UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

E492 Vol. 3

MINISTRY OF WATER & LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT

Environmental Assessment (EA) Report

for

Rural Water Supply & Sanitation Project (RWSSP)

MPWAPWA DISTRICT

March 2001

A.M.L. AKO Senior Associate Consultant (Environment & Natural Resource) SERVICEPLAN L TO P.O. Box 33165, Oar Es Salaam. Tel: 72394 Fax: 2700133 E-mail: serviceplan@ud.co.tz

FILE COpy

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS .............................................................. 111

EXECUTIVE SUMMARy ........................................................................................... V

1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1

1.1 GENERAL ......................................................................................................... 1

1.2 THE STUDY AREA ............................................................................................ 1

1.3 PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY .............................................. 2

1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS .............................................................................. 2

1.5 GENERAL APPROACH & METHODOLOGy .................................................... 3

1.5.1 GENERAL APPROACH ................................................................................. 3

1.5.2 METHODOLOGy ........................................................................................... 3

2.0 POLICY, LEGISLATION & REGULATORY FRAMEWORK .............................. 5

2.1 POLiCy ............................................................................................................. 5

2.2 LEGISLATION & REGULATORY FRAMEWORK. ............................................. 8

2.2.1 LEGiSLATION ................................................................................................ 8

2.2.2 STANDARDS GOVERNING ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ......................... 15

2.2.3 EA REQUIREMENTS AND GOT CAPACITY TO HANDLE EIA. .................. 19

2.2.4 INSTITUTIONAL NEEDS AND CAPACITY .................................................. 22

3.0 PROJECT DESCRIPTION .............................................................................. 26

4.0 BIO-PHYSICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT .......................... 31

4.1 BIO-PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT .................................................................... 31

4.2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENViRONMENT ............................................................. 33

5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND MITIGATION MEASURES ..................... 37

6.0 MITIGATION MANAGEMENT AND TRAINING PLAN ................................... .40

6.1 MITIGATION MANAGEMENT PLAN ............................................................... 40

6.2 TRAINING PLAN ............................................................................................. 43

7.0 MONITORING PLAN AND MONITORING INDICATORS .............................. .47

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1: EA CHECKLIST FOR COMMUNITY SUB-PROJECTS .......................... 50 TABLE 2: MITIGATION PLAN ............................................................................... .40 TABLE 3: PROPOSED TRAINING PLAN .............................................................. .46 TABLE 4: CHECKLIST OF MONITORING INDICATORS ...................................... 51

LIST OF FIGURES

FIG. 1: MAP OF MPWAPWA DISTRICT -RURAL ROADS AND VILLAGE CENTRES ................................................................................................ 4

FIG 2: MAP OF MPWAPWA DISTRICT -AGRO-ECONOMIC lONES ............. 30 FIG. 3: MAP OF PROJECT AREA-LAND USE AND LAND VEGETATION

COVER .................................................................................................. 36

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX I: EA CHECKLIST AND CHECKLIST OF MONITORING INDiCATORS ................................................................................. 50

APPENDIX 11: REFERENCES .............................................................................. 53 APPENDIX Ill: VILLAGE BASELINE INFORMATION ........................................... 55 APPENDIX IV: WATER SUPPLY STATUS AND WATER FUND .......................... 69 APPENDIX V: WATER QUALITY DATA ............................................................... 70 APPENDIX VI: LIST OF AUTHORITIES CONTACTED DURING THE STUDy ..... 71 APPENDIX VII: TERMS OF REFERENCE ............................................................. 73 APPENDIX VIII .............................. LIST OF STUDY TEAM MEMBERS AND THEIR

RESPONSiBILITIES ...................................................................... 74 APPENDIX IX: CONSULTANT'S CURRICULUM ViTAE ....................................... 75

ii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS

AfDB == AIDS == ASPS == BAT == BWB == CBOs == COOs == CWB == DAWASA== DBSPE == DCs == DECs == DED == DHV == DMPP == OWE == DWR == DWSP == DWSSSF== DWST ==

African Development Bank Acquired Immunity Deficiency Syndrome Agricultural Sector Programme Support Best Affordable Technology Basin Water Board Community Based Organizations Community Development Officers Central Water Board Oar Es Salaam Water & Sewerage Authority District Based Support Programme on Education District Councils District Environment Committees District Executive Director Foreign Consultant Firm from Netherlands Dodoma Micro-project Programme District Water Engineer Division of Water Resource District Water & Sanitation Plan District Water Supply & Sanitation Fund District Water & Sanitation Team

EA == EC EEC EIA == EIS == EMP ESAs EU

Environmental Assessment == European Community

FAO GOT HIV lOA liED IRA

== European Economic Commission Environmental Impact Assessment Environmental Impact Statement

== Environmental Management Plan == External Support Agencies == European Union == Food & Agricultural Organization == Government of Tanzania == Human I mmune Virus ==International Development Agency == International Institute for Environment & Development == I nstitute of Resource Assessment

LAMP == Land Management Programme LLL

MEM MOEC MOH MOW MWLD MTNRE NCSSD NEAP NEMC NEP

== Linked Local Learning

== == == == == == == == == ==

Maendeleo ya Jamii na Afya Ministry of Energy & Minerals Ministry of Education & Culture Ministry of Health Ministry of Water Ministry of Water & Livestock Development Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resource & Environment National Conservation Strategy for Sustainable Development National Environment Action Plan National Environment Management Council National Environment Policy

iii

NGOs = Non-Governmental Organizations NPA = Norwegian People's Aid NSPCA = Norwegian State Pollution Control Authority NUWA = National Urban Water Authority NWP = National Water Policy NWRC = National Water Resource Commission NWRMP = National Water Resource Management Policy O&M = Operation & Maintenance PlO = Project Information Document PO = Partner Organization PWO = Public Water Office RBWO = River Basin Water Office RWD = Rural Water Division RWE = Regional Water Engineer RWSS = Rural Water Supply & Sanitation RWSSM = Rural Water Supply & Sanitation Management RWSSP = Rural Water Supply & Sanitation Project SCAPA = Soil Conservation & Agroforestry Programme SECAP = Soil Erosion Control & Agroforestry Programme STD = Sexually Transmitted Disease TAC = Technical Advisory Committee TAC = Technical Advisory Committee TANAPA:: Tanzania National Parks TASAF = Tanzania Social Action Fund TBS = Tanzania Bureau of Standards TIST = Tanzania International Small Group Tree Planting ToR = Terms of Reference UN = United Nations UNCLOS = United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNEP = United Nations Environment Programme UNESCO = United Nations Education, Scientific & Cultural Organization UNICEF = United Nations Children Fund UPE = Universal Primary Education VC = Village Chairman VEO = Village Executive Officer VIP = Ventilated Improved Pit latrine VWCs = Village Water Committees VWSS = Village Water Supply & Sanitation WAMMA = WawezeshajilWafadhili, Maji, WATSAN = Water & Sanitation WBO = Water Basin Office WEO = Ward Executive Officer WFP = World Food Programme WHO = World Health Organization WLU = Water Laboratory Unit WRM = Water Resource Management

iv

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

I. PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

This project is aimed at improving the existing water supply, sanitation & hygiene conditions for the rural communities of Mpwapwa district. The Mpwapwa district is located about 450 km from Dar Es Salaam City.

The project is expected to involve rehabilitation and/or construction of new water supply schemes During project implementation attention will be given to sanitation, hygiene and related environmental issues. Focus will also be given to community health, especially promotion of AIDS/HIV prevention among the rural people through education & awareness campaigns.

11. RATIONALE AND ASSESSMENT (EA)

(a) Rationale for EA

METHODOLOGY STUDY

FOR ENVIRONMENTAL

The Environmental Assessment (EA) study has been found necessary in order to incorporate environmental issues in the project design and sensitize the rural communities on environmental matters related to the project. The aim is to sensitize the commUnity on environmental matters related to water supply & sanitation schemes. Specifically, the objective is to identify potentially negative environmental impacts of various community sub-projects and propose appropriate mitigation measures. The ultimate goal is to develop checklists of EA and checklist of monitoring indicators.

(b) Methodology

The study involved reviews of relevant documents, maps & reports, field observations, informal & formal interviews, discussions/meetings with community members including their leaders, as well as various authorities at village, district and national levels. Consultation with key informants provided opportunity to stimulate concern of various stakeholders and solicit their opinion on mitigation measures.

Ill. MAJOR FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A. STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT

(i) Land degradation

The project area is an arid land with unreliable rainfall~ and land degradation is widespread. The problem of land degradation can be attributed to overgrazing, prolonged draught, bush fires and lack of conservation measures. During dry seasons topsoil remains almost bare with scattered and shrubs or thicket, hence making soils vulnerable to erosion. The most common type of land degradation includes surface sealing, soil compaction, sheet, rill and gully erosions.

v

(ii) Air quality

Frequent bush fires and fuel wood burning are the major source of CO & CO2

emissions that can contribute to air pollution and green house effect. However, no attempt has been made to estimate the amount of gaseous emission from the sources.

(iii) Ground & Surface Water Potential

The ground water in most cases water can be encountered only in deeper aquifers (>30-60m). Recharge rates are estimated between 1-4 LIs in lowland and 0-4 LIs on upper areas during dry seasons. Thus, construction of hand pump shallow wells may not be appropriate in most parts of the project area.

Most of the streams in the project area are seasonal and due to prolonged draught and high soil permeability it is not common to find standing water bodies. However, in the mountainous areas natural springs are the potential sources.

Rainwater harvesting by using roof catchment is another potential source of water that could be exploited in the project area. However, application of this technology at household level ;s limited by lack of knowledge and type of existing houses 1.

(iv) Water Quality

The report from the local people shows majority of boreholes and shallow wells contain saline water. This information is supported by laboratory analysis report, whereby total hardness (740 mgll as CaC03) was found to exceed the Tanzania standards (600 mgll) for one borehole at Berege village. The amount of fluoride (319.5 mgl/) and turbidity (119 NTU) in this borehole was also found higher than the Tanzania standards, i.e. B.O mgll for fluoride, and 30 NTU for turbidity levels. However, these findings are not conclusive and as such extensive investigation would be required. Nevertheless, findings indicate possible effect of geological formations on ground water quality.

Although no laboratory analysis was done, pollution of surface water could be common due to human activities, trampling by livestock and incoming run-off during rainfalls. The most important pollutants affecting water quality are human faeces, animal dung, sediments and other debris from surface run-off. Agricultural contaminants such as pesticides and inorganic fertilizers could be another source of surface water pollution but so far, local people do not use agrochemical.

(v) Sanitation & hygiene

The majority of households have unlined pit latrines with mud walls and open roofs. These types of pit latrines are not durable creating a potential risk to human life as

I The majority of houses in the study area have their roofs built up of grass with soil on the top (known as "Tembe" houses).

vi

they usually collapse, especially during rainfalls. The latrines also produce bad smell due to lack of ventilation. Again, due to lack of cover they provide a potential breeding site and reservoir for houseflies that may easily contaminate food and/or human eyes, especially children. For those reason diarrhea and trachoma are one of the most common diseases in the study area.

Most houses do not boil drinking water or wash hands due to various reasons, but ignorance seems to be a major reason. However, sanitation & hygiene education is being offered by visiting MCH staff once per month. In some villages, sanitation & hygiene education is conducted by health officers in collaboration with water committees at least once per week. They also visit households to inspect pit latrines, waste disposal chambers (Karo) and solid waste disposal sites.

B. POLICY, LEGISLATION & REGULATORY FRAMEWORK

(i) Policy

The relevant policies that support EA requirements for Tanzania is the National Environment Policy (NEP) and National Water Policy (NWP) formulated in 1997 and 2000, respectively. Both policies recognize the importance of incorporating environmental consideration in sectoral policies and programs. They also state that EA should be carried out for all major development projects before their commencement. However, findings indicate that:

• There is no comprehensive legislation to support NEP implementation or EIA requirements in the country.

• The NWP does not clearly state environmental awareness & education in its policy objectives, especially in relation to rural water supply & sanitation.

• The policy considers EIA mandatory before execution of all major water supply projects. However, there are no sectoral guidelines for carrying out EIA in water resource projects.

• The policy states that environmental issues will be analyzed at planning level but it does not give any implementation strategy to ensure that environmental issues are incorporated in all stages of water resource development.

To rectify the above shortcomings it is recommended that:

• Environmental awareness and education should be stated clearly in the NWP objectives. The policy objective should be to promote water supply, sanitation, environmental awareness and hygiene education. Another objective should be to promote environmental conservation and encourage environmentally sound practices and technologies that minimize vegetation destruction and water pollution.

• MWLD should develop its own EIA guidelines to ensure that EIA is conducted properly to adequately address environmental issues in the water sector. The MWLD should establish an Environmental Unit or Section responsible for foreseeing

vii

implementation of environmental management plans and maintain linkage and co­ordination with the Office of the Vice President through the Environment Division and NEMC.

• Legislation to support implementation of EIA requirements in the water sector should be incorporated in the Water Utilization Act.

(ii) Legislation

The relevant legislation matters of environmental concern are those related to solid waste management, pollution control, environmental quality standards, land use, health & safety, mining, protection of wildlife, sensitive areas, unique flora & fauna, protection of natural & cultural resource. All these legislation are adequately covered in the sectoral ministries to address environmental issues including EIA requirements.

However, no comprehensive legislation that enforces the implementation of NEP or empowers NEMC to make EIA requirements mandatory and legally binding. Again, there is no effective co-ordination and collaboration among environment and water­related sectors. It is therefore recommended that:

• There should be a legislation that will empower NEMC to make EIA mandatory and leg'ally binding.

• There should be a clear statement of institutional responsibilities and supporting legislation to facilitate implementation of NEP and reduce duplication of efforts.

(iii) Standards Governing Environmental Qualities

The existing, sector ministries in the country have legal authority to regulate environmental quality standards (e.g. through pollution discharge permits). However, there is a lack of clear system for co-ordination, implementation or enforcement of legislation and regulations. This is reflected in the current levels of environmental performance in the country.

To improve the situation it is recommended that:

• Environmental regulatory capacity and associated institutional development should be strengthened.

• The regulation of pollution should be based on Polluter Pay Principle (PPP), and nobody should have a right to pollute environment. Polluters should give a proof on the effect of their activities to the environment, that is, whether the activities do pollute the environment or not.

• Enforcement of requirements for discharge permits must be strengthened. However, it should continue to be regulated through the existing Water Utilization Acts.

VlIl

• The pollution control and prevention on a system of discharge permits that focuses on general environmental protection act should be established. That should cover discharges to water, air, as well as and noise and waste (solid and liquid wastes) production.

• General effluent standards should not be stated in Water utilization Act, but they should be stated individually in the discharge permits. It should be specific to actual (industrial) sector of industry and environmental status of the receiving waters. Guidelines for effluent standard should be established, based on the review of existing standards by NEMC

• The contents of an application for discharge permits should be specified in the regulation and EIA requirements should be submitted to the relevant authority.

• The pollution control and mitigation measures should be specified by industries in attending the expected effluent discharge in their applications for discharges permits.

• The principle of BAT should be adopted and the concept of cleaner Production Technology. That should include procedures for handling of applications, provisions for notification and public partiCipation, appeals and timeframe.

• Regulations should ensure that relevant authorities and institutions are contacted.

• There should be a provision for existing industries to apply for discharge permits in a specified time frame.

• Discharge permits should specify production capacity, raw materials used, processing chemicals, products and solid waste disposal.

• Discharge permits should be linked with license or other permits, specifications of receiving water and municipal sewerage systems, discharge limits (intermediate if necessary) and time limit. Other inclusions should involve operating conditions, such as, the use of Cleaner Production Technologies, leakage control, minimum water use, etc. Monitoring and reporting requirements and procedures should be specified in the discharge permits, as well as, improvement program.

• There should be a general condition and right for the relevant authority to inspect the facilities and monitor the discharges. There should be a system of permit fee and fees for inspection should be introduced.

(iv) EA Procedures and GOT Capacity to Handle EA Requirements

The EIA performance in Tanzania is constrained by lack of adequate expertise, institutional weakness and absence of legal & regulatory framework.

There is low level of awareness on EIA among senior staff in both private and public institutions and some of them still regard EIA as an obstacle to project implementation and/or it can increase implementation costs.

IX

Although there is wide range of organizations with expertise relevant to EIA in the country, most of them have never been exposed to EIA process and do not have EIA specific expertise. However, in recent years involvement of some local consultants in EIA has helped to build their capacity.

The EIA requirements in Tanzania are not supported by legislation and no responsible authorities have been explicitly designated according to sector legislation. However, some sector ministries have included EIA requirements in their sector laws and regulations. Again, the process of establishing comprehensive legislation and regulatory frameworks is still on going in the country.

The EIA guidelines and procedures developed by NEMC are comprehensive and cover all aspects of environment. However, the NEMC currently and enforces EIA through sector laws. However, there is no defined institutional responsibilities for EIA and EIA regulatory framework exists only in few protected areas, such as the national parks, marine parks and game reserves.

The national capacity for management and implementation of environmental assessment requirements is still limited as EIA regulatory framework still covers only certain sectors. However, the capacity to implement EA recommendations and environmental management plans is also low within those sectors.

The increasing involvement of private sector on the national development and future enactment of national level EIA legislation will significantly increase demand for indigenous EIA expertise.

To improve the GOT capacity to handle EA requirements it is recommended that:

• There should be an overall political decision so that general regulations on EIA are stated in the Environmental or Planning legislation. The process of enacting legislation should be speeded up to cope with the rapid economic transformation towards privatization.

• Provision for EIA should be stated in the Water Laws. The water policy review and Water Utilization Act should include EIA requirements for water resource projects.

• The EIA should be mandatory of large-scale water projects and should be based on investment costs and projects in sensitive areas.

• The MWLD should develop its own EIA guidelines to provide guidance on more specific water related aspects.

• The capacity of national institutions to collect environmental baseline and monitoring data should be strengthened through financial support.

• The existing sector expertise within national institutions, including the MWLD should be harnessed to improve their capacity to undertake EIA.

x

• There should be some training to improve awareness on the role and importance of EIA among senior staff within public and private institutions.

(v) Institutional Needs & Capacity

The existing institutional set-up at all levels is adequate for implementation of EA recommendations in RWSS Project. However, some shortcomings need to be rectified for effective implementation of environmental & social safeguards.

According to findings, the NEMC is constrained by lack of funds and adequate human resource to conduct environmental reviews, audit, monitoring, and training. It also lacks equipment to conduct on spot checks during monitoring.

The rural communities are constrained by lack of financial capability due to poor revenue base. Again, the village committees and their governments are faced by lack of financial management and managerial/administrative skills. Poor participation of women in various committees could also be another obstacle to effective implementation of rural water supply & sanitation program, as well as environmental management in general.

Although the existing program by NGOs have shown some significant contribution to rural water supply & sanitation schemes, they can not be totally relied upon due to their diverse interest and objective. Moreover, their activities are of limited coverage in the district. However, establishment of co-ordination and linkage with existing programs can be useful in the implementation of rural water supply & sanitation program.

The lack of funds and human resource in the district as well as absence of water laboratory unit at the Office of the Regional Engineer could be another constraint to effective water resource management & environmental monitoring.

It is therefore recommended that:

• Environmental Unit should be established within the RWD in the MWLD that will link & co-ordinate with the Vice Presidents Office through its Environment Division and NEMC as well as NGOs, CBOs, and the rural community in general. The MWLD through its Environmental Unit and NEMC should then agree on training program, periodic spot checks (environmental audits) on completed sub­projects annually to ascertain the level of compliance with mitigation measures.

• NEMC should promote capacity building through engagement of local institutions, especially private sector in environmental audits & monitoring. It should also develop training programs to improve their skills. The NEMC should also devise a means of generating income by charging fees various activities such as environmental reviews, audits & monitoring.

• Local people should be mobilized and encouraged to establish economic groups in order to increase their revenue base so that they can contribute to water &

Xl

environmental protection funds. The people should be sensitized through environmental awareness & education.

• Village governments and their committees should be trained on financial management and managerial/administrative skills.

• Women should be mobilized and given more opportunity to actively participate in various committees.

• Co-ordination and linkage should be established and promoted between the rural water supply & sanitation program and existing programs by NGOs.

• Capacity for water resource & environmental monitoring at the district level should be improved through training, establishment of well equipped and water laboratory unit at the Regional Engineer's Office.

C. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND MITIGATION MEASURES

Although the project is expected to be more beneficial to the rural communities, it may have some negative consequences. The potential environmental impacts of major concern to the project are those related to construction activities, community actions and water resource uses. Some possible impacts resulting from the project and their mitigation measures are outlined in this section.

(i) Construction impacts

Vegetation destruction is likely to occur due to creation of access roads for transportation of drilling rigs, equipment and installation of pipeline and other associated activities. The impact could be mitigated by confining construction activities on-site and along deSignated pipeline routes. The number of equipment & machinery on-site should be limited by using more labor-intensive technologies. Other measures should include landscaping and re-planting of vegetation on disturbed areas.

Improper location of well sites in relation to pit latrines, burial sites and other sources of contaminants may lead into ground water pollution. Thorough investigation should be done during well siting in collaboration with local communities. Other pollutant sources ground water pollution may be from geological formations (E.g. 8erege village). The impact can be mitigated by conducting water quality analysis and using Tanzania standards as criteria for acceptance.

Loss of farmlands and/or other properties may occur during installation of pipelines associated with Mechanized deep well or Gravity pipe water supply schemes. This problem can be mitigated through diversion of routes, and if not possible compensation should be considered for the lost property.

Production of drilling wastes and construction spoils may occur however that is not expected to have significant impact on land and ground or surface water sources. All

xii

drilling wastes and construction spoils will properly disposed in such a way that they do not result into soil or water pollution.

Health & safety of workers may be at risk during construction. The problem will be mitigated by restricting operation of equipment to trained personnel only. There will also be a first aid box on-site administered by a qualified person. Moreover, the contractor will be responsible for health & safety of workers on-site.

Incidence of STD & HIV/AIDS is likely to increase due to presence of construction workforce in the rural communities. The chances of STD & HIV/AIDS transmission can be minimized by promoting awareness and education campaigns among the rural communities, especially women & youths. The number of workforce should be to technical & skilled labor only. The rest of workforce should come from the rural communities. The construction camp should be located far away from the village settlement.

(ii) Community impacts

Poor disposal of human excreta or construction of pit latrines close to water sources may result into water pollution. The impact will be mitigated through extensive education & awareness campaigns to promote latrine construction and use by local communities. The community members and local artisans will be trained and provided with instructional manuals on proper siting and construction of pit latrines. The pit latrines will be sited at least 25 meters away and downhill of a water point. The bottom of the pit latrine will be at least 2.0 meters above the natural ground water table.

Encroachment of human settlement towards well sites may result into risk of ground water contamination from pit latrines. The problem will by demarcating the boundaries of well sites and enactment by-laws to prevent trespassing.

Cultivation and vegetation destruction around stream banks has been noted to significantly result into erosion of stream banks, sedimentation of stream/river beds and flood hazards (e.g. Muungano and Chanzuru villages). These activities create a potential threat to the sustainability of water resource. The problem can be mitigated by restricting cultivation to at least 200 meters away from the stream banks through by-laws.

Destruction of vegetation on mountainous areas will result into drying up of natural springs with negative impact on Gravity pipe schemes. The problem can be mitigated through extensive community education and awareness campaigns on environmental conservation and protection of water sources. The village government should also enforce by-laws to discourage uncontrolled bush fires around the water sources.

Damage to pipeline installations through cultivation and construction activities along the pipeline routes by local people. This can be prevented by proper placement of pipelines at an appropriate depth. The right of way will be declared and maintained through community by-laws.

xiii

Accumulation of wastewater around well sites and standpipes due to people washing or bathing near the water sources may lead into creation of mosquito breeding sites. This problem will be mitigated through construction of standard design for concrete pads with drainage channels to carry wastewater and/or spilled water into soak-away at least 25 meters from the source. People should be restricted from washing and/or bathing near the water sources through enactment of by-laws.

Human activities and livestock may have a negative impact on Pumped surface or Gravity Pipes schemes due to pollution. The impact can be mitigated by water treatment through filtration and chlorination. The community members will be provided with hygiene education to ensure that they boil their drinking water. People will be educated on water source protection and management through extensive environmental awareness campaigns.

(iii) Water use impacts

Ground water over-extraction may lead into land instability, tectonic effects and disruption of hydrological balance. However, the impact is not expected to be significant due to small volume of water extracted for domestic purpose. But it is important to take precautions by limiting the number of boreholes or Hand pump shallow wells per unit area of land and conduct periodic monitoring of ground water levels. Ground water monitoring system should be installed to monitor fluctuations of ground water levels and appropriate action should be taken whenever necessary.

Spontaneous growth of algae and other aquatic plants may occur in open storage tanks or reservoirs due to temperature and exposure to sunlight hence affect the water quality. This problem can be mitigated by properly designing storage tanks or reservoirs (e.g. storage tanks should be able to reflect sunlight and properly covered). The storage tanks should be cleaned periodically during operation.

xiv

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

The environmental assessment (EA) study was assigned to M/S Ako (hereinafter called the Consultant) by the Ministry of Water & livestock Development (MWLD)­hereinafter called the Client on 8th October 2000. The intention of the study was to identify potentially negative environmental impacts associated with Rural Water Supply & Sanitation (RWSS) Project and thereafter propose appropriate mitigation measures. More details on the study requirements can be found in the Terms of Reference (ToR).

The report is divided into seven sections, of which section one is introduction, followed by section two covering policy, legislation & regulatory framework. Section three gives some brief description of the project, followed by section four containing biophysical & socio-economic baseline data. Section five outlines potential environmental impacts and their mitigation measures. Section six contains mitigation management and training plans; followed by environmental monitoring and checklist of monitoring indicators in section seven.

The report is also comprised of nine Appendices, whereby Appendix I contains EA checklist & Checklist of monitoring indicators followed by references in Appendix 11. Appendix III is the summary of village baseline information. Appendix IV contains water supply status in ten selected villages of Mpwapwa district, followed by water quality data in Appendix V. The list of authorities contacted during the study is shown in Appendix VI followed by ToR in Appendix VII. Finally, the list of study team members and the Consultant's Curriculum Vitae are presented in Appendix VIII & lXI, respectively.

1.2 The Study Area

The study area is the rural community of ten selected villages of Mpwapwa district, namely Chiseyu, Sazima, Igoji-II, Mazae-Nje, Berege, Ikuyu, Chamtumile, Chaludewa, Chipogolo and Mtera.

Mpwapwa district is about 450 km from Dar Es Salaam City and lies between 4-7°S and 35-37°E (Fig.1), at 850-1500 meters above sea level (m.a.s.L). The landform of the district is characterized by rolling and hilly topography. The district is divided into five agro-economic zones (Fig. 2) with annual rainfall ranging between 450-800 mm and temperature between 27-31 ° C.

The geology of the district is comprised by Ubendian/Usagaran systems, with gneiss and meta-sediments of Precambrian origin, in the south and eastern parts. In the north and western side, the geology is dominated by Oodomian systems, with granites & granodiorites of Precambrian age. In the river valleys and lowland areas the geology dominated by Quartenary alluvium with sands, gravel, and clay materials. The geomorphology is African erosion surface of late Cretaceous­Oligocene age, characterized by smooth plateaus with isolated hills.

The district occupies 13,329 square kilometres (km2), with a total population of about

238,800 people. Again, the district is comprised of 3 Divisions, 15 Wards and 73 villages; with Mpwapwa town being its administrative headquarters. The main ethnic groups in the district are the Gogo, the Sagara and Hehe tribes, although Gogo tribe is the most dominant.

The economy of the district mainly depends on subsistence agriculture and animal husbandry. Major food crops include maize, millet, sorghum, beans, and little cassava. Cash crops include groundnut, sunflower, and vegetables. However, maize is also cultivated in the district as a cash crop. The district has a total population of about 118,000 cattle, 77,000 goats/sheep and a significant number of donkeys.

1.3 Purpose and Objectives of the Study

The purpose of this study was to conduct Environmental Assessment (EA) for Rural Water Supply & Sanitation Project (RWSSP) Project in ten selected villages of Mpwapwa District (Dodoma Region). The study was intended to identify environmental issues related to various community sub-projects. Specifically, the objective of the study was to identify negative environmental impacts and then propose appropriate mitigation measures. However, in the end the intention is to develop an EA Checklist and Checklist of monitoring checklist for different community' sub-projects.

1.4 Scope and limitations

In this study the Consultant's task was to:

• Develop biophysical and socio-economic baseline data.

• Describe the pertinent policies, legislation, regulations and standards governing environmental quality at national and international levels.

• Assess the present handling of EA requirements and procedures, as well as the GOT capacity to handle them in future.

• Identify potential community sub-projects and their environmental impacts.

• Propose environmental mitigation plan to minimize those negative impacts and thereafter prepare an EA checklist for different community sub-projects.

• Develop an environmental monitoring plan and then prepare a checklist of monitoring indicators.

• Identify institutional needs and capacity to implement EA recommendations at national, regional, district and community (village) levels.

The study was intended to cover all ten selected villages in Mpwapwa district. These include Chiseyu, Sazima, Igoji-II, Mazae-Nje, Berege, Ikuyu, Chamtumile,

2

Chaludewa, Chipogolo and Mtera. However, due to limited time only eight villages were studied, namely Chiseyu, Mazae-Nje, Chamtumile, Igoji-II, Ikuyu, Berege, Chipogolo and Mtera.

1.5 General Approach & Methodology

1.5.1 General Approach

In undertaking this study the Consultant's approach was:

• To define and characterize the study areas by using 1 :50000 scale topographic map.

• To divide the study area into distinct agro-economic zones

• To identify the existing beneficiary communities in each agro-economic zone.

• To select representative sample communities according to spatial distribution within those agro-economic zones.

The agro-economic zones were used as criteria for selecting sample villages, because they reflect a local climate, and thus land use pattern and natural resource potential. This also includes water resource availability.

1.5.2 Methodology

After selecting the representative communities, the Consultant divided the study into two major components i.e. deskwork and fieldwork.

(a) Deskwork

The deskwork involved preparation of survey forms and questionnaires, acquisition and reading topographic maps, review of various documents, reports, etc.

(b) Fieldwork

The fieldwork involved ocular (visual) surveys followed by filling up standard biophysical and socio-economic survey forms. During the field physical inspection was done on-site and whenever possible, water samples were collected for laboratory analysis. It also involved formal & informal interviews, as well as focus group discussion and/or carrying out meetings with local communities in the rural areas. The Consultant also carried out discussions with responsible authorities at national, district and villages levels. This provided an opportunity to get their opinion on the project.

3

FIG. 1: MAP OF MPWAPWA DISTRICT-RURAL ROADS AND VILLAGE CENTRES

4

2.0 POLICY, LEGISLATION & REGULATORY FRAMEWORK

2.1 POLICY

The Government's concern and commitment to environmental protection for social sustainability of national development is reflected in its three policy documents. These include the National Environment Policy (NEP), National Environment Action Plan (NEAP) and National Conservation Strategy for Sustainable Development (NCSSD). Again, the Draft Environment Protection Bill (1994) and the Bill to enhance the powers and responsibilities of National Environment Management Council (NEMC) have already been prepared. Moreover, the Government of Tanzania (GOT) is a signatory to the 1992 Rio conventions (i.e. Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 and Framework Convention for Climate Change 1992).

The overall objective of NEP (1997) is to raise public awareness and understanding of essential linkages, between environment and development. Another objective is to promote individual and community participation in environmental actions. This policy objective is in line with the 2000 National Water Policy (NWP) approach, whereby community participation and other stakeholders in water resource management is emphasized.

The NEP policy addresses environmental issues from both natural and social context, by adopting the principle of sustainable development. According to the policy, explOitation/utilization of natural resource, investment and technology development has to be carried out in a sustainable manner without compromising the environment for the benefit of the current generation and of the future.

The NEP has developed proposals for enactment of framework legislation to address environmental issues in line with international agreements, commitment and national concerns. Main objectives of the framework are:

• To take into account various government agencies involved in regulating specific sectors of economy.

• To integrate the activities of the government agencies.

• To promote co-ordination and co-operation among various government agencies and define environmental management tools of general scope.

The framework intends to facilitate consistent policy and enforcement to ensure that

• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is carried out for any major development project before its commencement.

• Environmental monitoring is done in compliance with the set standards.

• Environmental auditing is undertaken to evaluate the efficiency of environmental organization, including its management and equipment being used.

5

The Ministry of Water & Livestock Development (MWLD) on its side has also considered environmental issues in its 2000 NWP by identifying EIA as one of the important legal instruments. One of the policy issues of major concern in the NWP is environmental water need; that is, water needed to protect the environment. That includes identification of major aquatic ecosystems, their ecology, hydrology and meeting their in-stream flow requirements and quality level standards. The policy also seeks establishment as well as, enforcement of effective regulatory mechanisms for environmental flow requirements.

Based on its global principles the NWP takes into account cross-sector policy issues related to water resource management. Thus, the policy gives emphasis on improving the health and socio-economic well being of rural communities through improved access to adequate and sustainable safe water supply & sanitation. The policy also recognizes the relationship between lack of safe water and poor hygiene & sanitation as the major cause of sickness and death, and of course poverty. It identifies rural women and children as a vulnerable group living in poor conditions, subjected to diseases and foregone opportunities. The policy strategy in this case is to emphasize/promote health & hygiene education to rural people, rather than providing water supply alone.

Thus, the policy is geared towards maximization of health impact to the rural community, especially women & children through integration of water supply, sanitation & hygiene education. The policy strategy here is to promote co-ordination, linkage and collaboration with the Ministry of Education & Culture (MOEC) and the Ministry of Health (MOH).

The policy also takes into account the livestock sector by recognizing the need for water to livestock. Thus according to the policy there is a need to include livestock in the designs of rural community water supply schemes. The principle statement is that, there should be a provision for adequate water supply to livestock though construction of charcos/dams and integrating livestock requirement in the design of rural water supplies.

FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Findings

One of the important strategies in the NWP implementation is to promote water supply, sanitation and hygiene education among the rural community. However, the policy does not specify in its objectives the issues of environmental awareness and education. For example, environmental degradation (vegetation destruction and water pollution) of water sources is one of the major problems that could threaten the sustainability of rural water supply schemes. It is therefore important that environmental awareness and education should be given weight in the policy. That should include promoting technologies that minimize environmental degradation. For example, promoting the use of efficient charcoal stove (Jiko Bora) that consumes little charcoal and conserves heat (e.g. Jiko bora). Again, use of red soil and cement bricks for house construction in rural areas can be promoted to minimize vegetation destruction or the use rice husks for burning bricks instead of fuel wood can be

6

promoted. Therefore, one of the policy objectives in this case should be to promote environmental conservation and encourage environmentally sound practices and/or technologies to protect water sources.

Another policy strategy is to make EA mandatory before execution of all major water related projects. However, there are no guidelines developed by MWLD for carrying out EA in water supply development projects. For example TANAPA has developed its own EA guidelines for development projects being carried out in the National Parks or Game Reserves. It could be important if the MWLD could develop its own EA guidelines and environmental management plan (EMP).

According to the policy, environmental issues will be analyzed at planning level. However, the policy does not give any implementation strategy to ensure that environmental issues are incorporated in all stages of water resource development. There should be an institutional reform in the MWLD by establishing an environmental section. The responsibility of Environmental Unit should be to foresee implementation of environmental management plans and co-ordinate and/or link with the Office of the Vice President through its Environment Division and NEMC.

The question of water source protection and cleaning due to pollution has been noted in the policy involves financing mechanism. However, up to now source of funding largely depends on government budget and thus not adequate. There is a need to look for other sources to complement the government budget. One of the sources may involve introduction of water users charges (WUC) and polluter pays principle (PPP). Other mechanism is to encourage local communities to actively participate in water sources protection. The established community water funds should be used in O&M water supply schemes and water sources protection.

Recommendations

• Environmental awareness and education should be given weight in the NWP. That should include promoting environmental conservation and use of environmental technologies that minimize environmental degradation.

• MWLD should develop its own EIA guidelines and environmental management plan (EMP).

• There should be an institutional reform in the MWLD by establishing an Environmental Unit within its WRD.

• The financing of water protection from pollution should involve introduction of water users charges (WUC) and polluter pays principle (PPP). Other mechanism should be to encourage local communities to actively participate in water sources protection.

• The legislation to support implementation of EIA requirements in the water sector should be incorporated in the Water Utilization Act.

7

2.2 LEGISLATION & REGULATORY FRAMEWORK

2.2.1 Legislation

The relevant legislation matters of environmental concern relate to Solid waste Management, Pollution Control, Environmental Quality Standards, Land use, Health & Safety, Protection of Wildlife, Sensitive areas, Unique Flora & Fauna, Protection of Natural & Cultural Resource.

(i) Protection of Sensitive areas & Unique Flora & Fauna

The relevant legislation in Tanzania related to preservation and/or protection of sensitive areas and unique flora & fauna are:

• Fauna Conservation Ordinance2 Cap. 302 as amended by Acts No. 15 and 17 of 1963 and Act No. 7 of 1965.

• National Parks Ordinance, 1957 (Amendment) Act No. 44 of 1963.

• Forest Ordinance of 1957 Cap. 389, Forests Ordinance (Amendment) Act No. 43 of 1963.

• Land Ordinance, 1961 Cap. 113.

• Public Land (Preserved areas) Ordinance (Amendment) Act. No. 28 of 1965.

• National Land Policy (1997).

• Industrial Licensing and Registration Act of 1967 and with Amendments of 1982.

• Water Utilization (Control and Regulation) Act. Of 1974 as amended by the Water Utilization (Control and Regulation) Misc. Amendment) Act of 1981.

• Fisheries Act. No. 6 of 1970.

• Wildlife Conservation Act No. 21 of 1974.

• National Environment Management Act No. 19 of 1983.

(ii) Solid Waste Management

The principle legislation that governs waste management is found in the Local Government Acts, National Land Use Commission Act and Town & Country Planning Ordinance. However, in Tanzania there is no specific legislation to address solid waste management. The land use planning act gives local authorities the power to designate land in urban areas for specific uses, like solid waste disposal. Besides

~ Law promulgated before independence. 8

that, the Common Law of Nuisance can be applied to waste disposal sites (e.g. Case of Belegere Vs Oar Es Salaam City Council)3

The relevant policy is the NEP whose primary objective is to promote environmentally sound technologies, that are less polluting, recycle more of their wastes and handle wastes in a more acceptable manner than the technologies they replace. Within the NEP, Health sector refers to provision of waste disposal services. The industry sector refers to prevention, reduction, control and limitation of damage and minimization of risk from general management, transportation, handling and disposal of hazardous wastes.

(iii) Air Pollution

There is neither legislation nor definitions of standards or objectives pertaining to air pollution. So far the only item of legislation is that which appears in the Penal Code and Merchant Shipping Act, 1967.

The Penal Code stipulates that "voluntarily vitiating the atmosphere so as to make it noxious to the health of persons in the vicinity" is a misdemeanor. The local Government (District and Urban Authority Acts, 1982) contains provisions to protect human health and regulates pollution problems. The Merchant Shipping Act, 1967 prohibits emissions of dark smoke from ships for more than five minutes in any hour, within a certain distance from the shoreline. However, Common Law Principles of Nuisance can also be applied in matters of air pollution (Belegere Vs City Council, 1985).

The NEP seeks to reduce and control impacts from industrial emissions through location, control of emission and use of environmentally friendly technologies (Clean Technology). The policy also seeks to establish permissible noise levels in cases of noise-prone industries and construction sites. However, there are no established air and noise quality standards, although draft proposals have been prepared by NEMC (1997) for ambient air and emission sources.

(iv) Mining

So far, there is no legislation in Tanzania that specifically deals with control of land pollution. However, this issue can be related to land use policy and regulations. The NEMC Act has some provisions to initiate steps for the protection of environment by preventing, controlling, abating or mitigating pollution to land, water air, etc.

The NEP addresses the issues of land pollution, especially in regards to mining sector. It states that measures will be taken to minimize pollution from the mining sector. These include reclamation and restoration of land after use, mining discharges to ground and surface water. According to the policy land, ground & surface water pollution shall be controlled and preventive as well as, clean up measures for accidents shall be formulated and implemented. Similar policies are also applicable to other industrial sector.

3 In 1985 the Residents of Kunduchi Mtongani. Dar Es Salaam successfully moved the high court to close a dumpsite that was opened by the City Council in the residential area due to air pollution problem.

9

(v) Land use

The relevant legislation controlling land use and its management include:

• National Land Policy (1997).

• Land Ordinance Cap. 113.

• Public Land (Preserved areas) Ordinance (Amendment) Act. No. 28 of 1965.

• Town and Country Planning Ordinance were established to regulate land use planning schemes for designated areas.

• Natural Resource Ordinance to create Natural Resource Board, responsible for supervising natural resource.

• The National Land Use Planning Commission to advise the government on land conservation and development.

• The Local (District and Urban) Authorities Acts (1982) to empower Local Authori~ies to make by-laws on soil protection, agriculture, water supplies and other natural resource.

Other legislation relevant to land use includes, Range Land Development and Management Ordinance, Land Ordinance (1961) and Land Acquisition Act (1967). Recently, the Land Act (1999) has been enacted to regulate land allocation, including a village land.

The National Land Policy (1997) addresses issues of protection of sensitive areas. These include water catchment areas, small islands, border areas, beaches, mountains, forests, national parks, rivers, river basins and banks, seasonal migration routes of wildlife, national heritage and areas of biodiversity. According to policy, these areas or parts of them shall not be allocated to individuals.

The policy also deals with protection of hazard lands, such as, river valleys, areas of steep slopes, mangrove swamps, marshlands. The policy recognizes that apart from posing danger to life and property, development on those areas contributes to land degradation, pollution and environmental degradation in general.

(iii) Water

The relevant legislation that covers water pollution and supply include the Water Works Ordinance (Cap. 281), the Urban Water Supply Act, 7/81 and Water Utilization and Control Act, 42/74. The Water Works Ordinance specifies that pollution of water supplies constitutes a punishable offence. The Urban Water Supply Act gives the National Urban Water Authority (NUWA, now DAWASA) power regarding surface and ground water pollution. It specifies that pollution of surface or ground water is a punishable offence. The Water Utilization and Control Act establish

10

temporary standards for receiving waters and effluent discharge standards. The Public Health Sewerage and Drainage Ordinance Cap. 335, prohibits the discharge of certain substances into sewers, violation of which is an offence and penalties may be imposed.

The Government of Tanzania has also created the following bodies with specific tasks to regulate water pollution. These include:

• National Urban Water Authority (NUWA now DAWASA).

• Tanzania Bureau of Standards (TBS)4.

• National Environment Management Council (NEMC).

However, there is specific legislation related to water resource management in the

country but also relevant to environment. These include:

• The Laws of Tanganyika 1947 & 1950 Cap. 281.

• Water Works Ordinance (Subsidiary Legislation) Cap. 281.

• Public Health (Sewerage & Sanitation) Cap. 336.

• Water Utilization (Control and Regulation) Act No. 42 of 1974.

• Urban Water Supply Act. No. 7 of 1981.

• Water Utilization (Control and Regulation) Amendment Act. No. 10 of 1981.

• Written Laws (Promotion and Protection) Act. No. 10 of 1990. • Water Utilization (Miscellaneous Amendment) NO.8 of 1997.

• Water Laws (Miscellaneous Amendments) Act of 1999.

Major topics covered in the law in Water Resource concern protection and exploitation. In water protection important topics deal with:

• Ownership of water resource.

• Protection of water resource.

• Protection of flora, fauna and natural environment in water resource.

• Protection of water quality in other countries.

• Discharge of waste water in water sources

4 Tanzania Bureau of Standards has also issued effluent standards for a limited number of specific industries in the country.

11

For water resource exploitation main topics covered concern with:

• Regulation and distribution of water resource.

• Right of organizations and Individuals to exploit and use water resource.

• Obligations of organizations and individuals that exploit and use water resource.

• Issuing of permits for exploitation and use of water resource.

(iv) Health & Safety

Health & safety issues are also relevant to environment at work places, as it affects the health and safety of workers. The items of legislation that are relevant to health & safety are found in the Factories Ordinance and the Penal Code. The Factories Ordinance deals with health & safety of workers at their work places. The word "factory" as considered by this ordinance includes most places of work. This ordinance sets standards for health, safety and welfare of workers. It empowers the Minister for Labor to make rules for health, safety and welfare of workers. The legislation states that: "Where the Minister is satisfied that, any manufacturer, machinery, plant, equipment, appliances, processes or description of manual labor, is of such a nature as to cause risk of bodily injury/harm, or to be offensive to the person employed". Then the Minister shall take a legal action to protect the employee." Thus, based on its broad context, the ordinance is also relevant to this project, as far as construction works and operation of equipment on-site is concerned. The Penal Code can be considered another relevant legislation to this project. It restricts the practice of noxious trades and this restriction extends to cover unsafe places of work.

The existing policy matters within NEP are relevant to Health & Safety. This is the case because reduction of emissions and pollution from industry and adoption of clean technologies are beneficial to workforce, as well as, the public. The specific policy that refers to health & safety is the industry sector policy, that seeks to ensure workers' health and safety are adequately protected from potential environmental health hazards. Again, under the Local (District and Urban) Authorities Acts (1982), the Local Governments have been empowered to make by-laws regarding public health and safety issues.

(v) Vegetation & Wildlife

The Wildlife Conservation laws restrict hunting or cutting vegetation in the National Parks and Game Reserves. However, the laws are less strict in the Game Controlled Areas. The Wildlife Conservation Act protects wildlife and vegetation. Under the Act the utilization of wildlife is restricted to license holders. The use of sensitive wildlife habitats is restricted during a certain times of the year or for specific periods.

Wildlife Conservation Act of 1974 (amended in 1974) limits explOitation of certain forestry resources by requiring specific licenses for harvesting and selling forests products. The revised Forestry Policy of 1993 recognizes the important role of

12

forests in the maintenance of the environment, provision of forestry products and the protection of watersheds and bio-diversity.

(vi) Marine and Freshwater Fisheries

The important item of legislation in the fisheries regulation is that which prohibit flow or passing into water and solid, liquid or gaseous matter or cause water pollution in any lake, river, dam, estuary or seawater. This legislation requires any person responsible for pollution to clean the polluted water within a reasonable period at his/her own expense.

Again, specific regulations were introduced in 1973 and 1982, under the Fisheries Act (1970), to limit annual catches. The legislation also puts limitations on methods of fish harvesting, including the outlawing of dynamiting and pOisoning.

(vii) Cultural Resource & Heritage

The relevant items of legislation on these issues are found in the Antiquities Act and Protected Places & Areas Act. The Act seeks to protect through regulation of access to declared monuments, relics and conservation areas. The Protected Places and Areas Act gives the Minister for legal Affairs the authority to prevent or control movement and conduct of people in certain areas.

In addition to above legislation matters, Tanzania is a signatory to various International Treaties and Agreements related to environment (MTNRE and Green Globe Yearbook, 1993). These include:

• Convention on Preservation of Fauna & Flora in the their Natural set up - London 1933.

• Convention on African Migratory Locust - Kano, 1962.

• African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resource -Algeria 1968.

• Convention on the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) Paris 1972 (UNESCO).

• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)- Washington DC, 1973 (UNEP).

• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)-Montego Bay, 1922.

• FAO International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resource Rome, 1983 (FAO).

• FAO International Code of conduct on the Distribution and use of pesticide -Rome, 1985 (FAO).

• Convention on Biological Diversity - Rio de Janeiro 1992 (UNEP). 13

• Framework Convention on Climate change - Rio de Janeiro, 1992.

FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Findings

The existing legislation within the sector ministries is adequately covered to guide environmental management, including EIA requirements. However, no comprehensive legislation that enforces implementation of NEP or empowers NEMC to make EIA requirements mandatory and legally binding. Again, there are no clear institutional responsibilities and supporting legislation to facilitate implementation of NEP. This has lead into duplication of efforts and some times conflicts. For example, in recent years there has been a contradicting opinion between the Office of the Vice President and the NEMC regarding environmental pollution being caused by Karibu Textile Mills (KTM)5

The issues of ground water utilization, pollution control and monitoring are not adequately addressed in the current law. This may result into problems and some times conflicts. For example, in recent years, there have been an increasing number of individuals and institutions, which have turned into ground water sources utilization. Monitoring of these individual water users is important because over­extraction' of ground water may result into problems. These include hydrological imbalance, land subsidence and vulnerability of the land to tectonic effects (earthquake). Therefore, question of water pollution, and allocation of ground water resource among various users should be adequately covered in the legislation, to avoid environment degradation and hazards due to uncontrolled extraction.

Another shortcoming with the current legislation is the lack of adequate representation of water users, especially at village level. There is a need to review the current legislation in order to cover water users at village levels. The village governments should be encouraged to establish by-laws to protect the environment and water sources.

Although there is a linkage between land, environment and water resource management there is no strong co-ordination and linkage between the MWLD with relevant ministries. These include the Ministry of Lands & Urban Development (MLUD), Natural Resource and Tourism (MNRT) and Ministry of Agriculture & Food (MOAF), as well as, the Office of the Vice President.

The water use issues are dealt with in various sectors, but they are not in harmony with each other, hence difficult to prosecute offenders when it comes to water pollution. Again, it may be not be appropriate to prosecute them in the absence of comprehensive legislation. Therefore, such legislation should be established to cover other sectors. The sector Ministries should then refer to the legislation on water

5 Karibu Textile Mills was ordered closed by the Chairman of NE MC but the Minister for Environment in the Office of the Vice President had a different opinion. The factory had to be opened under the directives of the Minister.

14

resource in matters related to their own sector's water use, consumption and pollution.

Recommendations

• Formulation of comprehensive legislation should be speeded up to facilitate implementation of NEP and empower NEMC to make EIA mandatory and legally binding.

• There should be a clear statement of institutional responsibilities and supporting legislation to facilitate implementation of NEP and reduce duplication of efforts.

• The question of ground water utilization, pollution and monitoring should be addressed in the Water Laws to cope with the current situation, whereby private and individuals participation in ground water works is rapidly increasing.

• Water users at village level should be covered in the current legislation and the village governments should be encouraged to establish by-laws to protect water sources and the environment in general.

• The respective legislation in sector ministries should be reviewed and harmonized to avoid conflict of interests.

• Comprehensive legislation should be established to cover all water related sectors and the MWLD should enforce legislation on various sectors' water use, consumption and pollution.

2.2.2 Standards Governing Environmental Quality

(a) International Standards

The relevant international standards governing environmental quality in Tanzania are those developed by World Health Organization (WHO). However, other standards by European Union (EU) and Norwegian standards are also important for comparison with the National Standards.

(i) European Union Standards

The following EU Drinking Water Quality Standard (November, 1998) are given as

Directives:

Directive No. 75/490 EEC - concerns with quality of surface water intended for abstraction of drinking water in the member states.

Directive No. 80/778/EU - which relates to quality of water intended for human consumption -specifically - maximum admissible one.

15

Directive No. 98/83/EU - deals with quality of water intended for human consumption but specifically deals with parameter value.

In European Union (EU), discharge standards are regulated for certain chemicals, like mercury and cadmium. The standards set requirements for municipal treatment plants for member states. In EU, discharge standards are included in the national regulations, either in the discharge permits or in the general regulations. Furthermore, the specific discharge standards for certain substances, such as, mercury and cadmium, are not universal but only depend on a given type of industry or factory.

(ii) Norwegian System

The Norwegian system for classification of environmental quality of fresh water is used for evaluation of environmental status and development. It states environmental goals, evaluates the need for pollution control measures and the effect of mitigation measures taken. Those classifications are based on the knowledge about the effect of parameters and statistical occurrence of the parameters in Norwegian fresh waters. The system also gives classification of the suitability for different uses (Bj0rnstad, 2000).

In Norway, the Pollution Control Act stipulates that nobody is allowed to pollute without a discharge permit. The Act specifies effluent standards, together with general requirements for use of Best Available Technology (BAT), and Cleaner Production Technology. The Norwegian State Pollution Control Authority (NSPCA) has established a system of more individually specified discharge permits for each polluting factory.

The Oslo-Paris convention concerns with the protection of North Sea, whereby specific types of industries are given recommendations on effluent standards. For example, whether Textile and Electroplating industries pollute the environment or do not pollute. According to the convention, assessment should be made of how the discharges may affect the environment. Polluters are required to monitor the discharges and report to the relevant authorities and the public.

(b) National standards

The national standards relevant to environmental quality in Tanzania are:

• Tanzania Water Quality standards.

• Tanzania Standards for Receiving Water.

• Temporary Standards for Quality of Domestic Water.

• Classification of Environmental Status for fresh water.

• Tanzania Standard for Rural water Supply - 1974.

16

(i) Standards for Rural Water Supply

The Tanzania standards for Rural Water Supply consider toxic elements, mainly fluorides and nitrates, as inorganic compounds with effect on human health. Generally, values for Tanzania standards are higher than those set by the European Community (EC) and World Health Organization (WHO).

(H) Effluent & Receiving Water Quality Standards

The Ministry of Health in Collaboration with the then Ministry of Water, energy and Minerals developed the Effluent and Receiving Water Quality standards in 1977. These standards were adopted and appear as schedules under the Water Utilization (Control and Regulation) Amendment Act No. 10 of 1981. The standards comprise of receiving water quality standards, the effluent quality standard and the domestic water standards.

The Effluent Standards deal with effluents for direct discharge into receiving waters. The restrictions are that those effluents should not cause sludge or scum, and should not cause change in color, natural taste or odor; and should not cause temperature change by more than 5°C. The standard also deals with effluents for indirect discharge into receiving waters through municipal sewerage plant. It specifies that effluents should not have more than 35°C or not exceed 5°C above ambient temperature of supplied water.

The Receiving Water Quality Standards provide maximum permissible concentration, and is divided into 3 categories, i.e. 20 mg/L for Category I & 11 and 30 mg/L for Category Ill.

The Category I is concerned with drinking water supplies, swimming pools, food and beverage manufacturing industries, pharmaceuticals manufacturing industries or industries requiring water source of similar quality. Category 11 deals with the use of water in for domestic animals, fishing, shell cultures, recreation and water for sports. Category III relates to water for irrigation and other industrial activities requiring water quality standards lower than those in Category I and 11.

The Tanzania standards for water quality are regulated through Water Utilization Act 1974 (Amendment 1981). This includes regulation on pollution of water. Under the Act no person may discharge effluents from commercial, industrial or other trade waste systems into receiving water without consent duly granted by a Water Officer. The standards related to effluents and receiving waters are specified and should be complied with by users of water before or during discharge into watercourse, receiving waters or municipal sewerage systems. The standards prescribed in 1981 amendment include standards for receiving waters, effluents standard and drinking water standards.

In Tanzania, discharge permit is granted by Public Water Office (PWO) and Water Basin Offices (WBOs) for new industries/plants only. Although old plants are not regulated through discharge permits, they are required to comply with national effluent standards.

17

FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Findings

It can be noted that the existing sector ministries in the country have legal authority to regulate pollution discharge and they play increasing role in environmental management. However, there are some shortcomings in effective implementation of pollution standards in the country.

For example, there is no clear system for co-ordination, implementation or enforcement of legislation and regulations. This is reflected in the current levels of environmental performance in the country and low level of compliance to international environmental quality standards, by public and private sector institutions. Again, only few industries and municipal authorities do perform regular monitoring of their effluents and there is no systematic reporting procedures (NORPLAN,2000).

Recommendations

To improve the situation the following recommendations are given for Tanzania standards:

• Regulation of pollution should be based on Polluter Pay Principle (PPP), and nobody should have a right to pollute environment. Polluters should give a proof on the effect of their activities to the environment, that is, whether the activities do pollute the environment or not.

• Enforcement of the requirements for discharge permits must be strengthened. However, it should continue to be regulated through the existing Water Utilization Acts.

• Pollution control and prevention on a system of discharge permits that focuses on general environmental protection act should be established. That should cover discharges to water, air emissions, and noise and waste (solid and liquid wastes) production.

• General effluent standards should not be stated in Water utilization Act, but they should be stated individually in the discharge permits. It should be specific to actual (industrial) sector of industry and environmental status of the receiving waters. Guidelines for effluent standard should be established, based on the review of existing standards by NEMC

• Contents of an application for discharge permits should be specified in the regulation and EIA requirements should be submitted to the relevant authority.

• Pollution control and mitigation measures should be specified by industries in attending the expected effluent discharge in their applications for discharge permits.

18

• The principle of BAT and the concept of Cleaner Production Technology should be adopted. That should include procedures for handling of applications, provisions for notification and public participation, appeals and timeframe.

• Regulations should ensure that relevant authorities and institutions are contacted.

• There should be a provision for existing industries to apply for discharge permits in a specified time frame. The discharge permits should specify production capacity, raw materials used, processing chemicals, products and solid waste disposal.

• Discharge permits should be linked with license or other permits, specifications of receiving water and municipal sewerage systems, discharge limits (intermediate if necessary) and time limit. Other inclusions should involve operating conditions, such as, the use of Cleaner Production Technologies, leakage control, minimum water use, etc. Monitoring and Reporting requirements and procedures should be specified in the discharge permits, as well as, improvement program.

• There should be a general condition and right for the relevant authority to inspect the facilities and monitor the discharges. There should be a system of permit fee and fees for inspection should be introduced.

2.2.3 EA requirements and GOT capacity to handle EIA

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is the process that involves identification, analysis and predictions of all significant impacts due to development project activities, policies and/or programs. The function of EIA is to predict the impacts of projects, programs and poliCies on natural resource and environmental quality, including communities that depend on or interact with them. It is a tool for collecting and assembling information to be used for improvement of project design and implementation. EIA is multi-disciplinary and interactive process that is aimed at providing better understanding of the linkage between ecological, social, economic and political systems. Although the word EIA is widely employed, it mainly involves social, ecological and risks assessment.

The economic benefits of undertaking EIA at earlier stage of project design are well known. For example, unnecessary social disruption and cost can be avoided by incorporating EIA in the project design. Although some project proponents think EIA is costly, experience shows that the cost of undertaking EIA usually do not exceed 1% of the total project cost (IIEDIIRA, 1995).

The history of EIA goes back to 1969 when the United State when the national Environment Policy Act was formulated. According to the Act all development project has to undergo EIA. The intention is to identify any potential impacts resulting from proposed project activities so that mitigation measures could be implemented to minimize or if possible avoid those impacts. In 1986, the World Bank made EIA to be mandatory in its bank financed development projects. Thereafter, the African Development Bank (AfOB) and other multilateral and bilateral agencies including, the

19

United Nations (UN) agencies introduced EIA. Again, the European Community (EC) in 1989 directed its member states to undertake EIA for major development projects.

In Tanzania, EIA was given more importance by GOT after the Rio declaration in 1992. According to principle 17 of the Rio Declaration, project proponents of any proposed development activities that are likely to have significant environmental impacts should undertake E/A. The NEP (1997) and NWP (2000) require that all major development projects should be subject to EIA.

Since then, some initiatives have been taken by other sectors to incorporate EIA in their policies and planning. For example, the Tanzania National Park (TANAPA) policy requires EIA preparation for development activities within and/or adjacent to the national park boundaries (TANAPA, 1994). The policy covers all development activities by TANAPA itself, government agencies and private sector. EIA requirement also includes the General Management Plans (TANAPA Planning Unit, 1994). Other sectors also include the Department of Wildlife, the Ministry of Energy & Minerals (MEM) and Tanzania Electric Supply Company (TANESCO).

The Department of Wildlife policy requires EIA for all significant development proposals within protected areas in Tanzania (Department of Wildlife, 1996). The protected areas in this case include the game controlled areas, game reserves and forest reserves. The Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority has also developed its policy that makes EIA to be undertaken for any development project within its boundaries. TANESCO has also made EIA to be mandatory for all power generation projects and high-tension electricity transmission lines.

The Ministry of Energy & Minerals (MEM) has also incorporated EIA requirements in its mining policy and has developed the Environmental Management & Legislative Framework (MEM, 1996). According to the policy, EIA should be undertaken for large-scale mining, and those mining licenses should be issued with rehabilitation bonds.

FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

(a) Findings

EIA performance in Tanzania constrained by lack of adequate expertise, institutional weakness and absence of legal framework (IIEDIIRA 1995).

Although NEP requires EIA to be mandatory for major development projects no supporting legislation that clearly states the role and institutional responsibilities for conducting EIA in Tanzania.

The EIA regulatory framework still covers only few protected areas such as national parks, marine parks and game reserves. Again, the capacity to implement recommendations of mitigation and environmental management plan is also low within those sectors.

20

However, despite these shortcomings the existing legislation in different sectors and/or sector laws can still help to guide and support the enforcement of EIA in Tanzania. For example, the Tanzania National Parks (TANAPA) has made EIA to be mandatory and it has already developed its own guidelines for carrying out EIA since 1993.

Experience also shows that procedures for conducting EIA are not adequately followed (11 EDII RA), 1995) due to low level of awareness on EIA by the senior staff in key institutions. For example, some of them have been noted (IIEDIIRA, 1995) to regard EIA as a constraint and that it can increase project implementation costs.

According to the findings, there is a wide range of organizations with expertise relevant to EIA in country, but most of them have never been exposed to EIA process and do not have EIA specific expertise (IIEDIIRA).

The low level of EIA expertise in the country has been attributed to historical reasons (IIEDIIRA, 1995), as for a long time EIA studies in the country have been carried out mainly by foreign consulting firms or individual consultants. However, in recent years involvement of local consulting firms and/or individuals has been increasing, especially following the World Bank policy to facilitate local capacity building. It should be noted that, the increasing involvement of private sector on the national development and future enactment EIA legislation would create more demand for indigenous EIA expertise.

In general, it can be concluded that the present handling of EIA requirements in Tanzania is constrained by lack of comprehensive legislation, regulatory framework and institutional capability. The national capacity for management and implementation of environmental assessment requirements is still limited due to those constrains. However, GOT capacity to handle EIA in the future is gradually building up as a result of institutional transformations, increasing awareness on the importance of EIA and growing level of indigenous expertise. For example, more sector ministries are now making EIA to be mandatory for major development project.

The Environment Protection Bill and the Bill to enhance powers of NEMC has already been prepared for enactment any time from now. This will result into formulation of comprehensive legislation to support EIA requirements and will empower NEMC to make EIA mandatory and legally binding. Again, the Office of the Vice President through its Environment Division has already worked out a Draft Institutional & Legislative Framework for environmental management.

(b) Recommendations

• There should be an overall political decision so that general. regulations on EIA are stated in the Environmental or Planning legislation. The process of enacting legislation should be speeded up to cope with the rapid economic transformation towards privatization.

21

• Since there is no overall EIA legislation the provision for EIA should be stated in the Water Laws. The water policy review and Water Utilization Act should include EIA requirements for water resource projects.

• The MWLD should develop its own guidelines on EIA to provide guidance on more specific water related aspects.

• The existing expertise in MWLD should be harnessed to improve their capacity to undertake EIA in water resource projects.

• There should be some training for senior staff to improve their capacity, especially in preparing ToR for conducting EIA and EIA Reviews.

• Private institutions and the public should be educated on the importance and role of EIA.

2.2.4 Institutional Needs and Capacity

The assessment of institutional needs and capacity focuses on the existing institutional set-up for rural water supply & sanitation at project, village, district and national levels. The intention is to identify whether the existing set-up is adequate for implementation of water resource and environmental management plans.

(a) Project level

The key actors in the implementation of rural water supply & sanitation (RWSS) project are, the Central Government through the MWLD; the Local government through the DCs , External Support Agencies (ESAs), Private Sector, NGOs, CBOs, and Village Government (VG) through Village Water Committees (VWSS) committees.

Project implementation involves establishment of District Water & Sanitation Team (DWST) in the district responsible for providing information and maintaining link with MWLD through Rural Water Division (RWD). The DWST is also responsible for identification of eligible communities for financing and preparation of District Water & Sanitation Plan (DWSP). Another responsibility is endorsement of policy principles and establishment of district Water Supply & Sanitation (WSS) Fund.

(b) Vii/age level

At village level there is the Village Government (VG), comprised of Village Chairman (VC), Village Executive Officer (VEO) and Village Hamlet Leaders (VHLs). Under the VG, there are three main committees and several sub-committees. It has been noted that formation of committees or sub-committees depends on the needs and! or requirements of a given community. For example, whereas Water Committee is responsible for water & sanitation matters in the village, the Social Welfare Committee is responsible of social & environmental issues.

22

There are some efforts being done by local people to form economic groups, however lack of awareness and financial support seem to be a constraint. The rural communities should be mobilized and encouraged to organize themselves into income generating groups to improve their revenue base. This will enable them to contribute more to their water funds, and hence effectively operate and maintain their water supply schemes.

The existing committees and village governments have low capacity due to financial constraints and lack of financial management and managerial/administrative skills. There is a need to strengthen them through training and mobilize the rural community to fully participate in the program.

The participation of women in village committees is low as can be noted by gender representation (Appendix 11, Table 4). There is a need to sensitize women and give them opportunity to participate in the program through existing committees.

(c) District Level

Presence of NGOs is a positive sign of capacity building at district level. For example, since 1991 NGOs such as Water Aid, World Vision and the Christian Medial Relief Council (CMRC) have been assisting the government in rural water supply & sanitation projects. Another example is the WAMMA program established by Water' Aid. The program involves Water Department, Health Department, Community Development Office, Education and Water Aid itself. The WAMMA program emphases partiCipatory and bottom up approach. Under the approach funding of water supply schemes should involve donors, the Central Government through the District Council and the rural communities. The program emphasizes a demand responsive and participatory approach to rural water supply & sanitation schemes. It also focuses on institutional linkage (NGOs, Government Departments & District Councils) and sustainability through training In O&M of rural water supply & sanitation schemes.

However, despite their significant contribution the NGOs can not be totally relied upon due to their diverse interests and objectives, hence overlapping responsibilities and/or sometimes conflicting interests. For example, World Vision focuses mainly on children requirement for food, education, water, health and evangelism. Again, whereas Water Aid covers many villages, CMRC covers only one division (Rudi Division) and the World Vision covers two wards (Motomondo and Vinghawe).

Institutional set-up for water resource management indicates the District Council (DC) is responsible for policy implementation, monitoring and evaluation. It is also responsible for water resource and environmental protection, including conservation of and protection of catchment areas through the District Environment Committee (DEC).

In environmental management matters the DC through its DEC co-ordinates all environmental activities at the district level and link with NEMC. It is also responsible for policy formulation and establishment of regulations relating to environment including by-laws. It ensures that environmental assessment are carried out for

23

projects likely to have environmental impacts, establish linkage with local communities and maintains information on environment & utilization of national resource in the district.

However, the capacity of the district council is limited by lack of adequate human and financial resource. There is a need to build its capacity through training of manpower and financial support. The lack of water laboratory unit at the Regional Engineers Office is also a constraint in carrying out water resource and environmental quality monitoring.

(e) National Level

The institutional framework for water resource management shows that there is Division of Water Resource (DWR) headed by a Director. Under the DWR there is a Technical Section headed by Assistant Director. The technical section is comprised of three departments. These include the Surface Water Resource Assessment, Hydrogeology, and Water Resource Management (WRM). The department of WRM deals with all aspects of water resource regulations and management, including international water resource & pollution control. Other organs are the Basin Water Boards (BWBs) and Basin Water Office (BWO) which regulate all declared river basins. The Basin Water Office is headed by Basin Water Officer.

There is a National Water Resource Commission (NWRC) responsible for integration of all water-related sectors. The secretariat of the committee is within the WRD and the Director of WRD is the secretary. The chairman of the Commission is appointed by the President. According to the proposed set up the Central Water Board (CWB) will cease to operate. All functions of the CWB will be taken by NWRC, the WRM and the BWBs.

The functions of water quality management are currently under the Water Laboratory Unit (WLU). These functions will be shifted to the DWR and will be within the Hydrology & Hydrogeology sections.

For environmental matters, there is the Environment Division and National Environment Management Council (NEMC), within the Office of the Vice President. The responsibility of the Environment Division is policy formulation, preparation of environment action plans, maintaining co-operation and linkage with other sectors. Another responsibility is to foresee implementation of national environment policies, guidelines & regulations, including international treaties & agreements. The Environment Division is headed by the Director of Environment with executive powers under the Permanent Secretary in the Office of the Vice President.

The NEMC is the advisory body to the GOT in all environmental matters including policy formulation and implementation. The Council is also responsible for formulation of environmental strategies, preparation EIA guidelines, EIA and EIS reviews and development project approvals. The body ensures that proper environmental safeguards in planning and execution of development projects are followed. It is also responsible for identification of EA Consultants and carrying out

24

environmental monitoring & audits, as well as, advising project proponents on environmental issues.

The NEMC is headed by the Chairman of Environment whose responsibilities are to advice the Council and the Government in general. Again, there is the Director of Environment with executive powers under the Permanent Secretary in the Office of the Vice President.

FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Findings

The existing institutional set-up at all levels is adequate for implementation of EA recommendations in rural water supply & sanitation project. However, for effective implementation of environmental & social safeguards some considerations are needed.

Findings indicate that the NEMC is constrained by lack of funds and adequate human resource to conduct environmental reviews, audit, monitoring and training. It also lacks equipment to conduct on spot checks during monitoring.

The rural communities are constrained by lack of financial capability due to poor revenue base. Again, the village committees and their governments are faced by lack of financial management and managerial/administrative skills. Poor participation of women in various committees could also be another obstacle to effective implementation of rural water supply & sanitation program, as well as environmental management in general.

Although the existing program by NGOs have shown some significant contribution to rural water supply & sanitation schemes, they can not be totally relied upon due to their diverse interest and objective. Moreover, their activities are of limited coverage in the district. However, establishment of co-ordination and linkage with existing programs can be useful in the implementation of rural water supply & sanitation program.

The lack of funds and human resource in the district as well as absence of water laboratory unit at the Office of the Regional Engineer could be another constraint to effective water resource management & environmental monitoring.

Recommendations

To improve the institutional capability the following recommendations are given:

• Environmental Unit should be established within the RWD in the MWLD that will link with the Vice Presidents Office through its Environment Division and NEMC as well as NGOs, CBOs, and the rural community in general. The MWLD through its Environmental Unit and NEMC should then agree on training program, periodic spot checks (environmental audits) on completed sub-projects annually to ascertain the level of compliance with mitigation measures.

25

• NEMC should promote capacity building through engagement of local institutions, especially private sector in environmental audits & monitoring. It should also develop training programs to improve their skills. The NEMC should also devise a means of generating income by charging fees various activities such as environmental reviews, audits & monitoring.

• Local people should be mobilized and encouraged to establish economic groups in order to increase their revenue base so that they can contribute to water & environmental protection funds. The people should be sensitized through environmental awareness & education.

• Village governments and their committees should be trained on financial management and managerial/administrative skills.

• Women should be mobilized and given more opportunity to actively participate in various committees.

• Co-ordination and linkage should be established and promoted between the rural water supply & sanitation program and existing programs by NGOs.

• Capacity for water resource & environmental monitoring at the district level should be improved through training, establishment of well equipped and water laboratory unit at the Regional Engineer's Office.

3.0 PROJECT DESCRIPTION (a) Background

This project is the result of the 1991 national water policy reviews. The policy emphasizes demand responsive and participatory approach in service delivery to rural communities. Under the new approach the local communities are required to contribute and actively participate in financing, planning as well as operational & maintenance (0 & M) of their water supply & sanitation schemes.

The project is still in its design stage and so far its specific components for implementation has not been defined. However, to-date a number of preliminary studies has already been conducted as one of the preliminary stages towards project implementation. These include, the Supply Chain Study (Baumann & Lymo, 2000), Project Implementation Manual (MOW, 1999), learning innovation loan (UL -RWSSM, MOW, 1999) and the Review of Rural Water Supply & Sanitation Project for Kilosa, Rufiji & Mpwapwa districts (MMK Project Services Ltd., 1999).

Another stage involved establishment of District Water and Sanitation Teams (DWSTs) in each district. The responsibility of DWSTs is to provide information and link (liaison) with the already established Rural Water Division (RWD) under the MOWLD. In that connection the DWSTs are also responsible for identifying eligible communities for financing according to guidelines stipulated in the District Water and Sanitation Plan (DWSP). As shown in the Project Information Document (PlO) - First Draft the project is expected to take about 3 years and will be finance jointly by the

26

World Bank through lOA, the Government of Tanzania (GOT) and the Rural Communities.

(b) Purpose and Objectives

The purpose of the project is to improve the existing water supply & sanitation conditions in villages and small towns in the country. The project aims towards improving the health condition of the local communities through provision of safe, clean and affordable water supply.

Specifically the objectives of the project are to:

• Rehabilitate the existing water supply schemes, and whenever necessary to construct the new ones.

• Provide sanitation & hygiene education to the rural communities in the country.

• Promote awareness on HIV/AID prevention among the rural people.

• Sensitize the rural communities on environmental issues so that they can manage their water supply schemes in a sustainable manner.

(c) Components and Activities

The project implementation involves two major components, that is the national and community level components. At community level, the project involves establishment of District Implementation Models. Under this component the main activities include:

• Establishment of DWSTs.

• Strengthening of operational capacity of the DWSP.

• Appraisal of community sub-projects through on-site surveys.

• Establishment of DWSS fund for operation and maintenance community sub­projects.

• Hygiene & Sanitation education and promotion of HIV/AIDS prevention among the rural communities.

• Rehabilitation and construction of RWSS schemes.

At National level, the project will involve development of building up/scaling up strategy for National Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Programme. The major activities under this component are:

• Consultation with stakeholder to develop strategy for scaling up and to develop approach, scope, financing and institutional arrangement for implementation of Nat. RWSS Programme.

27

• Development of institutional framework for project implementation.

• Promoting capacity building through involvement of private sector relevant to RWSS, MWLD staff and other relevant complementary and partner agency staff.

(d) Duration and Time Frame

The project is expected to take three years and the initial 6-month will be used for project promotion through community mobilization and stakeholder consultation. That will be followed by on-site surveys and developing designs for the identified potential water supply schemes. The next step will be actual implementation, which involves rehabilitation, construction of new schemes, training of rural community on environment, hygiene and sanitation matters, as well as proper management of water funds.

(e) Beneficiaries

The direct beneficiaries of this project are the community members in villages and small towns in the country. Indirect beneficiaries are the District Councils, Private contractors, NGOs, CBOs and other organizations operating in the project areas.

(f) Financing agencies

The project will be financed partly by local communities, the World Bank, the District Councils and the GOT through the MWLD. Funds will also be sought from other external support agencies (ESAs). For example through linking the project co­ordination and planning with lOA -TASAF water component.

(g) Implementing agencies

The MWLD will be the main implementing agency through multi stakeholder Technical AdviSOry Committee (TAC). The TAC will be responsible for project follow­up. Policy issues and dissemination of information related to the project. Other implementing agency is the District council through the DWST. The DWST will be responsible for preparation of District Water and Sanitation Plan (DWSP), endorsement of policy prinCiples and establishment of District WSS Fund. The rural communities of the 10 selected villages will also participate fully in the project implementation through their Village Water Supply and Sanitation Committees (VWSS). Details on the mechanism for project implementation are described in the Project Information Document (PID) prepared by the MWLD.

(h) Sustainability

The sustainability is ensured through community participation. They will be involved in important areas including contracting of goods and services, and operation and maintenance of water supply schemes. The availability of goods and services is ensured by involvement of district and regionally based Private Contractors, NGOs,

28

CBOs, and other Partner Organization (PO). Generally, the sustainability indicators are:

• Active participation by rural communities.

• Equal Gender representation in water & sanitation committees.

• Involvement of NGOs, CBOs, POs and Private sector in policy formulation.

• Capacity building through training of WA TSAN staff.

• Education and awareness on Environment, Hygiene & Sanitation issues among the rural communities.

29

FIG. 2: MAP OF MPWAPWA DISTRICT -AGRO-ECONOMIC ZONES

30

4.0 BIO-PHYSICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT

4.1 BIO-PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

(a) Climate

Mpwapwa district receives an annual rainfall between 450-800 mm and temperature between 27-31° C. The highest rainfall is from January to March but from July to October it is usually dry. However, the most part of the district is predominantly an arid land with unreliable rainfalls.

(b) Topography

The district is characterized by highly dissected topography with rolling and hilly or and mountainous landforms.

(c) Geology and Geomorphology

The geology of Mpwapwa district is comprised of Ubendian/Usagaran systems with gneiss and meta-sediments of Precambrian origin in the south and eastern part. On the north and western side, the geology is dominated by Dodomian systems with Precambrian granites and granodiorites. However, on the stream/river valleys or lowlands the geological formation is mainly Quartenary alluvium with sands, gravel and clay materials.

The geomorphology is African erosion surface of Late Cretaceous-Oligocene age, made up of extensively smooth plateau with isolated hills.

(d) Soil characteristics

The soils vary from well-drained grayish-brown loam in hilly areas to reddish-brown loam in lower zones.

The problem bf land degradation is common in the district due to improper cultivation practices, deforestation and overgrazing. The common type of land degradation includes surface sealing, soil compaction and sheet, rill as well as, gully erosion.

(e) Hydrogeology

The hydrogeology of the area indicates some variations in ground water recharge potential. In most cases the low-lying areas with Quaternary alluvium deposits, the recharge rate ranges between 1-15 Us (liters per second) at 10-30 m depth. However, in the elevated areas (consisting of weathered gneiss & meta-sediments, granites & granodiorites) the recharge rate can range between 1-4Us up to 60-m depth. .

31

(f) Water resource availability

(i) Ground water

The ground water availability in most of the project area is controlled by geology of the area. In high elevations, the water table can be found at a depth of 60-100 m in dry seasons. However, in some lowlands and within river or stream valleys water table can be reached at a depth of 10 m during dry seasons. Due to its geology and soil characteristics ground water can be obtained mainly by drilling deep bore holes instead of shallow wells.

(ii) Surface water

Most of the streams in the district are seasonal, although some few permanent streams and natural springs exist mainly in hilly and mountainous areas. The streams reach their maximum flow during March & April and start to decrease from May to September, and from October to November, most of them are dry.

(g) Water Supply & Quality

The existing water sources for the whole district include 15 deep wells and 19 hand pump shallow wells. The coverage is 47 %, of the installed deep wells 90% are functioning, and 63% of hand pump shallow wells are functioning.

No detailed analysis has been done on ground water quality in the study area, but water samples from one bore hole at Berege village indicated high salinity (740 mg/I as CaC03) and fluoride (319 mgll F) contents. The values are above the Tanzania Standards of 600 mgll for total hardness and 8.0 mgll fluorides (Appendix IV). This data is partially supported by local people as they complain that water from most boreholes in the study area is salty. The turbidity level was also found above (119 NTU) the national standards (30 NTU). However, more investigation will be required before conclusion can be drawn on ground water quality in the study area.

No analysis as done on water quality from the existing streams/rivers and natural springs. However, pollution of surface water, especially streams/rivers and other temporary water bodies can not be overruled due to human activities and livestock as well as, incoming surface run-offs during rainfalls.

(g) Air quality and sources of emissions

The major sources of emissions in the rural areas are bush fires, burning of fuel wood and to a lesser extent charcoal as they produce smoke mainly containing carbon dioxide (CO) and carbon monoxide (C02). So far no attempt has been made to estimate the amount of gaseous emissions being produced by those sources per year, hence their contribution to green house effect.

Another source of air pollution is dust particles blown by wind, as most part of the land in the district usually remains bare, specially following a prolonged drought.

32

(h) Vegetation and Wildlife

The vegetation is dominated by wooded grassland, bush land and thicket with Acacia , baobab and numerous xerophytes. Otherwise, pockets of forest occur in mountainous areas with relatively high rainfalls. The general vegetation cover in the project area is shown in the map (Fig.3).

There is no significant presence of wildlife in the district. except wild pigs, small herbivores and other terrestrial mammals. However, birds, snakes and other reptiles are common in this type of environment.

(i) Significant Features

The Ruaha river and the Mtera dam on the southern part of the district provide potential sites for eco-tourism. The Mtera dam apart from being a potential recreational site is the major source of fish in the district.

(j) Natural Resource Potential

The existing natural resources include timber, honey and beeswax. Forest reserves also form one of the important sources of natural resource in the district. These include Mlali, Ijogo, Wotta, Mafwemiro and Mangalisa Forest Reserves.

4.2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT

(a) Demography

The total population of Mpwapwa district is about 238,000 people. The total population in the study villages is estimated to be about 28,327 people, with an average number of 5.6 persons per household (Appendix ", Table 1.).

(b) Human Settlement

The human settlements in the majority of villages occur in small isolated clusters. However, settlement development pattern in most parts of the district follows roads or tracks. The majority of the houses in the rural areas are "Tembe" type, built up of mud walls and roofs are covered with grass and soil materials on the top.

(b) Land use and land Tenure

The dominant land use is cultivation and cattle grazing. Land ownership is on individual basis and always inherited or leased. However, the village governments and District Councils, at village and district levels, control land allocation. The land use cover for the project area is shown in the map (Fig. 3).

(c) Socio-cultural condition

The main ethnic groups in the rural areas are the Gogo, Sagara, and few Hehe. However, like any other town centers in the country people in Mpwapwa town belong

33

to multi-ethnic groups mixed religious denominations. However, for the whole district the most dominant religion is Christian and Muslim.

(d) Social Services

(i) Education

There is at least one primary school for each village with a total enrollment of about 2887 pupils. The average enrollment ratio is 0.8 pupils per household. However, inadequate number of teaching staff, classrooms, desks and tables is a problem in the majority of villages.

(ii) Water Supply & Uses

The water supply coverage in the district is 47% for the whole district with 15 deep wells and 19 shallow wells. Previous assessment (MMK Project Services Ltd., 1999) shows that, 90% and 63% of the existing deep wells and shallow wells are functioning, respectively. However, availability of adequate and safe water supply is a major problem in most of the rural areas. All selected villages have mobilized themselves to establish water funds, except Mtera village. The water supply status and water funds for the ten selected villages is shown in Appendix Ill.

(iii) Health

Of the ten selected villages, only five of them have been found to have one dispensary. The majority of villagers complained of lack of medicine and inadequate medical staff. For those villages without dispensaries people have to travel long distances to other places for treatment. Otherwise, people depend on traditional medicines.

(iv) Transport

The major means of transport in the villages is bicycles and walking. However, people also depend on donkeys for carrying out luggage. The road condition in the district is poor, hence making transport between the district and other parts of the country some how difficult, especially during rainfalls. (v) Energy

The major source of energy in the rural areas is fuel wood and charcoal for cooking and kerosene for lighting.

(c) Agriculture

The agriculture largely depends on hand hoe with farm size ranging from small to medium size. However, some households also use donkeys for cultivation. Common food crops include maize, millet, sorghum and beans. Cash crops include maize, groundnuts, fruits, oil seeds, onions and vegetables.

34

(d) Livestock

The majority of people in the rural areas keep livestock. The district has about 118,000 cattle and 77,000 goats/sheep. The number of livestock for some study villages is shown in the village baseline data (Appendix 11, Table 1). However, livestock industry is faced with a number of problems including lack of enough pastures, disease and inadequate medical supplies.

(e) Sanitation, Hygiene & Health

Most households in the rural areas have unlined pit latrines with mud walls without roofing materials. However, the pit latrines are not durable, as they always collapse and sometimes overflow, especially during rainfalls. The latrines also produce bad smell due to lack of ventilation. Most of the people in the project area are not aware of the VIP latrines. Some households do not have pit latrines at all, although there are by-laws to enforce each household to have a pit latrine.

Majorities of the people in the rural areas do not boil drinking water for various reasons. These include, lack of time, loss of quality and taste, disturbance and wastage of time. Others believe that water from taps is clean and safe. However, ignorance seems to be the major reason as people fail to associate disease prevalence among rural communities with poor hygiene & sanitation conditions.

Hygiene education is conducted by health officers in collaboration with primary school teachers, water committees and village government leaders. Nevertheless, hygiene education is not conducted on regular basis in the most villages.

The most prevalent diseases in the project area include malaria, diarrhea, TB, eye disease (trachoma), typhoid, skin disease, meningitis and bilharzia. The most affected group is children under five year age. In some villages, people associated skin disease with eating green leaf vegetables without spices such as, tomatoes, onions, etc. This kind of vegetables without spices is referred as "chukuchuku" by the local people.

35

FIG. 3: MAP OF PROJECT AREA-LAND USE AND VEGETATION COVER

36

5.0 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND MITIGATION MEASURES

In general, the project is expected to have positive (beneficial) impacts because the project is aimed at improving the living standards of the rural communities and is designed to be environmentally sustainable. Again, the intended community sub­projects and their associated actions are expected to have little negative impacts on human population and the natural environment in general.

A. POSITIVE IMPACTS

The positive impacts expected from the project include:

• Increased income to the food vendors (though temporarily), especially women by selling food to the construction workforce,

• Improved health condition to the rural community due to increased access to clean and safe water supply.

• Temporary employment opportunity to the local people, especially youth and women, as they shall be engaged in the construction work.

• Improved sanitary condition and hence decreased incidence of water borne diseases.

• Improved skills in O&M of water supply schemes and financial, managerial and administrative skills to the community leaders due to training package.

• Improved environment & sanitation condition in the rural community due to education & awareness campaigns.

B. NEGATIVE IMPACTS AND MITIGATION MEASURES

Identification of negative impacts has taken into consideration the nature environmental impact and the type of community sub-project. The nature (source) of impact refers to whether an impact is due to construction activities, community actions or water resource use.

For easy presentation the likely negative impacts will be classified according to their sources, that is whether the impacts are from construction, community actions or due to water resource use.

(i) Construction impacts Vegetation destruction is likely to occur due to creation of access roads for transportation of drilling rigs, equipment and installation of pipeline and other associated activities. The impact could be mitigated by confining construction activities on-site and along deSignated pipeline routes. The number of equipment & machinery on-site should be limited by using more labor-intensive technologies. Other measures should include landscaping and re-planting of vegetation on disturbed areas.

37

Improper location of well sites in relation to pit latrines, burial sites and other sources of contaminants may lead into ground water pollution. Thorough investigation should be done during well siting in collaboration with local communities. Other pollutant sources ground water pollution may be from geological formations (E.g. Berege village). The impact can be mitigated by conducting water quality analysis and using Tanzania standards as criteria for acceptance.

Loss of farmlands and/or other properties may occur during installation of pipelines associated with Mechanized deep well or Gravity pipe water supply schemes. This problem can be mitigated through diversion of routes, and if not possible compensation should be considered for the lost property.

Production of drilling wastes and construction spoils may occur however that is not expected to have Significant impact on land and ground or surface water sources. All drilling wastes and construction spoils will properly disposed in such a way that they do not result into soil or water pollution.

Health & safety of workers may be at risk during construction. The problem will be mitigated by restricting operation of equipment to trained personnel only. There will also be a first aid box on-site administered by a qualified person. Moreover, the contractor will be responsible for health & safety of workers on-site.

Incidence of STD & HIV/AIDS is likely to increase due to presence of construction workforce in the rural communities. The chances of STD & HIV/AIDS transmission can be minimized by promoting awareness and education campaigns among the rural communities, especially women & youths. The number of workforce should be to technical & skilled labor only. The rest of workforce should come from the rural communities. The construction camp should be located far away from the village settlement.

(ii) Community impacts

Poor disposal of human excreta or construction of pit latrines close to water sources may result into water pollution. The impact will be mitigated through extensive education & awareness campaigns to promote latrine construction and use by local communities. The community members and local artisans will be trained and provided with instructional manuals on proper siting and construction of pit latrines. The pit latrines will be sited at least 25 meters away and downhill of a water point. The bottom of the pit latrine will be at least 2.0 meters above the natural ground water table.

Encroachment of human settlement towards well sites may result into risk of ground water contamination from pit latrines. The problem will by demarcating the boundaries of well sites and enactment by-laws to prevent trespaSSing.

Cultivation and vegetation destruction around stream banks has been noted to significantly result into erosion of stream banks, sedimentation of stream/river beds and flood hazards (e.g. Muungano and Chanzuru villages). These activities create a

38

potential threat to the sustainability of water resource. The problem can be mitigated by restricting cultivation to at least 200 meters away from the stream banks through by-laws.

Destruction of vegetation on mountainous areas will result into drying up of natural springs with negative impact on Gravity pipe schemes. The problem can be mitigated through extensive community education and awareness campaigns on environmental conservation and protection of water sources. The village government should also enforce by-laws to discourage uncontrolled bush fires around the water sources.

Damage to pipeline installations through cultivation and construction activities along the pipeline routes by local people. This can be prevented by proper placement of pipelines at an appropriate depth. The right of way will be declared and maintained through community by-laws.

Accumulation of wastewater around well sites and standpipes due to people washing or bathing near the water sources may lead into creation of mosquito breeding sites. This problem will be mitigated through construction of standard design for concrete pads with drainage channels to carry wastewater and/or spilled water into soak-away at least 25 meters from the source. People should be restricted from washing and/or bathing near the water sources through enactment of by-laws.

Human activities and livestock may have a negative impact on Pumped surface or Gravity Pipes schemes due to pollution. The impact can be mitigated by water treatment through filtration and chlorination. The community members will be provided with hygiene education to ensure that they boil their drinking water. People will be educated on water source protection and management through extensive environmental awareness campaigns.

(Hi) Water use impacts

Ground water over-extraction may lead into land instability, tectonic effects and disruption of hydrological balance. However, the impact is not expected to be significant due to small volume of water extracted for domestic purpose. But it is important to take precautions by limiting the number of boreholes or hand pump shallow wells per unit area of land and conduct periodic monitoring of ground water levels. Ground water monitoring system should be installed to monitor fluctuations of ground water levels and appropriate action should be taken whenever necessary.

Spontaneous growth of algae and other aquatic plants may occur in open storage tanks or reservoirs due to temperature and exposure to sunlight hence affect the water quality. This problem can be mitigated by properly designing storage tanks or reservoirs (e.g. storage tanks should be able to reflect sunlight and properly covered). The storage tanks should be cleaned periodically during operation.

39

C. EA CHECKLIST FOR COMMUNITY SUB-PROJECTS

The proposed EA Checklist for community sub-projects is a list of all important issues to be considered during environmental assessment of rural water supply & sanitation project, depending on a given community sub-project. In this study the potential community sub-projects include construction and/or rehabilitation of Hand Pump Shallow Wells (HPSW), Mechanized Deep (Borehole) Wells (MOW), Pumped Surface Water (PSW) and Gravity Pipes (GP). However, choice of community sub­project (water supply scheme) will depend on the cost involved, availability of water resource (quality & quantity). The proposed EA checklist of potential community sub­projects is shown in Appendix I (Table 1).

6.0 MITIGATION MANAGEMENT AND TRAINING PLAN

6.1 MITIGATION MANAGEMENT PLAN

This project falls under Category B (World Bank Guidelines, OD. 4.00 Annex A) since its environmental issues are specific and mitigation measures can be easily incorporated into project design. Thus unlike Category A projects, this project does not require detailed environmental management plans and as such, mitigation plans do suffice. The proposed mitigation plan is summarized in Table 2.

TABLE 1: MITIGATION PLAN

POTENTIAL IMPACTS MITIGATION TIME IMPLEMENTERS MEASURES FRAME

(a). Construction impacts Destruction of vegetation leading into soil Confine activities on- Pre- Contractor erosion because of access roads creation site. construction monitored by during transportation of drilling rigs and & Supervision other equipment to well sites and/or Use labor intensive Construction Engineer pipelines construction. technology. phases

Land restoration and Construction Contractor re-planting trees. phase monitored by

SuperviSing Engineer

Dumping of drilling wastes and Removal & proper Construction Contractor construction spoils. disposal of all phase monitored by a

construction spoils Supervision and other solid Engineer. wastes.

Loss of crops and agricultural land due to Consultation with Pre- District crossing pipelines route or well siting. community construction Council/Regional

representatives & Water Board in when locating Construction collaboration with pipeline route or phase Water Committees well/borehole sites.

Avoid damage to private property but compensation should be paid whenever necessary.

40

POTENTIAL IMPACTS

Water pollution from pit latrines due to bore hole/shallow wells being too close to human settlements.

Occupational health & safety of workers during construction

Increased incidence of STD & HIV/AIDS due to construction workforce in the village.

B. Community Impacts Bush fires & tree felling by local community around water sources and upper catchment.

MITIGATION MEASURES Locate the wells at reasonable distance from pit latrines (at least 50 m).

Fence off boreholes or shallow well sites to prevent encroachment by people due to settlement expansion. The area should be declared protected under village by-laws. Contractor should be responsible for health & safety of workers.

Only trained personnel should be allowed to operate equipment on-site.

There should be a qualified person to administer first aide on-site. Awareness & education campaigns on STD and HIV.

TIME FRAME Pre-construction & Construction phases

Operational phase

Construction phase

Construction phase

Locate the Pre-construction camp far away from village settlement.

Limit number of workforce to technical & skilled labor only. The rest of workforce should come from the rural communities.

Enforce by-laws to discourage bush fires around water sources and catchment areas.

41

construction & Construction phases Pre­construction & Construction phases

Construction & Operational phases

IMPLEMENTERS

Contractor monitored by a Supervision Engineer in collaboration with Village Water Committees. Contractor monitored by Supervision Engineer in collaboration with Village Water Committees

Contractor monitored by a Supervision Engineer.

Health Committee in Collaboration with Village Dispensary/MCH staff.

Contractor in collaboration with Village government and Supervision Engineer

Village government and District councils

POTENTIAL IMPACTS

Accumulation of wastewater around well sites or standpipes due to people washing or bathing close to the water sources, hence into potential breeding sites for mosquitoes.

Encroachment to well sites and open water sources due to expansion of human settlement and farmlands.

Pollution of open water sources due to human activities and trampling by livestock.

Damage to pipelines by local people during cultivation and planting crops with deep rooting systems along pipeline route.

MITIGATION MEASURES Promote the use of alternative construction materials and energy sources to minimize deforestation.

Initiate environmental education and awareness campaigns. Prevent people from washing or bathing close to well sites or stand pipes though enactment of by­laws. Construct standard concrete pads for standpipes and/or hand pump shallow wells drainage channel to carry spilled water into soakways. Fencing off and demarcating boundaries of well site/boreholes.

Welllborehole sites should be declared protected area under village by-laws. Treat water in storage tanks and/or reservoirs by chlorination, especially in small towns.

TIME FRAME Construction & Operational phases

Operational phase

Construction phase

Construction & Operational phases

Operational phase

People should educated encouraged to drinking water.

be Operational and phase boil

Promote the use of pit latrines through education and by­laws.

Declare right of way Construction (RoW) and enact by- & laws to prevent Operational people from phases cultivating along pipeline route.

42

IMPLEMENTERS

Water Committees in collaboration with local NGOs, CBOs, etc.

Village government in collaboration with Village water Committees.

Contractor and Design Engineers in collaboration with Village Water Committees.

Village Government in collaboration with Water Committees.

Trained personnel appointed by village water committee.

Water committee.

Local dispensary staff. Village Governments in collaboration with Water or Environmental Committees. Village government in collaboration with Water or Environment Committees

POTENTIAL IMPACTS MITIGATION TIME IMPLEMENTERS MEASURES FRAME Pipelines should be Construction Contractor submerged below phase monitored by the ground to an Supervision appropriate depth. Engineer.

C. Water use Impacts Spontaneous growth of algae and other Proper design for Pre- Contractor waterweeds in open storage tanks or water storage tanks construction monitored by reservoirs due to temperature and and tor reservoirs. & Supervision exposure to sunlight. Construction Engineer

phases Periodic cleaning of Operational Trained personnel water storage tanks phase appointed by and/or reservoirs. Village water

Committee Over-extraction of groundwater leading Amount of water Construction Contractor into land instability and hydrological extracted for phase monitored by imbalance. domestic purpose is supervision

not expected to Engineer. cause significant impacts. However, a precaution may be taken limiting the number of wells or boreholes per unit area. Periodic monitoring Operational Trained personnel of ground water phase appointed by levels should be Village Water instituted. Committees

6.2 TRAINING PLAN

The training plan should take into consideration the needs of the target groups at district and village levels. The training need assessment also considers the on-going policy and institutional changes, and the importance of private sector participation.

The contents of the training course should focus on the needs of the local communities as direct beneficiaries and implementers of the project. Thus, their curriculum should focus in enabling them utilize the existing natural resources, including water in a sustainable and environmentally sound manner. In that case, training programme should focus on the relationship between water resource, environment and sanitation & hygiene. Indeed environment should be central and crosscutting issue water, sanitation & health, forestry, fisheries, agriculture and wildlife. Again, to ensure successful implementation of environmental mitigation plans the target groups should be exposed to existing poliCies, legislation and by­laws related to environment and water resource management. Other important aspects of the training programme should include financial & managerial/administrative skills, especially for Village government leaders and Water committees.

43

So that training programme can be effective, the consultant proposes a SMART approach. That is, training programme should be Specific in its contents, with Measurable out put, Achievable objectives and/or goals, Realistic in local context and should be delivered within a certain Time frame. In this conn~ction, the programme should ensure awareness training and public education is provided to cover all stakeholders, especially the water users at community level and the rural community in general.

(a) Training Programme

The training Programme should proceed in three stages, whereby Stage I shall start with sector expertise at the district level (e.g. District Natural Resource Officers) and Local artisans (VIP latrines). The implementers of the programme at this stage should involve local NGOs, Private Consultants and/or Relevant Institutions. This is expected to take at least two (2) weeks. The expected output should be Trained expertise as Trainers of Trainers. Again, the trained expertise in collaboration with Local NGO should start to train representatives of Youth & Women Groups (Economic Groups), Village Committees and Local artisans (Construction of VIP latrines), in Stage 11. The output shall be the Trained Representatives from Village Committees, Youths & Women Groups and Local artisans. The training programme is expected to start 6 months before project implementation and will take at least three (3) weeks to complete.

In Stage III the programme will involve the rural communities in general. The training shall take off during project implementation and become a continuous process as on­the job training, assisted by trained groups. At this stage, the programme will be a form of more or less awareness and education campaigns to mobilize the rural people in incorporating environmental sanitation & hygiene issues in their daily life.

Finally, there shall be a periodic follow-up to evaluate the effectiveness of the training programme. This shall be done by qualified local consultants dealing with Environment and Socio-economic issues. The consultants should provide feedback to the responsible authorities at community (Village government), district (District council) and national levels (MWLD). The proposed training plan is summarized in Table 3.

(b) Contents of the Training

Specifically, the contents of the training course shall include, but not limited to:

• Ground water monitoring techniques (quality & quantity).

• Sanitary survey techniques including how to fill monitoring survey forms.

• Existing policies, legislation, regulations and by-laws pertaining to environment and water resource management.

44

• Construction of VIP latrines and wastewater disposal chambers by using cheap and locally available materials, especially the local artisans. The local artisans will be provided with instructional manuals.

• Relationship between land degradation (vegetation) and water resource (quantity & quality), with emphasis on hydrological cycles.

• Effect of water pollution on human health & poverty with emphasis on the relationship between poor sanitation & hygiene conditions and prevalence of waterborne & sanitary related diseases.

• Financial and managerial skills, especially Village Government leaders, Village Water committees, Youths & Women economic Groups.

(c) Training methods & materials

The methodology should involve case studies, site visits and general awareness campaigns. The training materials at community level shall include posters, pamphlets, theatres and video shows, etc.

(d) Source of Funding

The major 'source of funding to implement the training programme should come from the District Councils, the Government of Tanzania, through the MWLD and the World Bank. Other funds should be sought from external support agencies (ESAs).

45

TABLE 2: PROPOSED TRAINING PLAN STAGES TARGET GROUP IMPLEMENTERS STAGE I Sector expertise at District Qualified local NGOs,

level (e.g. District Natural Private Consultants & Resource Officers) related Institutions.

STAGE 11 Representatives from: Sector expertise - Youths & Women Groups -Village committee. - Village Members Local artisans. Local NGO dealing with

promotion of VIP latrines.

Representatives from: Financial and Business Institutions

- Youths & Women Groups.

-Village committee.

- Village Members STAGE Rural communities in Sector expertise in III general. collaboration with Water

& Environment Committees.

CONTENTS Ground water monitoring and sanitary survey techniques. Existing policies,.& legislation regulations and by-laws pertaining to environment & water resource. Land degradation and water resources availability & quality with emphasis on hydrological cycle. Effect of water pollution on human health and poverty with emphasis on sanitation & hygiene. As above

Construction of VIP latrines and wastewater disposal chambers using cheap and locally available materials.

Financial and Managerial or Administrative skills.

Education & awareness campaigns on environment, sanitation & hygiene promotion.

46

TIMING 12 months before project starts.

As above

As above

During and after project impleme ntation.

DURATION 2 weeks

3 weeks

Continuous

OUTPUT

trainers.

Trained representatives

Trained local artisans.

Trained village committees & village government leaders.

Increased awareness on enVironment, sanitation & hygiene matters.

7.0 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING

The objective of monitoring plan is to ensure that the proposed mitigation measures are properly followed and effective. Monitoring will also provide an opportunity to identify unforeseen negative impacts during and after the project implementation. However, in order to assess the achievement of mitigation measures there should be some monitoring indicators supported by evaluation criteria. The proposed checklist of monitoring indicators and evaluation criteria are shown in Appendix I (Table 2).

(A) MONITORING ACTIVITIES

During monitoring attention should be paid on the contractor's activities on-site and community activities. This is to ensure that the proposed mitigation measures are properly followed during construction and operational phase.

(i) Monitoring the Contractor

Monitoring the contractor is necessary to ensure that the contractor follows the proposed mitigation measures during construction. Those important issues to be monitored include:

• Preservation of natural landscape: The natural landscape should be preserved as much as possible by limiting the operation on-site. Unless otherwise required for installation of campsite or dumps, all trees, shrubs should be protected from unnecessary damage.

• Restoration of landscape: This should be done by replanting or reseeding to prevent further damage due to potential soil erosion. Again, restoration should be done according to ecological design to provide opportunity for lost natural habitat to be recovered.

• Contractor's facilities on-site: The sittingllocation of contractor's facilities like labor camp and warehouse should be planned. This will help to decide a scenic quality of an area after construction is complete. The facilities should be located in such a way that the natural environment is maintained.

• Demolition of Labor Camp: The labor camps and other buildings should be considered for future use by the local community whenever possible. For example, the village water committees or village government can use a building as an office, if it can be foreseen before. However, if after use is not possible the facilities should be demolished and the area be restored to its quasi-original state/condition.

• Location of labor campsite: the labor camp should be located far from village settlement and fenced off from the surrounding areas. In those areas with frequent bush fires, a campsite should be surrounded by a buffer zone to avoid damage to the camp due accidental fires.

47

• Accidental spillage & leakage: The contractor should avoid or minimize spillage of contaminants, debris or other pollutants, especially into natural streams/rivers or ground water sources. This also includes sanitary wastes, tailings, petroleum products, drilling chemicals, biocides, mineral salts, etc.

• Solid & Liquid Waste Disposal: The contractor should make sure waste materials disposed by burial do not contaminate ground water supplies.

• Community participation: The local community, especially the water committees should participate in monitoring and that should be specified in the contract document.

(ii) Monitoring the Communities

Monitoring of communities should focus their general conditions and their on-going activities during construction and operation of water supply schemes. The important issues to be monitored may include:

• On-going human activities around water sources.

• Expansion of human settlement and other land use pressure in vicinity of well sites or other water sources.

• Method of pumping water and drawing water from wells or other sources.

• Presence and condition of pit latrines as well as wastewater disposal facilities.

• Prevalence of water-borne diseases and changes in the human health condition and general community welfare, etc.

(8) IMPLEMENTATION OF MONITORING PROGRAMME

The monitoring programme is proposed to start immediately during the commencement of construction activities and continue after commissioning of the project.

It is proposed that monitoring should involve an Environmental Assessment (EA) and Social Assessment (SA) specialists in collaboration with district level experts (E.g. OWE, Health Officers, Community Development Officers, etc.) and Village Water Committees. Involvement of EA & SA specialists should provide a learning opportunity for Water Committees and sector expertise. The participation of EA & SA specialists will gradually phase out towards commisSioning of the project. It is expected that during the period sector expertise and Water Committees will have acquired sound knowledge on EA & Monitoring techniques.

However, the engagement of EA and SA specialists take place at least once par month during construction and continue for a period of six months after commissioning. The EA and SA experts should be responsible for submission of

48

monitoring progress reports after every three months to the Client and the World Bank.

49

APPENDIX I: EA CHECKLIST AND CHECKLIST OF MONITORING INDICATORS

TABLE 1: EA CHECKLIST FOR COMMUNITY SUB-PROJECTS

Ground water pollution due to improper location by well sites being close to pit latrines, burial sites or other sources of contaminants. Clearing of vegetation due to creation of access roads for transporting of drilling rigs and other equipment to well sites, or during installation of water supply pipelines. Accumulation of wastewater as a result of people washing or bathing close to the well site or stand pipes, hence resulting into creation of potential breeding ground for diseases vectors such as mosquitoes. Presence livestock grazing close to well sites that may jeopardize the water quality __ Presence of nearby cleaning activities by local people (e.g. bathing and/or washing that could contaminate ground water. Soil and ground /surface water pollution from construction spoils, oil or drilling chemicals being used on-site. Pollution of ground water due to beingclose to soil surface, seepage of contaminated water. Loss of aBriculturalland, human settlements and other properties. Vegetation destruction around water sources and catchment areas due to tree felling and bush fires by local people. Pollution of surface water sources from upstream activities by local people and livestock or wild animals. Encroachment to water sources due to expansion of human settlement leading into pollution of ground water from ~t latrines. Crossing_ of farmlands, foo~aths and other linear infrastructure by water supply pipelines. Disruption of hydrological balance leading into land instability and subsidence due to over-extraction of ground water. Loss of sites of economic, ecological, cultural, archaeological or historic importance. Loss of vulnerable sRecies of economic, ecological or cultural importance. Soil erosion, especially along slopes due to vegetation clearing during construction. Soil compaction or changes in drainage and soil permeability around well site due to construction activities. Air pollution due to dust and exhaust fumes from construction equipment and vehicles being used on-site. Changes in downstream aquatic and riverine habitats and their associated food chain due to abstraction and diversion of water from streams/rivers. Spontaneous, . unplanned human, agricultural or livestock keeping settlement due to induced development. Increase in the demand for natural resource (e.g. fuel wood, arable land & water resource) or pressure on land, infrastructure and social services (e.g. schools, dispensaries, housing, etc). Changes in the quality of ground water (salinity) due to over-extraction of ground water leading into infiltration of salt water into borehole/shallow wells (e.g. in coastal areas, flood plains). Chang_es to recharse rates and circulation of ground water table. Changes in surface water due to reduction of inflow and quantity of water downstream, changes in direction, sedimentation, Qollution capacity, stream/river bank erosion, etc. Spontaneous growth of algae or waterweeds in water storage tanks/reservoirs or ring wells due to temperature and penetration of sunlight. Presence of natural disasters (e.g. floods, earthquake and drought) that may affect the sustainabilit~ of water sUPQIy scheme. Prevalence of waterborne and sanitary related diseases. Health & safety problems associated with construction activities Socio-economic conflicts or conflicts over ownership rights, land use and natural resource explOitation. Contamination of water in Ring wells due to poor handling or using dirty containers or due to surface run-off entering a well during rainfalls.

50

TABLE 2: CHECKLIST OF MONITORING INDICATORS

MONITORING INDICATORS EVALUATION CRITERIA I. WELLlBOREHOLE SITES

Hand pump base condition (strength). Durability/Strength. Location of pit latrines, burial sites, graveyards Distance (at least 50 m) and other contaminant sources relative to well sites. Location of soakways from well sites. Distance (at least 25 m). Location of water table relative to pit latrine Distance (at least 2.0 m). bottom Presence of animal and or human waste Cow dung and/or human wastes. around we. sites. Presence of standing wastewater around well Standing water with mosquito larvae. sites and disease transmitting vectors Presence of livestock water drinking troughs Number of charcos (charcos). Presence of concrete pads and drainage Standard design (RWSD) channel for carrying water to soak-ways. On-going human activities around we" People washing and/or bathing sites/standpipes. Presence of spilled oil, drilling wastes and Oil, drilling mud, soil, rock waste, etc. other construction wastes.

If. WATER RESOURCE Ground waer levels and recharge rates. Depth (m) and recharge rate (Us) Changes in water quality Tanzania standards. On-going human activities around natural Bush fires, tree felling, cultivation, etc. water sources and catchment areas. Characteristics of water storage tank/reservoir. Standard design.

III HEALTH & SAFETY Incidence of waterbome and sanitary related Malaria, diarrhea, typhoid, trachoma, etc. diseases. Prevalence of STDs and HIV/AIDS among the Reported STDs and HIV/AIDS cases. rural people. Presence of first aid-box on-site during Completed first aid kit construction. Incidence of accidents due to construction Reported cases. activities.

IV SANITATION & HYGIENE Presence and condition of pit latrine (e.g. VIP) Number of households. Presence of wastewater disposal facilities Number of households. Drinking water handling practice (e.g. boiling). Number of households.

V. INSTITUTIONAL PERFORMANCE Presence of water committees and water fund Water committee operating bank account contribution. Gender representation in village committees. Number of Men against Women. Presence of active economic groups. Number of groups & their economic

activities. Community awareness & education on Environmental conservation, sanitation & environment, sanitation & hygiene matters. hygiene practice.

51

Presence and enforcement of by-laws on Existing by-laws. environment & water resource protection.

VI. SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITION Changes in local people's livelihood. Income per capita Improved access to good quality water Distance of water source from resulting into increased opportunity by women households (not more than 400 m). to partic~ate in other productive activities. Education. Number of schools & enrollment. Medical services. Number of dispensaries & availabiliy of

medicine. Transport. Road network conditions & major means

of transport.

52

APPENDIX 11: REFERENCES

Baumann & Lymo, B. (2000). Tanzania Supply Chain Study Report. Skat, Switzerland & Serviceplan Ltd, Tanzania.

Bj0rnstad, (2000). Environmental Impact Assessment in Tanzania. Assessment and Proposed Guidelines for Water related Project. Ministry of Water-River Basin Management & NORPLAN.

Bj0rnstad, (2000). Water Quality Standards. Assessment and Proposal for Revision

Conyers, D., Ngumbulu, P.J & Rajabu ARM.S. (1971). Agro-economic zones of Dodoma and Singida. Research Report No. 47. Bureau of Resource Assessment and Land use Planning

I RAlII EO, (1995). Environmental Assessment in Tanzania. A needs Assessment for Training.

Mercier, Jean-Roger, (1995). Environmental Assessment and Review in Sub­Saharan Africa. An Africa RegionNVorld Bank Respective. Environmentally Sustainable Development Division. Africa Technical Department (AFTES). The World Bank.

MLHSD, (1997). National Land Policy. The United Republic of Tanzania.

MMK Project Services Ltd. (1999). Rural Water Supply Review in three Pilot District. Rural Water Supply & Sanitation. Learning and Innovation Loan - L1L

MOW, (1999). The United Republic of Tanzania. Rural Water Supply & Sanitation (Learning and Innovation). Loan (UL-RWSSP). Draft Implementation Manual.

MOW, (2000). Draft National Water Policy. The United Republic of Tanzania

Mwalyosi R· & Hughes, R (1998). The Performance of EIA in Tanzania. An Assessment. IRA Research Paper No. 41. liED Environmental Planning Issues No. 14.

NORPLAN, (?OOO). Review of Water Resource Management Policy Legislation and Institutional Frameworks. Final Report. Ministry of Water United Republic of Tanzania

TANAPA (1994). National Policies for National Parks in Tanzania. Tanzania National Parks. March, 1994 66pp.

TANAPA (1993). Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure and Screening Guidelines. Tanzania National Parks, Arusha.

The Land Act, (1999). The United Republic of Tanzania Act Supplement No. 621 of May 1999. Gazette of the United Republic of Tanzania No. 21, Vol. 80

53

The Vii/age Land Act, (1999). The United Republic of Tanzania. Act Supplement No. 7 of 21 st May 1999. Gazette of the United Republic of Tanzania No. 27, Vol. 80

Water Laws (Miscellaneous Amendments) Act. Gazette of the United Republic of Tanzania. No. 16 Vol. 80, Oar Es Salaam16 April 1999

World Bank Operational Manual. Operational Directive (00.4.00 Annex A). October 1989.

TANAPA Planning Unit (1994). Management Zone Plan: Tarangire National Park. Environmental Impact Assessment. Prepared for Tanzania National Parks (TANAPA).

54

APPENDIX Ill: VILLAGE BASELINE INFORMATION

1. Demography

The total population for the study village is estimated at 28,327. Based on the existing household data the average number of persons per household is estimated to be 5.6 (Table 1).

2. Social Services

(i) Education

The total number of enrollment is about 2887 pupils for the eight studied villages in the project area. Therefore basing on the existing households in the studied villages, the enrollment ratio (number per household) is estimated to 0.58.

There is a problem of inadequate classrooms, teacher's houses and long distance walked by children to school (E.g. Chiseyu). However, District Based Support Programme on Education (DBSPE) is providing some assistance; Some donors contributed 4,900,000/= and people collected stones and bricks. The efforts to improve primary education are also demonstrated by "Klasta" programme in Chipogolo village (Box 1).

(ii) Health

The field survey shows that four out of eight study villages have one dispensary each. However, in those villages with dispensaries lack of medicine and inadequate staff has been reported to be a problem (Table 3).

The most prevalent water borne and sanitary related diseases is malaria followed by diarrhea, respiratory diseases, skin infection, eye infection (trachoma), typhoid, tuberculosis (TB) and meningitis (Table 3).

(iii) Transport

The major means of transport in all villages is bicycle and walking. The majority of people also use donkeys for carrying luggage and cultivation. The road network in the rural area is poor and communication is some how difficult, especially during rainfalls.

55

(iv) Energy

The main source of energy in all villages is fuel wood and charcoal for cooking and kerosene for lighting during the night.

3. Water supply & Quality

The problem of water shortage is acute nearly in all villages in the project area. For example, at Chiseyu village the only water sources are 3Nos. Hand pump and traditional wells at Gulwe, about 5 km from the village and Chinyasungwi stream, about 8-km. Another potential source could be rainwater, but rainwater harvesting is being under mined by the fact that most of the houses in the project are "Tembe" type i.e. their roofs are made up of soil or mUd.

In most bore holes water is also unsuitable for domestic purposes due to high salinity. For example, laboratory analysis has shown water from one of the boreholes in Berege village to be very saline and turbid (Appendix V). Problem of inadequate water supply is demonstrated by people from Chamtumile village (Box 2).

At Ikuyu village, there is a Gravity pipe but according to them, the installation is always damaged by storm water during rainfalls. They have proposed that the intake should be reinforced with concrete to protect the pipes. The villagers were also concerned about Gate valves being destroyed by people through mishandling due to ignorance. The villagers have also identified another potential source for Gravity pipes installation. According to them, the source was assessed by District Water Department in 1998. At Chipogolo village, the villagers have identified a natural spring about 7 km from the village. According to them, the source started producing water in 1998 during the EI-nino rains. Until to-date, the source is producing large quantity of water. They have proposed that the source should be investigated, and that it may be appropriate than drilling a borehole. The villagers are also depending on rainwater harvesting from roof catchment as the significant number of houses in the village has corrugated iron sheets.

56

The donors contribution in solving water supply problem is also significant in the project area (Box 3). Again, some form of private sector participation in water supply is developing in the rural areas. For example, at Berege the village government has formed partnership with a businessman to finance O&M of mechanized borehole (Box 4). The borehole was drilled by the GOT through District Water Department. The Water Aid also contributed by supplying a pumping machine (HR -engine). However, the machine was stolen. The GOT supplied them with another engine (Lister 61), which was repaired jOintly by Mr. Kennedy and the village government.

4. Willingness and Ability to Pay for Water

The willingness and ability to pay is demonstrated by people in all villages. For example, people from Chamtumile can afford to pay 10/= per bucket. At Mazae-Nje they depend on water from Mpwapwa town, about 5-km. Water is brought to the village by vendors who buy at a rate of 20/= per bucket from Mpwapwa and sell at 200/= per bucket. The villagers have mobilized themselves to contribute 3,000/= per year per household. Currently they have contributed a water fund amounting to 736,940/20.

At Chiseyu village people claimed that they can afford between 10-20/= per bucket. They gave an example of Lukole village whereby individuals contribute 5,000/= to get registration certificate and 200/= per month per household. The registered households pay 20/= per bucket and those who are not registered pay 50/= per bucket.

5. Sanitation, Hygiene and Health

Majority of households has unlined pit latrines with mud walls and open roofs. The pit latrines are not durable, and frequently collapse. The latrines also produce bed smell due to lack of ventilation and always over flow, especially during rainfalls. There is no VIP latrine in the village and the villagers are not aware of them.

Most households do not boil drinking water for various reasons. These include:

57

• Lack of time. • Ignorance.

• Loss of quality.

• Water from taps is clean.

• Lack of awareness.

Hygiene and sanitation education is offered by visiting MCH staff once per month. For example in Chamtumile village, hygiene education is offered by Health Officer from Kibakwe. The Health Officers work in collaboration with the Water Committee. The education is conducted once per week and they inspect pit latrine, wastewater disposal chambers ("Karo") and solid waste disposal dumps. The health officers also mobilize people to boil drinking water.

6. Institutional Set up

The institutional set-up is almost uniform in all villages, especially at VG levels. However, at sub-committee levels there are some differences depending on their specific requirements (Box 4). At Ikuyu vii/age, the people were concerned with the following problems regarding institutional capacity:

• The village government is weak and lacks leadership/financial and managerial skills.

• Village water technicians (for 0 &M of schemes) are not paid regularly (e.g. since February up to 11/2000 they have not been paid their allowance of 3,0001= per month)

They have proposed that the current leadership should be removed from office. They also wanted the village government leaders and their committees should be trained to improve their efficiency.

At Mazae-Nje village, the people have also complained of lack of skills managerial, administrative and financial management by the vii/age government. They also said the leaders are not motivated. The villagers proposed seminars as one way of solving the problem.

The villagers complained that due to poor leadership the financial report is not revealed to them. According to the villagers, there is co-operation between the village government and the District Council.

They complained that the District council is biased towards certain villages, such as Chinyanguko, Chinyika, Wiyenzere and Mima.

The villagers also complained about gender inequality in loan acquisition from the District Fund. For example, according to one villager (male) he filled a form to request for a loan. However, he was told that loan is not automatic for men. Instead,

58

they are supposed to write application letters through the District Cultural Officer and then send a copy to the Ward and Division Secretaries. However, they could not get any response from the responsible authority.

7. Economic Groups

The people's effort to improve themselves economically is illustrated by formation of their economic groups but those efforts are being undermined by lack of financial capability, general managerial skills and lack of support from the District Council.

For example at Chiseyu village there is two women groups and one youth group. The Women Group had a shop but now closed due to lack of running capital. The money was misappropriated by one of the treasurer.

The Youth Group known as Vijana Jiungeni Group was established in 1998. Farming is a major activity and the group has 2 acres of groundnut. In 1999, they harvested 10 bags and they bought one plough.

The group has 20,000/= at NMB Mpwapwa branch. The group is faced by problem of lack of farm equipment. The have only one plough which is too old and need more hoes and donkeys for cultivation, but they are faced with financial constraints.

The group' requested a loan from the District Council but they were not successful and since 1999 no reply from the District Council. The source of loan is from the levies collected by the District Council, some of which is supposed to be allocated to provide loans to economic groups. However, in most cases the groups do not get support from their District Councils as illustrated by Mazae-Nje people. In Mazae-Nje village there was an economic group dealing with foundry works. The group requested a loan from the District Fund and they were told to wait but up to then nothing happened. The group has accused the District Council of discouraging/undermining their efforts.

According to Ikuyu people, there was a Women Group known as TUJITEGEMEE with five members that started in December 1997. They got loan of 100,000/= from Dodoma Micro-Project Programme (OM PP). The group was dealing with making local brew. The pay back was at an installment of 24,000/= after every 6 months. In 1998, they completed to pay back the loan.

However, after completing paying back the loan they had to close business because they could not remain with money to continue business. They gave the following reasons:

• the local brew had a low demand.

• rate of installment was to high and pay back period was too short.

• poor co-operation among the group members.

• lack of financial management and business operation skill

59

Generally, the villagers are willing to establish economic groups but lack of financial support and managerial skills seem to be an obstacle. However, some efforts are being done at regional level to assist economic groups in the rural areas as reported by Berege people (Box 5).

8. Donor Funded Project

The participation of donor agencies in rural development is very significant the rural area. For example, at Chiseyu and Chamtumile villages there is a school rehabilitation project supported by District Based Support Programme on Education (DBSPE). The project was allocated 4,900,0001= for rehabilitation of classrooms. The villagers contributed stones, sand and bricks. At Berege, the DBSPE has built tow classrooms and one office for teachers at a cost of 5,295,0001=. Another donor in the village is World Food Programme (WFP). According to Berege people the WFP did a research and discovered that there is a nutritional problem among the school pupils. Under this programme, pupils get porridge at 10:00 a.m. and in the afternoon, they get "Ugali" and "Njegere" as lunch. The local people are supposed to contribute meat and green vegetables. The interview with the local people has revealed that the young baobab trees (seedlings) are used as vegetables. The seedlings are usually common in the farms during wet seasons. The contribution of donors is more pronounced in Chipogolo village (Box 6).

9. Environmental Problems

The common environmental problems include:

• Dust produced by livestock as they move en mass.

• Destruction of planted trees by livestock.

• Tree cutting by villagers especially around water sources.

• Uncontrolled bush fires especially around water source (on mountains).

• Lack of pit latrines, hence people tend to help themselves in bush.

• Dumping of solid wastes around homesteads.

• Poor disposal of wastewater around homesteads

• Water source pollution due human activities and domestic animals Ilivestock.

• Charcoal burning

However, in some villages like Ikuyu measures are being taken by planting trees. According to them seedlings were brought to them by Regional Administrative Officer. They also grow their own seedlings by broad casting seeds on cultivated

60

area and when the seedlings grow they transplant them. The villagers (most of them) are willing to buy seedlings, especially fruit bearing tree seedlings.

At Chiseyu village, people complained of uncontrolled tree felling and bush fires, as one of the major problems. The villagers do practice tree planting. According to the villagers in the past, they were getting seedlings from the District, but now they do not get seedlings. They prefer indigenous trees because they the trees are tolerant to draught. They also prefer fruit trees such as guava, papaw and oranges. They claimed that they could afford to buy one seedling at 50/=.

At Chipogolo village, the enforcement of by-laws has reduced the rate of tree felling and bush fires. According to village by-laws any person found guilty is fined 3,000/= or 3 years imprisonment.

At Berege village, the local people have been educated and mobilized on tree planting, whereby each household plants at least 10 seedlings per year. However, according to the villagers their efforts are being undermined by unavailability of seedlings, damage by livestock, and termites.

The lack of environmental education and awareness has been mentioned by majority of people in the project are as one of the main reasons for environmental degradation.

10. Source of Revenue

The source of revenue in Chamtumile village is mainly from tax charged on petty trade such as selling local brew and selling meat from slaughtered livestock in the village. Other source is the development levy, whereby the District Council returns 20% of the collected development levy to the village. The village government also charges 10% of the price of each livestock sold.

Generally in all villages the revenue collection is organized as follows:

Tax from local brew,

Development levy - 20%.

Livestock - 15%

At Ikuyu village the main source of revenue include:

Livestock (slaughtering a cow or goat): 700/=

Selling Local brews: 500/=

Rental charges from milling machine = 1,000/= per month.

Development levies 20% retained from District Council.

61

Livestock 10% retention from District Council.

At 8erege village the revenue collection is as follows:

Selling local brew which is 1000/=.

Slaughtered arrival = 500/=.

Chicken = 50/=.

Groundnuts = 200/= per bag

The other source of revenue is through retention of 20% from Development Levy collected by the District Council and 10% retention of livestock collected by the council.

At Mtera village the revenue is collected as follows:

Fish sales - 100/= per table per day.

Local auctions - food 300/= fruits = 100/=.

The village government also collects contributions as follows:

Secondary school - Rudi = 500/=.

Primary School Rehabilitation = 500/=

Other source in retention from District Council on:

Development levy - 20%.

Livestock - 10%.

Uhuru Torch ("Mwenge") = 500/=.

However, generally in all villages people complained of too many contributions compared to their income, especially when most of the households are faced with hunger.

11. Natural Disasters

The common natural disasters include floods and chronic food shortage due to draught. For example, the Ikuyu village encountered floods during the EI-nino rains, whereby several houses and other properties were destroyed.

The Chipogolo village is always faced by extreme food shortage due to drought and insect pests. For example, according to them (villagers) in 1998, it rained but insect pests locally known as "Nghombelele" destroyed crops, especially millet. They tried

62

to replant in another month but armyworm ("viwavi jeshi") emerged and destroyed the crop. Thus for two consecutive seasons the village could not harvest anything. i.e. 1997-1998 it was "Ng'ombelele" period and 1998-1999 "Viwavi jeshi" period.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

(a) Water Supply & Quality

The water quality in most of the boreholes have been noted to unsuitable for domestic purpose and sometimes the water supply is not adequate. However, the local people have taken initiative to identify new sources, especially the existing natural springs. The installed gravity pipe systems are always damaged by storm water or through agricultural activities along the pipeline routes.

It is recommended that:

• Site investigation should be carried in collaboration with local communities to look for the possibility of utilizing the identified natural springs for installation of Gravity pipes.

• The existing gravity pipe installations should be rehabilitated by reinforcement with concrete materials.

• Cultivation along the pipeline routes should be restricted by declaring a right of ways (RoW) and by-laws should be enacted to prevent trespassing into the RoWs.

• Detailed water quality assessment should be carried out in the existing borehole to determine their suitability for domestic purpose.

• The existing distribution networks should be rehabilitated.

• People should be discouraged from cutting trees around water sources and catchment areas in general. This should be done through enforcement of by-laws and all water sources; especially existing natural springs should be declared village-controlled areas.

(b) Sanitation Hygiene

Generally, the sanitation & hygiene condition in the villages is not good as most of them still do not have durable pit latrines and do not boil drinking water at all. The lack of financial capability and technical know how has been stated as a major constraint. However, inability to boil drinking water can be said to be mainly due to ignorance. To improve the sanitation & hygiene condition in the project area it is recommended that:

• Local people should be trained on the construction of VIP latrines by using cheap and locally available materials (e.g. cement + red soils or lime + red soils). The

63

primary school teachers could be used as resource persons to conduct training since they already have knowledge about VIP.

• Hygiene education should be intensified to create awareness among the villagers on the importance of boiling drinking water and other hygiene practice.

• The village government and their committees should be trained on sanitation, hygiene and environmental issues, so that they can train the villagers.

• The adult education should be initiated so that hygiene, sanitation and environmental issues are incorporated into the adult education curriculum. In addition, financial & managerial skills can be incorporated into the adult education classes.

(c) Environmental degradation

The problem of environmental degradation is mainly caused by community activities. This jeopardizes the sustainability of water resource in the project area. In order to reverse the trend it is recommended that:

• The local community should be sensitized and made aware of the importance of protecting water sources from pollution.

• Cutting trees around water sources should be discouraged though enforcement of village by-laws. The area should be fenced off and declared a village controlled area, and those trespassers should be prosecuted under the village by-laws.

• Tree planting should be promoted, especially fruit bearing trees so that people can get multiple benefit. The local people should be trained in the preparation of tree nurseries.

• Alternative source of energy and construction materials such as cement plus red soil should be promoted to minimize tree felling. The use of efficient charcoal stove like that developed by Tatedo (local NGO known as Traditional Renewable Energy Technology.

(d) Institutional set-up

The institutional set-up at village level indicates poor representation of women in various committees. Again, although there are some efforts being done by local people to form economic groups there is no support from District level. In order to promote capacity at village level it is recommended that:

• Women should be sensitized on the importance of participating in various committees and they should be encouraged to form economic groups.

• The district council should provide soft loans to the existing economic groups and formulate training programmes on financial management.

64

Table 1 Human Population and LIvestock No. Village Population No. Of

Households

1. 2.

3.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9

Chiseyu 1500 Chamtumi 1676 le Mazae­Nje Ikuyu Berege Chipogolo Mtera Igoji-II Chaludew a

2600

3465 3887 5794 6436 2969 1440

10 Sazima 2947 TOTAL 28,327

305 700

430

660 996 600 719 980 *

* 5390

*= Data could not be easily obtained during the study.

Table 2' Education status No. Village No.of Schools 1. Chiseyu 1 2. Chamtumile 1 3. Mazae-Nje 1 4. Ikuyu 1 5. Berege 1 6. Chipogolo 1 7. Mtera 1 8. Igoji-II 1

TOTAL 8 Average enrolment ratio = 0.58

No. pers./hh

4.9 2.4

6.0

5.3 3.9 9.7 8.9 3.8

Av. = 5.6

Households 305 700 430 660 996 600 719 980 5390

LIVESTOCK

Cattle Goats/sheep Donkeys few few -1862 800 30

150 78 20

2500 700 120 * * * Significant Significant 50 3680 2600 214 1008 1400 70

Enrolment . Enrolment ratio 210 0.69 343 0.49 330 0.77 300 0.45 380 0.38 383 0.64 640 0.89 301 0.31 2887

65

OTHERS

Pigs Dogs

few few

20 50

60 300 * * 50 * 114 few

50

Poultry Few Few

Few

Few * Few Few Many

Table 3· Health status No. Village No. of Dispensary Disease Prevalence 1. Chiseyu - Malaria, diarrhea, ARI, TB eye

disease (trachoma), typhoid and skin disease.

2. Chamtumile - Malaria, diarrhea TB trachoma, typhoid, skin disease and meningitis.

3. Mazae-Nje - Malaria, diarrhea, TB and typhoid.

4. Ikuyu - Malaria, diarrhea, skin disease, bilharzia and typhoid.

5. Berege 1 Malaria, diarrhea, typhoid, bilharzia and meningitis.

6. Chipogolo 1 Malaria, typhoid, diarrhea, skin disease and b~harzia.

7. Mtera 2 Malaria, diarrhea, trachoma; 8. Igoji-" 1

T bl 4 a e . G d en er representation in various committees VILLAGE COMMITTEES GENDER REPRESENTATION

MEN WOMEN TOTAL CHISEYU' Finance, Economy & Planning 5 4 9

Defense & Security 7 1 8 Social Services 6 2 8 Water 3 3 6 Environment 8 - 8 Culture & Tradition 3 2 5 Land use 4 1 5 Health 3 4 7

MAZAE-NJE Finance, Economy & Planning 3 2 5 Defense & Security 6 - 6 Land use 3 2 5 Water 7 5 12 Health 3 3 6

IKUYU Finance, Economy & Planning 6 2 8 Defense & Security 7 2 9 Social welfare 5 3 8 Water 5 5 10 Environment 9 - 9 Health 2 2 4 Livestock 10 - 10 School 7 5 12

BEREGE Finance, Economy & Planning 4 1 5 Defense & Security 7 - 7 Social welfare 4 3 7 Water 8 8 16

66

Health 16 1 17 Production (Nguvu kazD 12 - 12 Environment 12 - 12 School 8 3 11

CHIPOGOLO Finance, Economy & Planning 3 5 8 Defense & Security 8 3 11 Construction 4 4 8 Water 4 4 8 Health 11 4 15 School 9 5 14 Land use 3 4 7

MTERA Finance, Economy & Planning 4 3 7 Defense & Security 4 3 7 Social welfare 7 - 7 Water 4 4 8 Health 5 4 9 School 8 6 14 Construction 4 4 8

IGOJI-II Finance, Economy & Planning 3 2 5 Defense & Security 5 - 5 Land use 6 - 6 Social welfare 4 2 6 Water 8 8 16 Construction 4 4 8 School 7 2 9 Health 21 1 22

67

APPENDIX IV: WATER SUPPLY STATUS AND WATER FUND

VILLAGE WATER SCHEME STATUS COVERAGE WATER FUND (POPULA nON)

From DWE From field survey

1. Chiseyu None N 0% 250,0001= 704,289/80

2. Sazima None N 0% 751,0001= * 3. /goji-II None N 0% 265,854/= 800,0001=

4. Mazae-Nje None N 0% 402,777 736,940/20

5. 8erege Mechanized bore hole P 57% 400,0001= 700,0001=

6. Ikuyu Piped Gravity P 41% 1,200,0001= 1,200,0001=

7. Chamtumile Piped Gravity P 38% 120,000/= 200,0001=

8. Mtera Mtera Dam P 29% - 180,000/= 9. Chaludewa None N 0% 360,000/= * 10. Chipogolo Mechanized bore hole P 42% 438,0001= 400,0001=

Note: Information for Water Fund in the left column IS according to DWE and on the nght column IS from field survey. • = Data could not be obtained during the study

69

OTHERSOUR(

3Nos. hand pu mps & traditional km wells at Glue 6-

Chinyasungwi s tream, about 8 km. * Natural spring a t Nhungurumalo

m from the village. hill, about 12 k

Traditional well s about 1 km from village. Natural spring a bout 5 km from villaae. Nearby season al stream and pond Nearby stream for Gravity pipe installation. Natural spring a t Wotta village about 18 km. Pumped schem e borehole.

Natural spring a bout 7 km from village.

Nearby season al stream

APPENDIX V: WATER QUALITY DATA

SAMPLE FROM BOREHOLE (BEREGE VILLAGE) PARAMETER TANZANIA RESULTS

STANDARDS pH 6.5-9.2 8.4 Turbidity (NTU) 30 119 Settable matter <0.1ml/l EC (/-LS/cm) at 25°C 2000 1764 Ca;l+ mg/l as CaC03 200 154 Total Hardness: 600 740 mg/l as CaC03 Alkalinity: mg/l as Not mentioned 258 CaC03 Magnesium: MgL+ 100 86.3 (mg/l) Potassium: K+ 5.0 (mgll) Iron: Fe;l+ (mg/ll 1.0 Negligible Manganese: MnL+ 0.5 Negligible (mgll) PermangaQate 2.0 1.5 value as mg Kmn04/1 Chloride: cr (mg/l) 800 248.5 Fluoride: F (mg/l) 8.0 319.5 Sulphate: S04 ;l- 600 36 Phosphate: PO/- Not mentioned Negligible (mg/l) Nitrates: N03- Not mentioned 4.0 Nitrite: N02- Not mentioned Negligible

REMARKS:

According to laboratory analysis the water is very hard, turbid with high alkalinity. The hardness is above Tanzania Standard of 600 mg/l. The fluoride content is also above standard. Further investigation on the source is required.

70

APPENDIX VI: LIST OF AUTHORITIES CONTACTED DURING THE STUDY

MPWAPWA DISTRICT NAME DESIGNATION

Gideon Manambo DED-Mpwapwa Mohamed Maghembe DWE-Mpwapwa Pasiens Kapinga WT-Mpwapwa

CHISEYU VILLAGE Dickson Sogoli (40 yrs) Village Chairman Amon Madege (41 yrs) Village Executive

Officer Thomas Mgullo (42 yrs) CCM branch

Secretary Ms. Mensiana So~oli (43 yrs) Ten cell leader Ms. Rosemary Banga (45 yrs) Member -Village

government Ibrahim Masinga (28 yrs) Member -Village

government

MAZAE-NJE VILLAGE Ms. Veronica Mkatalo (38 yrs) Village Executive Officer

Yohana Mahoma (44 yrs) CCM-branch chairman

Yohana Matogwa (40 yrs) Hamlet Chairman-Mazae-Kati

Yohana Lechipya (38 yrs) Member-Water committee

Ahmed Maho~o Kamaliza (68 yrs) Village member Ms. Had[a Athumani J55yrs)

CHAMTUMILE VILLAGE Albert Kinoga (75 yrs) Village Chairman Patric Kasanga (36 yrs) Village Executive

Officer Cyprian Daudi (30 yrs) Assistant Village

Executive Officer Elinei Udoba (44 yrs) Village Chairman Christopher Malogo (32 yrs) Village Executive

Officer

IGOJI-II VILLAGE Amos Kalinga (32 yrs) Village Chairman WilsonLukwawila (42 yrs) Village executive

Officer Agapati Miyovera (36 yrs) Treasurer- Water

committee Francis Kigaira (36 yrs) Member-village

71

MPWAPWA DISTRICT NAME DESIGNATION Government

BEREGE VILLAGE Aloyce Lichenele (41 yrs) Village Chairman Damas Mang'unda (36 yrs) Village Executive

Officer Noha Mjenda (40 yrs) Chairman-Water

Committee Kennedy Masinga (42 yrs) Partner investor-

Water project Sila Mchiwa (24 yrs) Member-Village

_government

MTERA VILLAGE Benedict Luwi (46 yrs) Village Chairman Samwel Mtwanga (35 yrs) Village Executive

Officer

CHIPOGOLO VILLAGE Isa1a Msumari. (70 j'rst Village Chairman Gideon Ngossi (25 yrs) Village Executive

officer Nelson Ndundumizi Private operator-

Water supply Mdeme Tabea (43 yrs) Headmistress -

Chipogolo primary School

Kisege Alex Teacher- Chipogolgo Primary School

72

APPENDIX VII: TERMS OF REFERENCE

73

APPENDIX VIII

NAMES

1. A.M.L. AKO

2. Ms. Frida B.

3. Ngwisa

4. Morgan

5. Pasiens Kapinga

LIST OF STUDY TEAM MEMBERS AND THEIR RESPONSIBILITIES

KEY POSITION RESPONSIBILITIES QUALIFICATIONS Environmental EA Consultant Conducting biophysical Scientist surveys.

Team Leader & Provide logistical support. Co-ordinator Design & Preparation of

Standard survey forms. Preparation of consolidated report.

Social Scientist Field assistant Conduct Socio-economic surveys Preparation of questionnaires

Environmental Field assistant Conduct biophysical surveys Engineer Environmental Field assistant Conduct biophysical surveys Engineer Water Technician Field assistant Conduct bio-physical

surveys

74

APPENDIX IX: CONSULTANT'S CURRICULUM VITAE

75