffic on the expressway, and

guides the bus onto the exit ramp.

Don't slow down until the bus is in

the deceleration lane.

b. In the deceleration lane, cancel the

turn signal and start braking. As

the bus slows down, maintain a

cushion of space forward and aft of

the bus. The driver should be

aware of the conditions behind the

bus.

c. The exit ramp speed will be

posted. Adjust speed accordingly.

d. As the driver leaves the exit ramp

and enters traffic, remember that

he/she is driving in more

complicated, dangerous conditions

than found on expressways.


18

Traffic will probably be heavier,

traveling in two directions, with

intersections, pedestrians and

cross-traffic.

The driver should be alert and

adjust driving at lower speeds.

5. Defensive driving tactics for

expressways

D.47

Search ahead and Identify signs of

trouble. Predict what may be

encountered, such as a cluster of cars in

the distance (especially if the driver can

see brake lights) which may indicate

slow moving or stopped traffic. Decide

what action the driver may have to take,

such as reducing speed or stopping.

Then Execute the appropriate action.

Look to the rear and sides for signs of

trouble, and look for road and weather

conditions that may pose a problem. The

driver should be continually searching

and identifying possible trouble;

predicting what the situation may bring;

deciding what to do given the situation;

and, preparing to execute the appropriate

action.

XXIII. Activity Trips

D.48

School bus drivers may be called on to

make special trips with various groups.

Several matters about driving on a field

trip are different from those encountered

on a regular school bus route.

Here are some things that should be

considered:

1. Go over the route prior to the trip.

Use a map or drive a private vehicle

to the destination.

2. Prepare any necessary reports, and

perform a pre-trip inspection.

3. When loading for special trips, check

to see that only students and

authorized adults board the bus.

4. If band instruments or other large

objects are to be transported, see that

they do not block the aisle and

emergency exits; see that these items

are properly secured and do not

compromise safety.

5. Request the teacher in charge to be

responsible for maintaining order on

the bus.

6. When the destination has been

reached, make sure all students know

which bus they are to board and at

what time.

7. Be certain that no students board the

bus unless authorized by the bus

driver or teacher in charge.

8. Be certain that there is available

parking space and that the bus will be

secure at its destination.

9. Eating and drinking on the bus should

be prohibited, except at designated

rest stops.


19

10. Park in a location which will reduce

the likelihood of requiring you to

back the bus.

11. Adhere to the pre-planned field trip

schedule so as not to adversely impact

on the regular route schedules.

12. Inform every one of the location of

the emergency equipment, and

procedure for emergency exits.

The following section is optional for

those school divisions that no longer

own or operate manual transmission

school buses.

XXIV. Manual Transmission

1. Starting and Accelerating

If the bus has a manual transmission, the

driver should get the feel of the gearshift

patterns; in most instances, they are

indicated on the gearshift knob.

a. Place the foot on the service brake

pedal and then release the parking

brake.

b. Depress the clutch to put the

vehicle in gear.

c. Place the gearshift lever in drive

for automatic transmission and in

second gear for manual

transmission (for manual use first

gear with a heavy load, or when

the bus is on an incline). With a

manual transmission bus pulling

off in a gear higher than second

causes strain on the engine and

clutch.

d. Use the mirrors to check

approaching traffic and the area

surrounding the bus.

e. Give a signal indicating readiness

to enter the flow of traffic. If any

significant time lapses, recheck

traffic before moving.

f. Depress the accelerator and release

the clutch slowly and smoothly

until the bus begins to move.

Remove the foot from the clutch.

Continually touching the foot to

the clutch or “riding” the clutch

causes unnecessary clutch wear.

Shift to the next higher gear by

depressing the clutch, letting up on

the gas, and shifting to the next

gear.

Release the clutch smoothly and

depress the accelerator. Proceed in

this manner until high gear is

reached. Avoid skipping gears.

This could cause wear on the

engine and clutch.

Before starting down a hill, shift

into the same gear that would be

used going up the hill.

2. Relative Shift Speeds

Up shifting

From 2nd to 3rd Gear 1 – 12 MPH


20

From 3rd to 4th Gear 12 – 20 MPH

From 4th to 5th Gear 25 – 30 MPH

Down shifting

From 5th to 4th Gear 30 – 35 MPH

From 4th to 3rd Gear 25 – 30 MPH

From 3rd to 2nd Gear 5 – 10 MPH

When it is necessary to stop a bus with a

manual transmission, depress the foot

brake, and just before stopping the

vehicle, depress the clutch. If the vehicle

is to be parked, set the parking brake, put

the gearshift lever in low, and turn off the

ignition.

3. Stopping a Bus with a Manual

Transmission

Stopping a school bus smoothly is a sign

of a good driver, especially if the bus has

a manual transmission. Using correct

stopping procedures not only stops the

vehicle efficiently, but also saves wear

on the braking system.

A. Stopping in a Low Gear (10 MPH

or Less)

1. Release accelerator;

2. Apply brakes gradually by

increasing pressure;

3. Depress clutch pedal;

4. To prevent jerking, reduce

brake pressure slightly, but not

completely, just before coming

to a stop;

5. Shift gear selector into neutral;

6. Release clutch and remove foot

from the pedal.

B. Stopping in Cruising Gear

1. Release accelerator and depress

brake pedal;

2. When proper speed is attained

for any gear, downshift to next

lower gear to reduce heat build-

up and reduce excessive brake

wear;

3. To prevent jerking, reduce

brake pressure slightly, but not

completely, just before coming

to a stop;

4. Shift gear selector lever into

neutral;

5. Release clutch and remove foot

from pedal.

4. Starting and Stopping on a Hill with a

Manual Transmission

A. Starting on a Hill

1. Place the right foot on the brake

and the left foot on the clutch

with the gear shift lever in first

gear. Release the clutch slowly

until the engine begins to labor.

Parking brake may be used in

place of the service brake.


21

2. Hold the clutch at this point.

3. Release the brake pedal and

place the foot on the accelerator

giving enough throttle to hold

the weight of the bus without

drifting backwards.

4. Release the clutch smoothly

until it is all the way out, giving

enough throttle to pull the bus

up the hill.

B. Stopping on a Hill – Upgrade or

Downgrade

1. Observe all the traffic in the

immediate area.

2. Make sure there is enough

room between the bus and other

vehicles.

3. Downshift, if necessary.

4. Depress the brake smoothly.

5. Depress the clutch.

Unit Review

1. __________________ causes many

collisions.

2. A driver should never ___________

the bus with students on the ground.

3. In keeping a safe following distance

_________ second for every

_________ feet of vehicle length

under 40 mph. is the method for

determining adequate spacing.

4. When two vehicles approach or enter

an uncontrolled intersection at


driver of the vehicle on the

__________ shall yield the right-of-

way to the vehicle on the

_____________.

5. A driver who follows too closely does

not have enough ________ or

____________ to handle emergency

situations.

6. When approaching a railroad track the

driver must stop the bus within

________ feet but not less than

__________ feet from the railroad

crossing.

7. Drivers shall not _________ other

buses while they are loading or

unloading.


22

Answers

1. Backing

2. back

3. 1,10

4. left, right

5. time, distance

6. 50, 15

7. pass


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